1.

0 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Field experience and the results of research carried out both within and outside the Group
indicate that casing costs for both exploration and development wells can be cut without
compromising safety, and without adverse effects on the environment over the entire life cycle of
the well, if an approach to "fit-for-purpose" casing design embodying the following features is
adopted:
- early collection of all the relevant data by a multi-disciplinary team [1,2];
- selection of the casing scheme which is most cost-effective over the entire life cycle of the
well [2];
- accurate definition of the various load cases to which each casing string is likely to be
subjected [3,4];
- accurate evaluation of the ability of the casing string to withstand the applied loads, using:
· conventional uniaxial design methods to determine the overall resistance to internal and
external pressure loads, and to the axial loads encountered during installation of the
casing, and
· triaxial design methods involving detailed calculation of the radial, tangential and axial
stresses on each volume element of the casing to determine the resistance to the actual
service loads experienced after the casing has been cemented in place.
New design tools [3,4] and technology spearheads [5,6,7] support this approach.
This Guide gives full details of SIPM-approved casing design methods having the above
characteristics, together with all the background information required for their effective
deployment.
The present chapter discusses the various functions which casing has to perform, defines the
different types of casing used in a well, and describes the casing design process with its
different elements - which will be dealt with in full in subsequent chapters.
International standards relevant to casing design are currently in a process of evolution. The
position of the various standardisation bodies involved is explained in Appendix 1. Departure
from these external standards is acceptable provided this is properly documented and
discussed.
1.2 Purpose of casing
For drilling and completing a well it is usually necessary to line the walls of the hole with steel
pipe called casing. This casing, together with the cement which holds it in place and seals the
annulus [8], performs one or more of the following important functions (see Figure A-1):
- to keep the hole open from sloughing and swelling shales;
- to keep the hole open from moving salt formations;
- to prevent contamination of fresh-water horizons;
- to provide a means of controlling fluid influxes;
- to provide a container for drilling and completion fluids;
- to confine produced fluid to the wellbore;
- to provide a smooth conduit for drilling, logging and completion tools;
- to provide a smooth conduit for future casing and tubing strings;
- to support wellhead equipment and subsequent casing strings;
- to provide a means of anchoring the blowout preventers and Xmas tree.
FIGURE A-1 : PURPOSE OF CASING
1.3 Casing Types And Functions.
The total length of casing run in the well and hung off at the wellhead during a single operation is
called a casing string. A liner is a string of casing which does not extend all the way to surface,
but is suspended a short distance above the previous shoe. There are five principal types of
casing string:
1. Stove Pipe, Marine Conductor or Foundation Pile;
2. Conductor String;
3. Surface String;
4. Intermediate String(s);
5. Production String.
The function of these strings is described below and summarised in Panel A-1. See also Figure A-2.

1.3.1 Stove pipe, marine conductor or foundation pile

The purpose of this first string of pipe is primarily to protect the incompetent surface soils from
erosion by the drilling fluid and, in the event of an offshore application, reduce the wave and
current loads imposed on the inner strings. Where the formation is sufficiently stable, this string
may be used to install a full mud circulation system. It also serves to guide the drillstring and
subsequent casing into the hole. The name given to this string is primarily related to the type of
drilling operation:
Stove Pipe : Onshore drilling.
Marine Conductor : Offshore drilling with surface BOPs.
Foundation Pile : Offshore drilling with subsea BOPs.
Stove pipes and marine conductors are either driven, drilled/driven or cemented in a pre-drilled
hole. The stove pipe often carries the subsequent conductor casing, but once the latter string is
cemented the stove pipe is released from this axial load. Therefore, subsequent casing strings
will be hung off the conductor casing string.
Marine conductors may form a part of the piling system for a wellhead jacket or piled platform
and are therefore often designed by the structural engineers. They provide centralisation for the
inner casing strings against column buckling, but do not carry direct axial loads except during
initial installation of the conductor string. The marine conductors serve to reduce the wave and
current loads imposed on the inner casing strings and provide sacrificial protection against
oxygen corrosion in the splash zone.
On gravity structures, they are also required to minimise the transfer to the inner casings of
stresses resulting from platform settlement and rotational movement of the platform.
Foundation piles are usually either jetted into place or cemented in a pre-drilled hole. If no
Temporary Guide Base is used, they support the Main Guide Base which carries and aligns all
future wellhead components, BOPs, Xmas tree and casing/tubing strings for both the drilling and
production phases. If a Temporary Base Guide is used, the foundation pile is landed in tension.
The foundation pile directly carries both the axial and bending loads imposed on the wellhead by
the environment via marine riser and BOP.
PANEL A-1 : CASING TYPES AND FUNCTION
FIGURE A-2 : TYPES OF CASING STRING AND LINERS
1.3.2 Conductor string
The conductor string is used to prevent poorly consolidated formations from sloughing into the
hole, to provide a full mud-circulation system, to protect fresh water sands from contamination by
the drilling mud and to provide protection against shallow hydrocarbons. This string is usually
cemented to surface or seabed and is always the first casing on which one or more BOPs are
mounted.
For onshore wells the conductor string usually supports the wellhead, the BOP, the Xmas tree
and subsequent casing strings.
For offshore wells with a surface BOP, the conductor string also usually supports the wellhead,
the BOP, the Xmas tree and subsequent casing strings. Compressional loads are therefore often
the most critical design parameters for this casing. Above the top cement, the conductor must be
centralised to prevent column buckling. The annulus between the marine conductor and
conductor string is usually left uncemented above the mudline, in order to minimise load transfer
from the environment and hence bending stresses in the conductor string.
For offshore wells with a subsea BOP, the conductor string is landed on the foundation pile, and
stays in tension.
1.3.3 Surface string
The next string is the surface string which provides blowout protection during deeper drilling. Its
setting depth is often chosen so that it also isolates troublesome formations, loss zones, shallow
hydrocarbons, water sands, or protects the build-up section of deviated wells.
1.3.4 Intermediate string
This string is used to ensure adequate blowout protection for even deeper drilling, and to isolate
formations or deeper hole profile changes that can cause drilling problems. It is recommended to
set an intermediate casing string whenever there is a chance of encountering an influx that could
cause breakdown at the previous casing shoe, and/or severe losses in the open hole section. A
string is therefore nearly always set in the transition zone above or below significant
overpressures, and in any potential cap rock below a severe loss zone. Similarly, it is good
practice when appraising untested, deeper horizons, to case off the known hydrocarbon intervals
as a contingency against the possibility of encountering a loss circulation zone. Obviously this
latter advice applies primarily to massive reservoir sections rather than sand-shale sequences
with numerous small reservoirs and sub-reservoirs.
An intermediate string may also be set to shut off a swelling shale, a brittle caving shale, a
creeping salt, an over-pressured permeable stringer, a build- up or drop-off section, a high-
permeability sand or partly depleted reservoir that causes differential sticking. The designer
should design the well to combine many of these objectives in a single casing point. A liner may
be used instead of a full intermediate casing, and difficult wells may contain several intermediate
casing strings and/or liners.
1.3.5 Production string
This is the string through which the well will be completed, produced and controlled throughout
its service life. While on some exploration wells this will amount to only a short testing period, on
most development wells it will span a significant number of years during which many
recompletions may be performed. In most cases, the production casing will serve to isolate the
productive intervals, to facilitate proper reservoir control and to prevent the influx of undesired
fluids. In other cases, accumulation conditions are such that the well can be left with an open-
hole completion below the production string.
It is also possible that the casing itself could be used as a conduit for maximising well
deliverability, for minimising pressure losses during a frac job, for injecting inhibitor or for lift gas.
This may require Annular Safety Valves, which impose severe loads on the uncemented casing.
It should be remembered that production operations will affect the temperature of the production
casing and impose additional thermal stresses. The loads to which a production casing is
subjected are therefore quite different from those imposed during drilling.
Care has to be taken in the selection of the steel type and the connections for a production
string. Special consideration is required where drilling takes place below the production casing
since it may suffer some damage, e.g. in barefoot completions, open-hole gravel packs, liner
completions and deep- zone appraisal. In a liner completion both the liner and casing form the
production string and must be designed accordingly.
The quality of the primary cement job is of paramount importance for the production casing,
especially where zonal isolation is critical. It is therefore strongly recommended that the
production casing should be rotated and/or reciprocated during cementing. This imposes
additional design requirements.
1.3.6 Liner
As discussed before, a liner is a string of casing which does not extend all the way to surface, but
is suspended a short distance above the previous casing shoe. It is usually cemented over its
entire length to ensure a seal with the previous casing string. It is indeed important to ensure that
the liner overlap has a good seal. In cases of suspected cement seal quality a mechanical seal,
in the form of a liner packer, should be installed.
Drilling from a production liner is becoming a common practice. This is an important feature of
slimhole and monobore designs, where multiple liners may be used [2].
Although in principle the same types exist as discussed for the casing string above, an additional
distinction is usually made between drilling liners and production liners, which are defined as
follows.
Drilling liners are set:
- to provide a deeper and hence a stronger shoe;
- to keep the hole open from unstable formations;
- to achieve a drilling casing at low cost;
- because of rig limitations on tensional loads;
- to minimise the effect of a reduced internal diameter on drilling hydraulics.
Production liners are set:
- to achieve a production casing at low cost;
- because of rig limitations on tensional loads;
- to allow the installation of a larger flow conduit.
Either type of liner may subsequently be tied back to surface with a string of casing stabbed into
the top of the liner.
1.4 The design process
The objective of casing design is to design a set of casing strings, capable of withstanding a
variety of external and internal pressures, thermal loads and loads related to the self-weight of
the casing. These casing strings are subjected to time-dependent corrosion, wear and possibly
fatigue, which downrate their resistance to these loads during their service life. The interaction
between the casing strings - which may lead e.g. to annular pressure build-up or wellhead
movement [9,10] also merits attention.
This section briefly surveys the structure of the process used to arrive at a technically and
economically sound casing design.
Casing design as described in this Guide is divided into two main phases, preliminary design and
detailed design, with the former further subdivided into data collection and casing-scheme
selection. As illustrated in Flowchart A-1, it will generally be necessary to repeat these phases in
an iterative process to obtain an optimum design [2].
1.4.1 Preliminary design
[Link] Data collection
The outcome of the casing design process is strongly influenced by the quality of the initial data-
collection exercise. Chapter C (Design parameters) addresses this issue and reviews the tools
required to obtain the necessary information.
To be effective, data collection must be carried out at an early stage in the design process, by
means of a multidisciplinary team including local Opco staff from the Petroleum Engineering and
Operations departments in addition to the casing designer. Recent developments in downhole
technology will lead to the introduction of novel ideas resulting in reduced well costs. The casing
designer should be familiar with these developments and evaluate their merits for application in
his specific case [5,6].
FLOWCHART A-1 : OVERALL STRUCTURE OF THE CASING PROCESS

[Link] Casing-scheme selection

Selection of the optimum (most cost-effective) casing scheme for the anticipated development
plan can play a major role in cutting overall well costs, and guaranteeing formation integrity
during drilling under all realistic loading conditions [2]. The structure of the selection procedure is
illustrated in Flowchart A-2.
Casing-scheme selection is a complex matter involving the global issues of well configuration,
which are mainly driven by the well objectives and field- development economics. Continual
vigilance is required to avoid overdesign and other forms of unnecessary expenditure. It would
go beyond the scope of the present Guide to deal fully with all the considerations leading to
proper choice of the casing scheme; however, the main lines of this topic are dealt with in
Chapter D.
FLOWCHART A-2 : GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR CASING-SCHEME SELECTION
 The outcome of the casing-scheme selection is a specification of the minimum external diameter
and minimum casing-shoe depth for each casing section in the proposed well. The casing
diameter is mainly determined by the availability of downhole drilling equipment and logging
tools, and by production requirements determining the sizing of the production or evaluation
conduit. The casing-shoe setting depth is usually a function of the strength of the formation to be
drilled through and the loads on the wellbore during drilling or lithological/geological related
considerations. The total depth of the well will be mainly determined by the well objectives.
In general, the preliminary casing scheme selection should be addressed by considering the
casing diameters from the inner strings towards the outer strings and by evaluating the casing
setting depths from the total depth upwards to surface.
The preliminary casing scheme may have to be modified on the basis of the results of later
stages of the design process.
1.4.2 Detailed design
In the detailed design phase, the casing designer determines the material grade and casing wall
thickness for each section of the casing scheme selected, which will allow it to withstand all
realistically expected loads throughout the life of the well. The structure of this phase is illustrated
in Flowchart A-3. In general, it will be most effective to design the individual casing sections in
the order specified in Flowchart A-4.
[Link] Selection of relevant load
Before design calculations can be performed for a given casing section, the casing designer
must decide which load cases can realistically be expected to occur. This topic is dealt with in
Chapter F.
[Link] Uniaxial design
The design loads for the load cases selected are determined with the aid of the relevant data
(see Chapter G). They are compared with the resistances to burst or collapse tabulated in API
Bull. 5C2 [11] on the basis of the formulae published in API Bull. 5C3 [12] (see Chapter H), after
these values have been corrected to take the influence of corrosion, wear and fatigue (see
Chapter I) into account and divided by the relevant design factor (see Chapter K). The casing
design obtained in this way is then checked to see whether the casing selected can withstand the
loads occurring during installation (in particular the axial forces due to the total weight of the
casing string down to the depth considered, and the shock and torsional loads experienced
during setting the casing).
FLOWCHART A-3 : STRUCTURE OF DETAILED DESIGN PHASE
FLOWCHART A-4: DESIGN SEQUENCE FOR CASING STRINGS OR LINERS
FIGURE A-3 : PRINCIPLE OF UNIAXIAL CASING DESIGN
 The principle of this uniaxial design Process is illustrated in Figure A-3, and the design
calculations involved are dealt with in sections 2 and 3 of Chapter G, and sections 1.1 to 1.3 of
Chapter H. In general, uniaxial design often leads to a conservative choice of tubular grade and
wall thickness.
[Link] Triaxial design
With increasing acceptance of triaxial stress analysis and the appearance of commercial casing-
stress-analysis software [4,13,14], use of triaxial analysis to optimise casing design is becoming
increasingly common. The interrelationship of design loads can now be analysed using a
combination of Hooke's law, the Lame equations and the Von Mises yield criterion. These
computer analyses relieve the designer of a lot of repetitious calculations and allow him to
concentrate on more accurate estimation of the service-life load conditions - a task for which
computer software has also been developed [3,4]. As with the uniaxial approach, the influence of
corrosion, wear and fatigue should be taken into account before the triaxial design factor is
applied. This extension of the design process, made possible by the advent of desktop
computing power, should lead to an optimised casing design fine-tuning the simplified
conventional approach [4]. Designs that previously did not meet the uniaxial design rules may
know be acceptable following a detailed triaxial stress analysis.
The principle of triaxial design is illustrated in Figure A-4. The design calculations involved are
dealt with in Appendix 6.
[Link] Further design considerations
Connections
It is important to ensure that the connections between successive lengths of casing should also
withstand the loads to which they are subjected. Recent developments have led to a wide
diversity of connection types and sealing compounds for use with casing connections. The
salient aspects of connection design are highlighted in Chapter L, with ample references to the
relevant literature, as a basis for technically justified selection of the right connection types [15].
Design for special cases
The design steps outlined above are applicable to any casing string or liner. However, special
design measures are needed to ensure adequate design in special cases such as high-
temperature/high-pressure wells, squeezing salt wells and horizontal wells. The special design
considerations applicable to such cases are discussed briefly, with ample references to the
literature, in Chapter N.
FIGURE A-4 : PRINCIPLE OF TRIAXIAL CASING ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
 Operational aspects
Practical details which need to be taken into account in the design of any casing string are
discussed in Chapter O. The casing designer should be familiar with the relevant purchasing
specifications [16,17] and should be aware of the procedures and tools available to help the
operator responsible for installing and maintaining the casing strings. Early incorporation of these
aspects into the design process will yield an optimum design.
Probabilistic approach to casing design
Probabilistic methods of risk analysis now under development may become applicable to casing
design in the future [18,19]. Such methods, permitting quantification of the risk of failure
associated with a given casing design, might allow further rationalisation to be brought about.
1.5. References

[1] SIPM, EPO/51

Proceedings of the PW82 Well Design Workshop - 1-5 October 1990
EP 90-3460
[2] SIPM, EPO/51
Making the most of well planning
EP 92-2500
[3] SIPM, EPO/51
OSCP User Guide - version 2.3
EP 91-2156
[4] Pittman, W.
Commercial casing design software - detailed evaluation
EP 92-0473
[5] SIPM, EPO/5
Management, Technology and Human Resources, Programme 1991-1993
EP 91-3000
[6] SIPM, EPD
Technology development programme 1992-1994
EP 92-0350
[7] SIPM, EPO/51
Drilling Spearhead Documentation, Volume 1, 2 and 3
EP 89-0115
[8] SIPM, EPO/51
Cementing Manual, Volume I - Primary Cementing of Casing
EP-50500
[9] MacEachran, A. and Adams, A.J.
Impact on casing design of thermal expansion of fluids in confined annuli
SPE/IADC 21911
[10] Adams, A.J.
How to design for annulus fluid heat-up
SPE 22871
[11] American Petroleum Institute
Bulletin on performance properties of casing and tubing
Bull. 5C2, Twentieth edition, 31 May 1987
[12] American Petroleum Institute
Bulletin on formulas and calculations for casing, tubing, drillpipe and line pipe properties
Bull. 5C3, Fifth edition, July 1989
[13] Klementich, E.F. and Jellison, M.J.
A service-life model for casing strings
SPE 12361
[14] Klementich, E.F., Jellison, M.J. and Johnson, R.
Triaxial load capacity diagrams provide a new approach to casing and tubing
analysis
SPE/IADC 13434
 [15] Bax, D.J.M. (SIPM) and Bontenbal, P.J. (KSEPL)
Casing connections
Contribution to the upgrade of the SIPM Casing Design Manual
EP 92-1563
[16] American Petroleum Institute
Specification for casing and tubing
Spec. 5CT, Third edition, 1 December 1990
[17] SIPM, EPO/512
Technical suggestions for ordering non-API tubulars
DEN 17/92
[18] Payne, M.L. and Swanson, J.D.
Application of probabilistic reliability methods to tubular design
SPE 19556
[19] Reeves, T.B., Parfitt, S.H.L. and Adams, A.J.
Casing system risk analysis using structural reliability
SPE/IADC 25693
1.6 Appendix 1: International standards for tubular goods
1.6.1 Introduction
Opcos may depart from international standards relevant to casing design when it can be well
documented that less conservative casing designs still meet stringent demands on safety and
environmental friendliness, and comply with local legal requirements.
SIPM is working with industry partners (and competitors) to make these international standards
reflect this new vision. However, the process of change is justifiably a slow one.
This Appendix describes the framework within which these changes will have to be made.
The oil and gas exploration and production industry uses a great number of standards developed
by a range of organisations and national, regional and international standardisation bodies.
A standard is a document providing rules, guidelines or characteristics for activities or their
results, aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given context [1]. The
industry uses standards with the specific aim of providing a means to enhance technical integrity,
transfer knowledge and carry out business efficiently.
It is the E&P industry's goal to foster the development of standards on an international level for
the broadest possible application. Worldwide use of the standards is seen as being for the
mutual benefit of users and manufacturers [3,8]. The E&P industry has in many areas adopted
local, national or regional standards for non E&P-specific equipment such as pressure vessels,
lifting equipment, materials, electrical gear, etc. Certain regional or national standards have
proven so useful to the E&P industry that they are extensively used and hence basically adopted
by this industry.
In many areas, American standards and in particular API (American Petroleum Institute), ASME
(American Society for Mechanical Engineers), ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials),
NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers) and NFPA (National Fire Protection
Agency) Standards provide the upstream industry with standards that support activities
worldwide. ANSI (American National Standards Institute) is the recognised standardising body
for the USA [2].
However, new developments are underway, as explained hereafter. The E&P industry is
adapting to the changing political and economic climate. Until recently the API was the leading oil
industry organisation. With the upcoming European Market the situation is changing. The
Committee for European Normalisation (CEN) and the International Standards Organisation
(ISO) seem to be setting the pace [3,4].
For many years, API's Committee 5 the Committee on standardisation of Tubular Goods has
been involved with the international use of its standards. The manufacturing and use of tubulars
has recently expanded to all corners of the world. Committee 5 has extended its membership to
qualified users and manufacturers regardless of their location. As a result, the tubular- goods
standards have developed the necessary provisions needed in any international standard. During
the recent years Committee 5 has worked with CEN representatives from the European
Community (EC) to prepare for EC 1992. Some progress has been made [5]. Topics that have
been discussed include Oil-Country Tubular Goods (OCTG) and line-pipe items, and the
Committee 5's goal is to review all the topics and to handle the higher priority items that might
help the EC transition before the opening of the European Common Market in 1992 [5].
Committee 5's latest effort is to gain ISO approval and acceptance of many of the existing API
standards. Several Committee 5 documents are now under review [5].
SIPM has a clear view on standardisation, as defined in [1,6,7]. SIPM uses so called Group
Standards. Group Standards are generated with the specific aim of providing a means to
enhance technical integrity, transfer knowledge and carry out business efficiently.
It is Group policy:
· to rely, to the maximum possible extent, on External Standards;
· to aim for minimum additional requirements in Group, Opco and Project Standards;
· to actively, pursue the proper technical/commercial authorisation processes whereby
variations are justified, both for technical and business reasons;
· to consistently improve the quality of Group Standards by creating/ maintaining feedback
loops between users and Custodians of Standards;
· to positively influence External Standards bodies, thereby increasing the number and
improving the quality of External Standards applicable to Group use.
In the next paragraphs the organisations that have developed and are maintaining E&P
standards are reviewed in more detail.