1. Longitude and Latitude These are imaginary lines used to determine the location and time of any place on Earth. e Latitudes (Parallels): ° Total: 181 lines (including the Equator). o Distance: The distance between two successive latitudes is approx. 111 km. o Important Lines: Equator (0°), Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N), Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S), Arctic Circle (66.5° N), Antarctic Circle (66.5° S). o Heat Zones: Torrid Zone (between Tropics), Temperate Zone (between Tropics and Circles), Frigid Zone (near Poles). e Longitudes (Meridians): © Total: 360 lines. They meet at the poles and are widest at the equator. o Prime Meridian: O° longitude passingTropics), Temperate Zone (between Tropics and Circles), Frigid Zone (near Poles). Longitudes (Meridians): 5° ° Oo ° Oo Total: 360 lines. They meet at the poles and are widest at the equator. Prime Meridian: O° longitude passing through Greenwich, UK. Time Calculation: 1° = 4 minutes. 15° = 1 hour. International Date Line (IDL): Located at 180° longitude. Crossing it from West to East (towards America) results in gaining a day (subtract 24 hours). Indian Standard Time (IST): Based on 82.5° E longitude (passes through Mirzapur, UP). It is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of GMT.3. Climate The long-term pattern of weather in a particular area. ¢ Factors: Latitude, Altitude (higher = colder), Distance from sea (Continentality), Ocean currents, and Relief (mountains). ¢ Koppen’s Classification: Most widely used system (e.g., ‘Am' for Tropical Monsoon, ‘BWh' for Hot Desert). e Jet Streams: Fast-moving air currents in the upper atmosphere that influence weather patterns (Westerly Jet Stream brings Western Disturbances to India in winter). ¢ EI Nifo & La Nina: El Nifo (warming of Pacific) usually leads to drought in India; La Nina (cooling) leads to excess rain.2. Atmosphere The envelope of gases surrounding Earth, held by gravity. * Composition: Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon (0.93%), CO, (0.04%). e Layers (Bottom to Top): 1: Troposphere (0-12 km): All weather happens here. Temperature decreases with height (Lapse Rate: 6.5°C per 1 km). . Stratosphere (12-50 km): Contains the Ozone Layer (O03) which absorbs UV rays. Ideal for flying jet aircraft. . Mesosphere (50-80 km): Coldest layer (-100°C). Meteors burn up here. . Thermosphere/lonosphere (80-700 km): Contains ions that reflect radio waves back to Earth. Temperature rises rapidly. . Exosphere: Outermost layer merging into space.4. KOCKS The solid mineral material forming the Earth's crust. ¢ Igneous Rocks: Formed from cooling magmal/lava. ° Types: Intrusive (Granite) and Extrusive (Basalt). o Feature: No fossils, crystalline. ¢ Sedimentary Rocks: Formed by accumulation of sediments over time (Lithification). o Examples: Sandstone, Limestone, Shale, Coal. o Feature: Contain fossils, found in layers (strata). ¢ Metamorphic Rocks: Formed when existing rocks change due to high heat/pressure. o Examples: Marble (from Limestone), Slate (from Shale), Quartzite (from Sandstone),Gneiss (from Granite). 5. Monsoon The seasonal reversal of wind direction, crucial for Indian agriculture. ¢ Onset: Southwest Monsoon arrives in Kerala around June 1st. © Two Branches: 1. Arabian Sea Branch: Hits the Western Ghats first (heavy rain). 2. Bay of Bengal Branch: Heads towards the North-East (Mawsynram/Cherrapunji get highest rain) and turns towards the plains. ¢ Retreating Monsoon: Occurs in Oct-Nov. It picks up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and gives rain to the Tamil Nadu coast (Coromandel Coast) in winter.¢ Burst of Monsoon: Sudden heavy rainfall with thunder at the start of the season. 6. Mountains and Passes ¢ Mountain Types: © Fold: Himalayas (Young), Aravallis (Oldest in India). ° Block: Vindhyas, Satpuras, Western Ghats. ¢ Crucial Passes (La): © Zoji La: Connects Srinagar to Leh. o Nathu La: Sikkim-Tibet (Ancient Silk Route). ° Shipki La: River Sutlej enters India here (HP-Tibet). ° Bara-lacha La: Connects Mandi to Leh. ° Thal Ghat & Bhor Ghat: Connect Mumbai to Nashik and Pune respectively.7. Rivers and Dams ¢ Himalayan Rivers (Perennial): ° Indus: Originates near Mansarovar. Tributaries: Jnelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej. ° Ganga: Formed by Alaknanda and Bhagirathi at Devprayag. o Brahmaputra: Called Tsangpo in Tibet, enters India at Namcha Barwa (Arunachal). e Peninsular Rivers: 2 West-flowing (estuaries): Narmada, Tapti. 2 East-flowing (deltas): Godavari (Dakshin Ganga), Krishna, Kaveri, Mahanadi. ¢ Major Dams: ° Tehri: Highest (Bhagirathi). ° Hirakud: Longest (Mahanadi). o Bhakra Nangal: Highest gravity dam (Sutlej).8. Forests and Wildlife Tropical Evergreen: High rain (>200cm). Found in Western Ghats, NE India (Ebony, Mahogany). Tropical Deciduous (Monsoon Forests): Most widespread in India. Teak, Sal, Sheesham. Mangroves (Tidal): Found in deltas (Sundarbans). Wildlife Protection: ° Project Tiger: Launched in 1973. o Key Parks: Kaziranga (Rhino), Gir (Lion), Jim Corbett (First NP in India). . Earth’s Interior Crust: 5-70 km thick. Made of Sial (Silica & Aluminum).. Earth’s Interior Crust: 5-70 km thick. Made of Sial (Silica & Aluminum). Mantle: 2900 km thick. Made of Sima (Silica & Magnesium). Upper mantle is the Asthenosphere (lava source). Core: Made of Nife (Nickel & Iron). Outer core is liquid; Inner core is solid. Discontinuities: Moho (Crust-Mantle), Gutenberg (Mantle-Core).10. Cyclone and Anticyclone ¢ Cyclone: Low pressure at center. o Rotation: Anticlockwise (Northern Hem.), Clockwise (Southern Hem.). o Weather: Stormy, heavy rain. ¢ Anticyclone: High pressure at center. © Rotation: Clockwise (Northern Hem.), Anticlockwise (Southern Hem.). o Weather: Calm, clear skies.11. Soil ¢ Alluvial (40%): Most fertile. Khadar is new/fertile; Bhangar is old/less fertile. ¢ Black Soil (Regur): Volcanic origin. Best for Cotton. High water-holding capacity. e Red Soil: Rich in iron (Red color). Found in low-rainfall areas. ¢ Laterite Soil: Formed by Leaching in heavy rain areas. Good for Cashews/Tea.12. Formation Theories ¢ Big Bang Theory: Origin of the Universe (~13.8 billion years ago). ¢ Nebular Hypothesis: Formation of the Solar System from a gas cloud. ¢ Continental Drift (Wegener): Continents were once a single landmass (Pangaea) that broke apart. ¢ Plate Tectonics: Earth's crust is divided into plates moving on the mantle, causing earthquakes and volcanoes.