Algorithm

ⓘ
In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm (/ˈælɡərɪðəm/ ) is a finite sequence of
mathematically rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to
perform a computation.[1] Algorithms are used as specifications for performing calculations and
data processing. More advanced algorithms can use conditionals to divert the code execution
through various routes (referred to as automated decision-making) and deduce valid inferences
(referred to as automated reasoning).

Flowchart of using successive

subtractions to find the greatest common
divisor of number r and s

In contrast, a heuristic is an approach to solving problems without well-defined correct or optimal

results.[2] For example, although social media recommender systems are commonly called
"algorithms", they actually rely on heuristics as there is no truly "correct" recommendation.

As an effective method, an algorithm can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time[3]
and in a well-defined formal language[4] for calculating a function.[5] Starting from an initial state
and initial input (perhaps empty),[6] the instructions describe a computation that, when executed,
proceeds through a finite[7] number of well-defined successive states, eventually producing
"output"[8] and terminating at a final ending state. The transition from one state to the next is not
necessarily deterministic; some algorithms, known as randomized algorithms, incorporate random
input.[9]
Etymology

Around 825 AD, Persian scientist and polymath Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī wrote kitāb al-
ḥisāb al-hindī ("Book of Indian computation") and kitab al-jam' wa'l-tafriq al-ḥisāb al-hindī ("Addition
and subtraction in Indian arithmetic"). In the early 12th century, Latin translations of these texts
involving the Hindu–Arabic numeral system and arithmetic appeared, for example Liber Alghoarismi
de practica arismetrice, attributed to John of Seville, and Liber Algorismi de numero Indorum,
attributed to Adelard of Bath.[10] Here, alghoarismi or algorismi is the Latinization of Al-Khwarizmi's
name;[1] the text starts with the phrase Dixit Algorismi, or "Thus spoke Al-Khwarizmi".[2]

The word algorism in English came to mean the use of place-value notation in calculations; it occurs
in the Ancrene Wisse from circa 1225.[11] By the time Geoffrey Chaucer wrote The Canterbury Tales in
the late 14th century, he used a variant of the same word in describing augrym stones, stones used
for place-value calculation.[12][13] In the 15th century, under the influence of the Greek word ἀριθμός
(arithmos, "number"; cf. "arithmetic"), the Latin word was altered to algorithmus.[14] By 1596, this
form of the word was used in English, as algorithm, by Thomas Hood.[15]

Definition

One informal definition is "a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations",[16] which
would include all computer programs (including programs that do not perform numeric
calculations), and any prescribed bureaucratic procedure[17] or cook-book recipe.[18] In general, a
program is an algorithm only if it stops eventually[19]—even though infinite loops may sometimes
prove desirable. Boolos, Jeffrey & 1974, 1999 define an algorithm to be an explicit set of
instructions for determining an output, that can be followed by a computing machine or a human
who could only carry out specific elementary operations on symbols.[20]

Most algorithms are intended to be implemented as computer programs. However, algorithms are
also implemented by other means, such as in a biological neural network (for example, the human
brain performing arithmetic or an insect looking for food), in an electrical circuit, or a mechanical
device.
History

Ancient algorithms

Step-by-step procedures for solving mathematical problems have been recorded since antiquity.
This includes in Babylonian mathematics (around 2500 BC),[21] Egyptian mathematics (around 1550
BC),[21] Indian mathematics (around 800 BC and later),[22][23] the Ifa Oracle (around 500 BC),[24]
Greek mathematics (around 240 BC),[25] Chinese mathematics (around 200 BC and later),[26] and
Arabic mathematics (around 800 AD).[27]

The earliest evidence of algorithms is found in ancient Mesopotamian mathematics. A Sumerian

clay tablet found in Shuruppak near Baghdad and dated to c. 2500 BC describes the earliest division
algorithm.[21] During the Hammurabi dynasty c. 1800 – c. 1600 BC, Babylonian clay tablets
described algorithms for computing formulas.[28] Algorithms were also used in Babylonian
astronomy. Babylonian clay tablets describe and employ algorithmic procedures to compute the
time and place of significant astronomical events.[29]

Algorithms for arithmetic are also found in ancient Egyptian mathematics, dating back to the Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus c. 1550 BC.[21] Algorithms were later used in ancient Hellenistic
mathematics. Two examples are the Sieve of Eratosthenes, which was described in the Introduction
to Arithmetic by Nicomachus,[30][25]: Ch 9.2 and the Euclidean algorithm, which was first described in
Euclid's Elements (c. 300 BC).[25]: Ch 9.1 Examples of ancient Indian mathematics included the Shulba
Sutras, the Kerala School, and the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta.[22]

The first cryptographic algorithm for deciphering encrypted code was developed by Al-Kindi, a 9th-
century Arab mathematician, in A Manuscript On Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. He gave the
first description of cryptanalysis by frequency analysis, the earliest codebreaking algorithm.[27]

Computers

Weight-driven clocks

Bolter credits the invention of the weight-driven clock as "the key invention [of Europe in the Middle
Ages]," specifically the verge escapement mechanism[31] producing the tick and tock of a
mechanical clock. "The accurate automatic machine"[32] led immediately to "mechanical automata"
in the 13th century and "computational machines"—the difference and analytical engines of Charles
Babbage and Ada Lovelace in the mid-19th century.[33] Lovelace designed the first algorithm
intended for processing on a computer, Babbage's analytical engine, which is the first device
considered a real Turing-complete computer instead of just a calculator. Although the full
implementation of Babbage's second device was not realized for decades after her lifetime,
Lovelace has been called "history's first programmer".

Electromechanical relay

Bell and Newell (1971) write that the Jacquard loom, a precursor to Hollerith cards (punch cards),
and "telephone switching technologies" led to the development of the first computers.[34] By the
mid-19th century, the telegraph, the precursor of the telephone, was in use throughout the world. By
the late 19th century, the ticker tape (c. 1870s) was in use, as were Hollerith cards (c. 1890). Then
came the teleprinter (c. 1910) with its punched-paper use of Baudot code on tape.

Telephone-switching networks of electromechanical relays were invented in 1835. These led to the
invention of the digital adding device by George Stibitz in 1937. While working in Bell Laboratories,
he observed the "burdensome" use of mechanical calculators with gears. "He went home one
evening in 1937 intending to test his idea... When the tinkering was over, Stibitz had constructed a
binary adding device".[35][36]

Formalization

Ada Lovelace's diagram from "Note G", the

first published computer algorithm

In 1928, a partial formalization of the modern concept of algorithms began with attempts to solve
the Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem) posed by David Hilbert. Later formalizations were
framed as attempts to define "effective calculability"[37] or "effective method".[38] Those
formalizations included the Gödel–Herbrand–Kleene recursive functions of 1930, 1934 and 1935,
Alonzo Church's lambda calculus of 1936, Emil Post's Formulation 1 of 1936, and Alan Turing's
Turing machines of 1936–37 and 1939.
Modern Algorithms

Algorithms have evolved and improved in many ways as time goes on. Common uses of algorithms
today include social media apps like Instagram and YouTube. Algorithms are used as a way to
analyze what people like and push more of those things to the people who interact with them.
Quantum computing uses quantum algorithm procedures to solve problems faster. More recently, in
2024, NIST updated their post-quantum encryption standards, which includes new encryption
algorithms to enhance defenses against attacks using quantum computing.

Representations

Algorithms can be expressed in many kinds of notation, including natural languages, pseudocode,
flowcharts, drakon-charts, programming languages or control tables (processed by interpreters).
Natural language expressions of algorithms tend to be verbose and ambiguous and are rarely used
for complex or technical algorithms. Pseudocode, flowcharts, drakon-charts, and control tables are
structured expressions of algorithms that avoid common ambiguities of natural language.
Programming languages are primarily for expressing algorithms in a computer-executable form but
are also used to define or document algorithms.

Turing machines

There are many possible representations and Turing machine programs can be expressed as a
sequence of machine tables (see finite-state machine, state-transition table, and control table for
more), as flowcharts and drakon-charts (see state diagram for more), as a form of rudimentary
machine code or assembly code called "sets of quadruples", and more. Algorithm representations
can also be classified into three accepted levels of Turing machine description: high-level
description, implementation description, and formal description.[39] A high-level description
describes the qualities of the algorithm itself, ignoring how it is implemented on the Turing
machine.[39] An implementation description describes the general manner in which the machine
moves its head and stores data to carry out the algorithm, but does not give exact states.[39] In the
most detail, a formal description gives the exact state table and list of transitions of the Turing
machine.[39]
Flowchart representation

The graphical aid called a flowchart offers a way to describe and document an algorithm (and a
computer program corresponding to it). It has four primary symbols: arrows showing program flow,
rectangles (SEQUENCE, GOTO), diamonds (IF-THEN-ELSE), and dots (OR-tie). Sub-structures can
"nest" in rectangles, but only if a single exit occurs from the superstructure.

Algorithmic analysis

It is often important to know how much time, storage, or other cost an algorithm may require.
Methods have been developed for the analysis of algorithms to obtain such quantitative answers
(estimates); for example, an algorithm that adds up the elements of a list of n numbers would have
a time requirement of , using big O notation. The algorithm only needs to remember two
values: the sum of all the elements so far, and its current position in the input list. If the space
required to store the input numbers is not counted, it has a space requirement of , otherwise
is required.

Different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more
time, space, or 'effort' than others. For example, a binary search algorithm (with cost )
outperforms a sequential search (cost ) when used for table lookups on sorted lists or arrays.

Formal versus empirical

The analysis, and study of algorithms is a discipline of computer science. Algorithms are often
studied abstractly, without referencing any specific programming language or implementation.
Algorithm analysis resembles other mathematical disciplines as it focuses on the algorithm's
properties, not implementation. Pseudocode is typical for analysis as it is a simple and general
representation. Most algorithms are implemented on particular hardware/software platforms and
their algorithmic efficiency is tested using real code. The efficiency of a particular algorithm may be
insignificant for many "one-off" problems but it may be critical for algorithms designed for fast
interactive, commercial, or long-life scientific usage. Scaling from small n to large n frequently
exposes inefficient algorithms that are otherwise benign.

Empirical testing is useful for uncovering unexpected interactions that affect performance.
Benchmarks may be used to compare before/after potential improvements to an algorithm after
program optimization. Empirical tests cannot replace formal analysis, though, and are non-trivial to
perform fairly.[40]
Execution efficiency

To illustrate the potential improvements possible even in well-established algorithms, a recent

significant innovation, relating to FFT algorithms (used heavily in the field of image processing), can
decrease processing time up to 1,000 times for applications like medical imaging.[41] In general,
speed improvements depend on special properties of the problem, which are very common in
practical applications.[42] Speedups of this magnitude enable computing devices that make
extensive use of image processing (like digital cameras and medical equipment) to consume less
power.

Best Case and Worst Case

The best case of an algorithm refers to the scenario or input for which the algorithm or data
structure takes the least time and resources to complete its tasks.[43] The worst case of an
algorithm is the case that causes the algorithm or data structure to consume the maximum period
of time and computational resources.[44]

Design

Algorithm design is a method or mathematical process for problem-solving and engineering

algorithms. The design of algorithms is part of many solution theories, such as divide-and-conquer
or dynamic programming within operation research. Techniques for designing and implementing
algorithm designs are also called algorithm design patterns,[45] with examples including the
template method pattern and the decorator pattern. One of the most important aspects of algorithm
design is resource (run-time, memory usage) efficiency; the big O notation is used to describe e.g.,
an algorithm's run-time growth as the size of its input increases.[46]

Structured programming

Per the Church–Turing thesis, any algorithm can be computed by any Turing complete model. Turing
completeness only requires four instruction types—conditional GOTO, unconditional GOTO,
assignment, HALT. However, Kemeny and Kurtz observe that, while "undisciplined" use of
unconditional GOTOs and conditional IF-THEN GOTOs can result in "spaghetti code", a programmer
can write structured programs using only these instructions; on the other hand "it is also possible,
and not too hard, to write badly structured programs in a structured language".[47] Tausworthe
augments the three Böhm-Jacopini canonical structures:[48] SEQUENCE, IF-THEN-ELSE, and WHILE-
DO, with two more: DO-WHILE and CASE.[49] An additional benefit of a structured program is that it
lends itself to proofs of correctness using mathematical induction.[50]

Legal status

By themselves, algorithms are not usually patentable. In the United States, a claim consisting solely
of simple manipulations of abstract concepts, numbers, or signals does not constitute "processes"
(USPTO 2006), so algorithms are not patentable (as in Gottschalk v. Benson). However practical
applications of algorithms are sometimes patentable. For example, in Diamond v. Diehr, the
application of a simple feedback algorithm to aid in the curing of synthetic rubber was deemed
patentable. The patenting of software is controversial,[51] and there are criticized patents involving
algorithms, especially data compression algorithms, such as Unisys's LZW patent. Additionally,
some cryptographic algorithms have export restrictions (see export of cryptography).

Classification

By implementation

Recursion
A recursive algorithm invokes itself repeatedly until meeting a termination condition and is a
common functional programming method. Iterative algorithms use repetitions such as loops or
data structures like stacks to solve problems. Problems may be suited for one implementation or
the other. The Tower of Hanoi is a puzzle commonly solved using recursive implementation. Every
recursive version has an equivalent (but possibly more or less complex) iterative version, and vice
versa.
Serial, parallel or distributed
Algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one instruction of
an algorithm at a time on serial computers. Serial algorithms are designed for these
environments, unlike parallel or distributed algorithms. Parallel algorithms take advantage of
computer architectures where multiple processors can work on a problem at the same time.
Distributed algorithms use multiple machines connected via a computer network. Parallel and
distributed algorithms divide the problem into subproblems and collect the results back together.
Resource consumption in these algorithms is not only processor cycles on each processor but
also the communication overhead between the processors. Some sorting algorithms can be
parallelized efficiently, but their communication overhead is expensive. Iterative algorithms are
generally parallelizable, but some problems have no parallel algorithms and are called inherently
serial problems.
Deterministic or non-deterministic
Deterministic algorithms solve the problem with exact decisions at every step; whereas non-
deterministic algorithms solve problems via guessing. Guesses are typically made more accurate
through the use of heuristics.
Exact or approximate
While many algorithms reach an exact solution, approximation algorithms seek an approximation
that is close to the true solution. Such algorithms have practical value for many hard problems.
For example, the Knapsack problem, where there is a set of items, and the goal is to pack the
knapsack to get the maximum total value. Each item has some weight and some value. The total
weight that can be carried is no more than some fixed number X. So, the solution must consider
the weights of items as well as their value.[52]
Quantum algorithm
Quantum algorithms run on a realistic model of quantum computation. The term is usually used
for those algorithms that seem inherently quantum or use some essential feature of Quantum
computing such as quantum superposition or quantum entanglement.

By design paradigm

Another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or paradigm. Some common
paradigms are:

Brute-force or exhaustive search

Brute force is a problem-solving method of systematically trying every possible option until the
optimal solution is found. This approach can be very time-consuming, testing every possible
combination of variables. It is often used when other methods are unavailable or too complex.
Brute force can solve a variety of problems, including finding the shortest path between two
points and cracking passwords.
Divide and conquer
A divide-and-conquer algorithm repeatedly reduces a problem to one or more smaller instances of
itself (usually recursively) until the instances are small enough to solve easily. Merge sorting is an
example of divide and conquer, where an unordered list is repeatedly split into smaller lists, which
are sorted in the same way and then merged.[53] In a simpler variant of divide and conquer called
prune and search or decrease-and-conquer algorithm, which solves one smaller instance of itself,
and does not require a merge step.[54] An example of a prune and search algorithm is the binary
search algorithm.
Search and enumeration
Many problems (such as playing chess) can be modelled as problems on graphs. A graph
exploration algorithm specifies rules for moving around a graph and is useful for such problems.
 This category also includes search algorithms, branch and bound enumeration, and backtracking.
Randomized algorithm
Such algorithms make some choices randomly (or pseudo-randomly). They find approximate
solutions when finding exact solutions may be impractical (see heuristic method below). For
some problems, the fastest approximations must involve some randomness.[55] Whether
randomized algorithms with polynomial time complexity can be the fastest algorithm for some
problems is an open question known as the P versus NP problem. There are two large classes of
such algorithms:

1. Monte Carlo algorithms return a correct answer with high probability. E.g. RP is the subclass of
these that run in polynomial time.

2. Las Vegas algorithms always return the correct answer, but their running time is only
probabilistically bound, e.g. ZPP.

Reduction of complexity
This technique transforms difficult problems into better-known problems solvable with (hopefully)
asymptotically optimal algorithms. The goal is to find a reducing algorithm whose complexity is
not dominated by the resulting reduced algorithms. For example, one selection algorithm finds
the median of an unsorted list by first sorting the list (the expensive portion), and then pulling out
the middle element in the sorted list (the cheap portion). This technique is also known as
transform and conquer.
Back tracking
In this approach, multiple solutions are built incrementally and abandoned when it is determined
that they cannot lead to a valid full solution.

Optimization problems

For optimization problems there is a more specific classification of algorithms; an algorithm for
such problems may fall into one or more of the general categories described above as well as into
one of the following:

Linear programming
When searching for optimal solutions to a linear function bound by linear equality and inequality
constraints, the constraints can be used directly to produce optimal solutions. There are
algorithms that can solve any problem in this category, such as the popular simplex algorithm.[56]
Problems that can be solved with linear programming include the maximum flow problem for
directed graphs. If a problem also requires that any of the unknowns be integers, then it is
classified in integer programming. A linear programming algorithm can solve such a problem if it
can be proved that all restrictions for integer values are superficial, i.e., the solutions satisfy these
 restrictions anyway. In the general case, a specialized algorithm or an algorithm that finds
approximate solutions is used, depending on the difficulty of the problem.
Dynamic programming
When a problem shows optimal substructures—meaning the optimal solution can be constructed
from optimal solutions to subproblems—and overlapping subproblems, meaning the same
subproblems are used to solve many different problem instances, a quicker approach called
dynamic programming avoids recomputing solutions. For example, Floyd–Warshall algorithm, the
shortest path between a start and goal vertex in a weighted graph can be found using the
shortest path to the goal from all adjacent vertices. Dynamic programming and memoization go
together. Unlike divide and conquer, dynamic programming subproblems often overlap. The
difference between dynamic programming and simple recursion is the caching or memoization of
recursive calls. When subproblems are independent and do not repeat, memoization does not
help; hence dynamic programming is not applicable to all complex problems. Using memoization
dynamic programming reduces the complexity of many problems from exponential to polynomial.
The greedy method
Greedy algorithms, similarly to a dynamic programming, work by examining substructures, in this
case not of the problem but of a given solution. Such algorithms start with some solution and
improve it by making small modifications. For some problems, they always find the optimal
solution but for others they may stop at local optima. The most popular use of greedy algorithms
is finding minimal spanning trees of graphs without negative cycles. Huffman Tree, Kruskal, Prim,
Sollin are greedy algorithms that can solve this optimization problem.
The heuristic method
In optimization problems, heuristic algorithms find solutions close to the optimal solution when
finding the optimal solution is impractical. These algorithms get closer and closer to the optimal
solution as they progress. In principle, if run for an infinite amount of time, they will find the
optimal solution. They can ideally find a solution very close to the optimal solution in a relatively
short time. These algorithms include local search, tabu search, simulated annealing, and genetic
algorithms. Some, like simulated annealing, are non-deterministic algorithms while others, like
tabu search, are deterministic. When a bound on the error of the non-optimal solution is known,
the algorithm is further categorized as an approximation algorithm.

Examples

One of the simplest algorithms finds the largest number in a list of numbers of random order.
Finding the solution requires looking at every number in the list. From this follows a simple
algorithm, which can be described in plain English as:
High-level description:

1. If a set of numbers is empty, then there is no highest number.

2. Assume the first number in the set is the largest.

3. For each remaining number in the set: if this number is greater than the current largest, it
becomes the new largest.

4. When there are no unchecked numbers left in the set, consider the current largest number to
be the largest in the set.

(Quasi-)formal description: Written in prose but much closer to the high-level language of a computer
program, the following is the more formal coding of the algorithm in pseudocode or pidgin code:

Algorithm LargestNumber
Input: A list of numbers L.
Output: The largest number in the list L.

if [Link] = 0 return null

largest ← L[0]
for each item in L, do
if item > largest, then
largest ← item
return largest

"←" denotes assignment. For instance, "largest ← item" means that the value of largest changes to the value of

item.

"return" terminates the algorithm and outputs the following value.

See also

Abstract machine
Mathematics portal

ALGOL Computer
programming portal

Algorithm = Logic + Control

Algorithm aversion
 Algorithm engineering

Algorithm characterizations

Algorithmic bias

Algorithmic composition

Algorithmic entities

Algorithmic synthesis

Algorithmic technique

Algorithmic topology

Computational mathematics

Garbage in, garbage out

Introduction to Algorithms (textbook)

Government by algorithm

List of algorithms

List of algorithm books

List of algorithm general topics

Medium is the message

Regulation of algorithms

Theory of computation
Computability theory

Computational complexity theory

Notes

1. "Definition of ALGORITHM" ([Link] .

Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Archived ([Link]
ttps://[Link]/dictionary/algorithm) from the original on February 14,
2020. Retrieved November 14, 2019.

2. David A. Grossman, Ophir Frieder, Information Retrieval: Algorithms and Heuristics, 2nd edition,
2004, ISBN 1402030045
 3. "Any classical mathematical algorithm, for example, can be described in a finite number of
English words" (Rogers 1987:2).

4. Well defined concerning the agent that executes the algorithm: "There is a computing agent,
usually human, which can react to the instructions and carry out the computations" (Rogers
1987:2).

5. "an algorithm is a procedure for computing a function (concerning some chosen notation for
integers) ... this limitation (to numerical functions) results in no loss of generality", (Rogers
1977:1).

6. "An algorithm has zero or more inputs, i.e., quantities which are given to it initially before the
algorithm begins" (Knuth 1973:5).

7. "A procedure which has all the characteristics of an algorithm except that it possibly lacks
finiteness may be called a 'computational method' " (Knuth 1971:5).

8. "An algorithm has one or more outputs, i.e., quantities which have a specified relation to the
inputs" (Knuth 1973:5).

9. Whether or not a process with random interior processes (not including the input) is an
algorithm is debatable. Rogers opines that: "a computation is carried out in a discrete stepwise
fashion, without the use of continuous methods or analog devices ... carried forward
deterministically, without resort to random methods or devices, e.g., dice" (Rogers 1987:2).

10. Blair, Ann, Duguid, Paul, Goeing, Anja-Silvia and Grafton, Anthony. Information: A Historical
Companion, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2021. p. 247

11. "algorism" ([Link] . Oxford English Dictionary.

Retrieved May 18, 2025.

12. Chaucer, Geoffrey. "The Miller's Tale" ([Link]

and-tale) . Line 3210.

13. Skeat, Walter William (1914). "agrim, agrum" ([Link]

AAJ&pg=PA5) . In Mayhew, Anthony Lawson (ed.). A Glossary of Tudor and Stuart Words:
Especially from the Dramatists. Clarendon Press. pp. 5–6.

14. Grabiner, Judith V. (December 2013). "The role of mathematics in liberal arts education". In
Matthews, Michael R. (ed.). International Handbook of Research in History, Philosophy and
Science Teaching. Springer. pp. 793–836. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7654-8_25 ([Link]
0.1007%2F978-94-007-7654-8_25) . ISBN 9789400776548.
15. "algorithm" ([Link] . Oxford English Dictionary.
Retrieved May 18, 2025.

16. Stone (1971), p. 8.

17. Simanowski, Roberto (2018). The Death Algorithm and Other Digital Dilemmas ([Link]
[Link]/books?id=RJV5DwAAQBAJ) . Untimely Meditations. Vol. 14. Translated by Chase,
Jefferson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. p. 147. ISBN 9780262536370. Archived (htt
ps://[Link]/web/20191222120705/[Link]
QBAJ) from the original on December 22, 2019. Retrieved May 27, 2019. "[...] the next level of
abstraction of central bureaucracy: globally operating algorithms."

18. Dietrich, Eric (1999). "Algorithm". In Wilson, Robert Andrew; Keil, Frank C. (eds.). The MIT
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MIT Cognet library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press (published 2001). p. 11.
ISBN 9780262731447. Retrieved July 22, 2020. "An algorithm is a recipe, method, or technique
for doing something."

19. Stone requires that "it must terminate in a finite number of steps" (Stone 1973:7–8).

20. Boolos and Jeffrey 1974, 1999:19

21. Chabert, Jean-Luc (2012). A History of Algorithms: From the Pebble to the Microchip. Springer
Science & Business Media. pp. 7–8. ISBN 9783642181924.

22. Sriram, M. S. (2005). "Algorithms in Indian Mathematics" ([Link]

qfJdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA153) . In Emch, Gerard G.; Sridharan, R.; Srinivas, M. D. (eds.).
Contributions to the History of Indian Mathematics. Springer. p. 153. ISBN 978-93-86279-25-5.

23. Hayashi, T. (2023, January 1). Brahmagupta ([Link]

pta) . Encyclopedia Britannica.

24. Zaslavsky, Claudia (1970). "Mathematics of the Yoruba People and of Their Neighbors in
Southern Nigeria" ([Link] . The Two-Year College
Mathematics Journal. 1 (2): 76–99. doi:10.2307/3027363 ([Link]
3) . ISSN 0049-4925 ([Link] . JSTOR 3027363 (http
s://[Link]/stable/3027363) .

25. Cooke, Roger L. (2005). The History of Mathematics: A Brief Course. John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 978-1-118-46029-0.

26. Chabert, Jean-Luc, ed. (1999). A History of Algorithms ([Link]

7/978-3-642-18192-4) . doi:10.1007/978-3-642-18192-4 ([Link]
2-18192-4) . ISBN 978-3-540-63369-3.
27. Dooley, John F. (2013). A Brief History of Cryptology and Cryptographic Algorithms. Springer
Science & Business Media. pp. 12–3. ISBN 9783319016283.

28. Knuth, Donald E. (1972). "Ancient Babylonian Algorithms" ([Link]

224100137/[Link] (PDF). Commun. ACM.
15 (7): 671–677. doi:10.1145/361454.361514 ([Link] .
ISSN 0001-0782 ([Link] . S2CID 7829945 ([Link]
[Link]/CorpusID:7829945) . Archived from the original ([Link]
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29. Aaboe, Asger (2001). Episodes from the Early History of Astronomy. New York: Springer.
pp. 40–62. ISBN 978-0-387-95136-2.

30. Ast, Courtney. "Eratosthenes" ([Link] .

Wichita State University: Department of Mathematics and Statistics. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/web/20150227150653/[Link]
l) from the original on February 27, 2015. Retrieved February 27, 2015.

31. Bolter 1984:24

32. Bolter 1984:26

33. Bolter 1984:33–34, 204–206.

34. Bell and Newell diagram 1971:39, cf. Davis 2000

35. Melina Hill, Valley News Correspondent, A Tinkerer Gets a Place in History, Valley News West
Lebanon NH, Thursday, March 31, 1983, p. 13.

36. Davis 2000:14

37. Kleene 1943 in Davis 1965:274

38. Rosser 1939 in Davis 1965:225

39. Sipser 2006:157

40. Kriegel, Hans-Peter; Schubert, Erich; Zimek, Arthur (2016). "The (black) art of run-time
evaluation: Are we comparing algorithms or implementations?". Knowledge and Information
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47. John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz 1985 Back to Basic: The History, Corruption, and Future of
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48. Tausworthe 1977:101

49. Tausworthe 1977:142

50. Knuth 1973 section 1.2.1, expanded by Tausworthe 1977 at pages 100ff and Chapter 9.1
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52. Kellerer, Hans; Pferschy, Ulrich; Pisinger, David (2004). Knapsack Problems | Hans Kellerer |
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53. Goodrich, Michael T.; Tamassia, Roberto (2001). "5.2 Divide and Conquer". Algorithm Design:
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54. Goodrich & Tamassia (2001), p. 245, 4.7.1 Prune-and-search.

55. For instance, the volume of a convex polytope (described using a membership oracle) can be
approximated to high accuracy by a randomized polynomial time algorithm, but not by a
deterministic one: see Dyer, Martin; Frieze, Alan; Kannan, Ravi (January 1991). "A Random
Polynomial-time Algorithm for Approximating the Volume of Convex Bodies". J. ACM. 38 (1):
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Further reading

Bellah, Robert Neelly (1985). Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life
([Link] . Berkeley: University of California Press.
ISBN 978-0-520-25419-0.

Berlinski, David (2001). The Advent of the Algorithm: The 300-Year Journey from an Idea to the
Computer ([Link] . Harvest Books. ISBN 978-0-
15-601391-8.

Chabert, Jean-Luc (1999). A History of Algorithms: From the Pebble to the Microchip. Springer
Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-63369-3.

Thomas H. Cormen; Charles E. Leiserson; Ronald L. Rivest; Clifford Stein (2009). Introduction To
Algorithms (3rd ed.). MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03384-8.

Harel, David; Feldman, Yishai (2004). Algorithmics: The Spirit of Computing. Addison-Wesley.
ISBN 978-0-321-11784-7.

Hertzke, Allen D.; McRorie, Chris (1998). "The Concept of Moral Ecology". In Lawler, Peter
Augustine; McConkey, Dale (eds.). Community and Political Thought Today. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Jon Kleinberg, Éva Tardos(2006): Algorithm Design, Pearson/Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-

32129535-4

Knuth, Donald E. (2000). Selected Papers on Analysis of Algorithms ([Link]

edu/~uno/[Link]) Archived ([Link]
[Link]/~uno/[Link]) July 1, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. Stanford, California: Center
for the Study of Language and Information.

Knuth, Donald E. (2010). Selected Papers on Design of Algorithms ([Link]

du/~uno/[Link]) Archived ([Link]
[Link]/~uno/[Link]) July 16, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. Stanford, California: Center
for the Study of Language and Information.

Wallach, Wendell; Allen, Colin (November 2008). Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from
Wrong. US: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537404-9.

Bleakley, Chris (2020). Poems that Solve Puzzles: The History and Science of Algorithms ([Link]
[Link]/books?id=3pr5DwAAQBAJ) . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-885373-2.
External links

"Algorithm" ([Link] . Encyclopedia of

Mathematics. EMS Press. 2001 [1994].

Weisstein, Eric W. "Algorithm" ([Link] . MathWorld.

Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures ([Link] – National Institute

of Standards and Technology

Algorithm repositories

The Stony Brook Algorithm Repository ([Link] – State University

of New York at Stony Brook

Collected Algorithms of the ACM ([Link] – Associations for Computing

Machinery

The Stanford GraphBase ([Link] Archived (https://

[Link]/web/20151206222112/[Link]
December 6, 2015, at the Wayback Machine – Stanford University