1

Section 2

1885-1947

Indian National Congress (INC)

Q: What was INC? (4)

IO
The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded on 28 December 1885 in
Bombay by Allan Octavian Hume, a British officer, with the help of Indian

D
leaders. Important early leaders included Dadabhai Naoroji, Womesh
Chandra Bonnerjee (the first president), and Gopal Krishna Gokhale. The
INC was formed to give Indians a platform to share their problems, demand
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
rights, and take part in government peacefully. At first, it used moderate
methods like meetings and petitions, but later leaders like Bal Gangadhar
Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi made it a mass movement. The INC played a
major role in the freedom struggle and finally led India to independence in
1947.
S
Q: Why was INC formed? (7)
WS

Firstly, the Indian National Congress (INC) was formed in 1885 to give the
Indian people a common platform to express their problems and opinions.
Before this, Indians had no proper way to speak to the British government.
A.O. Hume, with leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and W.C. Bonnerjee, wanted
educated Indians to discuss issues such as high taxes, poor administration,
and lack of Indian representation. The INC helped Indians learn how to
speak together in a peaceful and organized way.
 2

Secondly, the INC was formed to develop national unity among the people
of India. India was divided by religion, language, and region, and the British
followed a policy of divide and rule. Congress leaders like Gopal Krishna
Gokhale believed that meetings and debates would help Indians understand
that they were one nation. Annual sessions of the INC brought leaders from
all parts of India together and increased political awareness among the
people.
Lastly, the INC was formed to train Indians in politics and to demand

IO
constitutional and political reforms peacefully. The early Congress used
petitions, prayers, and resolutions to ask for reforms such as Indian
participation in government jobs, civil rights, and legislative councils. Over
time, leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and later Mahatma Gandhi turned

D
the INC into a mass movement, which finally led to the freedom struggle
and independence in 1947.
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Partition of Bengal

Q: Why was Bengal partitioned in 1905? (7)

S
Firstly, Bengal was partitioned in 1905 because it was too large and
overcrowded to govern properly. Bengal had a population of more than 80
million people, living in a small area. This made it very difficult for the British
WS

government to maintain law and order, collect taxes, and help people during
floods and cyclones. Therefore, the British said that dividing Bengal into two
provinces would make administration easier.
Secondly, there were economic and social differences between the people
of Bengal. West Bengal had about 54 million people with a Hindu majority,
while East Bengal had about 31 million people with a Muslim majority.
Hindus were more advanced in trade, industry, and politics, while many
 3

Muslims were poor and backward. The British claimed that partition would
help reduce this gap and improve administration for both communities.
Lastly, the British wanted to weaken the Indian National Congress (INC)
and the nationalist movement. In the 1890s, leaders like Bal Gangadhar
Tilak demanded self-rule and were even sent to prison for their speeches.
To divert attention from the freedom movement, Lord Curzon proposed
dividing Bengal in 1903. As a result, Bengal was divided in 1905 into Hindu-
majority West Bengal and Muslim-majority East Bengal, following the British

IO
policy of divide and rule.

Q: Why did Congress (INC) oppose the partition of Bengal? (7)

D WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Firstly, the Indian National Congress (INC) opposed the partition of Bengal
because it saw it as a clear example of the British policy of “divide and rule.”
The British were trying to create hatred between Hindus and Muslims so
that they could keep strong control over India. The INC believed that British
power in India depended on communal differences, and the partition would
S
weaken the national movement.
Secondly, the INC believed that the partition was against Indian
nationalism. Congress leaders felt that all people living in India were Indians
WS

first, no matter what religion they followed. They believed in the idea of
“Mother India” and saw the partition as cutting their motherland into two
parts. Because of this, the INC strongly condemned the partition and
declared 16 October 1905 as a day of mourning all over India.
Lastly, the INC was also unhappy because the partition ended Hindu
dominance in Bengal’s economy and politics. In East Bengal, Muslims
became the majority and formed their own government, which helped
improve their economic condition. Plans to develop the Chittagong port to
 4

compete with Calcutta port worried Congress leaders. As a result, the INC
started a strong protest movement against the British decision.

Q How did British react to the Hindu protest against the partition of

IO
Bengal? (7)

Firstly, the British reacted to the Hindu protest by using strict laws and

D
force. They placed restrictions on newspapers and public meetings to stop
people from spreading anti-British ideas. Between 1906WARIS
andSHAHZAD
1908, many
TU
newspaper editors were arrested and imprisoned. The Press Act of 1908
gave the government more power to control the press. Between 1905 and
1909, thousands of people were jailed, and government grants to schools
and colleges taking part in the Swadeshi Movement were stopped.
Secondly, the British took strong action against nationalist leaders. Bal
S
Gangadhar Tilak was arrested in June 1908 and, after a quick trial, was
sentenced to six years in prison. Many radical leaders either left India or
were deported by the British without proper trials. The British filled the jails
with people they believed were revolutionaries to weaken the protest
WS

movement.
Lastly, the British also used political reforms to reduce Hindu opposition.
They realized that force alone was not enough to control the protest led by
the INC. So, Viceroy Lord Minto worked with John Morley, the Secretary of
State for India, to introduce new reforms. As a result, the Indian Councils
Act of 1909, also called the Morley–Minto Reforms, was introduced to win
the support of moderate Hindus and weaken the protest against British rule.
 5

Q: Why was partition of Bengal reversed? (7)

Firstly, the partition of Bengal was reversed because the Indian National
Congress (INC) led a strong and continuous protest against it. The
movement spread across India and included public meetings, strikes, and
demonstrations. As time passed, the protests became more intense, and
some groups even turned to violent actions. Several British officials were

IO
attacked, and Lord Minto narrowly escaped an assassination attempt. This
situation made it very hard for the British to maintain peace and control in
India.

D
Secondly, the Swadeshi Movement created serious economic pressure on
the British government. Indians boycotted British goods, schools, and
institutions. Many people returned British titles, and WARIS students stopped
SHAHZAD
TU
attending government schools and colleges. British-made cloth was burnt in
public, which badly affected British trade. As a result, the sale of British
products in India fell sharply, causing financial loss to the British.
Lastly, British pride and political image were badly affected. King George V
S
was to visit India in 1911, and the INC threatened to boycott the Coronation
ceremony, which was very important for British authority. This embarrassed
the British government. On the advice of Sir John Jenkins, the British
decided to cancel the partition. Finally, King George V announced the
WS

reversal in Delhi in 1911, and Bengal was reunited, while Bihar, Orissa, and
Assam were separated.

Q: “Bengal was partitioned because of geographical factors”. Do you

agree? Give reasons for your answer. (14)
 6

Bengal was partitioned mainly because it was a very large and crowded
province. It had a population of more than 80 million people living in a
limited area. One governor found it extremely difficult to manage such a big
province. Everyday matters like collecting taxes, controlling crime, and
running administration became very hard. Because of these problems, the
British started thinking that Bengal needed to be divided.
The geographical conditions of Bengal also created serious difficulties. The
province was often affected by floods and cyclones, and giving quick help to

IO
people during such disasters was not easy. Poor transport and
communication made administration slow. The British believed that if Bengal
was divided into smaller units, it would be easier to govern and provide relief
to the people.

D
The British already had experience of dividing large areas for better
administration. Provinces like Khandesh and Narbada WARIS
had SHAHZAD
been divided
TU
earlier. This encouraged the British to apply the same policy to Bengal. In
1903, Viceroy Lord Curzon formally suggested the division of Bengal into
two provinces to improve administration.
Another important reason was the difference in economic and political
S
conditions between Hindus and Muslims. Hindus controlled most of the
trade, industry, and politics, while many Muslims remained poor and
backward. During the period 1900–1911, British relations with Muslims
improved. By creating East Bengal, where Muslims were in the majority, the
WS

British gave them a chance to form their own government and improve their
condition. Muslims also started developing the Chittagong port for trade.
The British were also worried about the growing political activities of the
INC. In the 1890s, leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak demanded self-rule and
gave strong speeches against British rule. Some leaders were arrested, but
the movement continued to grow. The British wanted to divert the attention
of the INC from self-rule, so when the partition was announced in October
1905, Congress leaders focused on opposing the partition instead.
 7

In conclusion, although political and communal reasons played a role, the

main reason for the partition of Bengal was geographical and administrative
difficulty. Dividing a large and overcrowded province into smaller units was a
common practice for better governance. After the partition, Muslims felt
relief and benefited, while the Hindu-dominated INC strongly opposed the
decision and worked to reverse it.

Q: How successful was the 1905 Partition of Bengal? Explain your

IO
answer. (14)

The Partition of Bengal in 1905 had mixed results, so it can be said that it

D
was only partly successful. Bengal was the largest and most crowded
province of British India, with a population of over 80 million people.
Because so many people lived in a small area, it becameWARIS verySHAHZAD
hard for one
TU
government to manage the province properly. Problems like law and order,
tax collection, and help during floods and cyclones increased. From this
point of view, dividing Bengal did help the British in administration.
The partition also created two new provinces with different majorities. West
S
Bengal had about 54 million people, mostly Hindus, while East Bengal had
around 31 million people, mostly Muslims. Before 1905, Hindus controlled
most of the trade, industry, and politics, while Muslims were generally poor
and backward. After the partition, Muslims gained a province where they
WS

were in the majority, which helped improve their social and economic
position.
For the Muslims, the partition was largely successful. They welcomed the
decision and thanked the British. In East Bengal, Muslims formed their own
government, got more jobs, and felt free from Hindu domination. They also
started developing the Chittagong port to compete with Calcutta, which
helped trade and economic growth. Since 1857, Muslim relations with the
British improved for the first time.
 8

However, the partition completely failed in winning the support of the Hindu
community. The Hindu-led INC strongly opposed the decision and called it a
British policy of divide and rule. A large anti-partition movement started
across India. Public meetings, strikes, and protests were held, and daily life
was badly disturbed. With time, the movement became more aggressive,
and even British officials were attacked, including an attempt on Lord Minto.
The INC also launched the Swadeshi Movement, which caused serious
problems for the British. Indians boycotted British goods, returned British

IO
titles, and left government schools and colleges. British-made cloth was
publicly burnt, and sales of British products fell sharply. This created
economic losses and made it difficult for the British to rule peacefully.

D
By 1911, the situation became worse for the British. King George V was due
to visit India, and the INC threatened to boycott the Coronation ceremony,
which was very important for British prestige. On the advice of Sir John
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Jenkins, the British decided to cancel the partition. The King announced the
reversal of the partition in Delhi in 1911, and Bengal was reunited, while
Bihar, Orissa, and Assam were separated.
In conclusion, the Partition of Bengal was not successful overall because it
S
created strong opposition and had to be reversed. However, it was
successful for Muslims, as it improved their political awareness and
strengthened the idea of Muslim nationalism. This experience later helped
Muslims think about having a separate Muslim-majority state, making the
WS

partition important in the long term, even though it failed in practice.

Q: What was the Swadeshi Movement? (4)

The Swadeshi Movement was started by the Indian National Congress

(INC) in 1905 to protest against the partition of Bengal. Its main aim was to
boycott British goods and encourage people to use locally made products.
 9

British-made cotton cloth was burnt in bonfires, and Indians were asked to
wear Indian-made clothes. People also boycotted British schools, colleges,
and courts, and strikes and protest rallies were held, especially in Calcutta.
The movement continued until the partition of Bengal was reversed in 1911.

Q: Who was Lord Curzon? (4)

IO
Lord Curzon was a British statesman and the Viceroy of India from 1899 to
1905. He was an able but strict ruler who believed in strong British control
over India. Lord Curzon is best known for partitioning Bengal in 1905, which

D
he said was done for better administration but which caused strong
opposition from Indians. His policies often ignored Indian opinions, and his
decision led to the Swadeshi Movement and widespread protests
WARIS SHAHZADacross
TU
India.

Q: Who was Bal Gangadhar Tilak?

Bal Gangadhar Tilak was born in 1856 and died in 1920. He was a
S
nationalist leader, scholar, mathematician, and philosopher. He founded the
Home Rule League with Annie Besant in 1914 and edited two newspapers,
Kesari (Marathi) and The Maharatta (English), which criticized British rule.
Tilak opposed the partition of Bengal in 1905 and supported the Swadeshi
WS

Movement. Because of his strong activism, he was imprisoned for six years
by the British. Later, he rejoined the Congress and signed the Lucknow Pact
in 1916.

Simla deputation 1906

Q: What was the Simla Deputation/Delegation? (4)

 10

The Simla Delegation was a meeting on 8th October 1906, when 36 Muslim
leaders led by Sir Aga Khan met Viceroy Lord Minto at Simla. They
presented demands for separate electorates for Muslims, recognition of
their political importance, and a larger share of seats in councils than their
population size. Lord Minto promised to support these demands with the
British government. This success led directly to the formation of the Muslim
League (ML) in December 1906.
Q: Who was Sir Agha Khan? (4)

IO
Sir Aga Khan was a prominent Muslim leader in India who led the Simla
Delegation in 1906. He worked to protect Muslim political rights and asked
the British for separate electorates and a greater share in government and

D
councils. His leadership helped convince the British to recognize Muslims as
an important community, and his efforts were a key reason for the formation
of the Muslim League later that year. WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Q: Why was the Simla Delegation formed in 1906? (7)

Firstly, the Simla Delegation of 1906 was formed because Muslim leaders
S
were worried about their political rights under the new reforms. The Indian
Councils Act of 1892 had already given Indians limited powers in councils,
and in 1906, Lord Morley, the Secretary of State for India, hinted at more
political reforms, including the idea of a Representative Government.
WS

Muslims feared that in such a system, their voice and interests might be
ignored, so they organized the delegation to meet Viceroy Lord Minto and
demand proper representation and protection.
Secondly, the delegation was also a response to the strong Hindu reaction
against the Partition of Bengal. Hindus opposed the partition through
protests, strikes, and the Swadeshi Movement, which created fear among
Muslims that the British might reverse the partition. To protect the Muslim-
 11

majority province of East Bengal and ensure that Muslims could have their
share of political power, Muslim leaders decided to send a delegation to
Simla to request support from the British government.
Lastly, the anti-Muslim activities of the Indian National Congress
encouraged Muslims to act quickly. Over time, the Congress had become
Hindu-dominated and supported Hindus in cultural and political issues, such
as the Urdu-Hindi controversy and opposition to the partition. During the
1905–1906 sessions in Banaras and Calcutta, the Congress passed

IO
resolutions supporting Swadeshi and boycott movements, which threatened
Muslim interests. The Simla Delegation was therefore formed to secure
Muslim rights and prevent them from being sidelined in Indian politics.

D
Q: Why was the Simla Delegation Important? (7) WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Firstly, the Simla Delegation was important because it won the sympathy of
the British for Muslims. The delegation successfully persuaded the British to
recognize Muslims as an important community in India. This was the result
of earlier efforts by leaders like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, who had worked to
improve relations with the British. Because of this, the British were ready to
S
grant Muslims concessions, such as separate electorates in councils.
Secondly, the delegation showed the growing political awareness among
Muslims. They realized that Hindus were already making progress in
WS

education, politics, and administration, and Muslims needed to protect their

rights and interests. The Simla Delegation demonstrated that Muslims were
serious about securing a better position in British India, which also meant
that rivalry between Hindus and Muslims was becoming more visible in
politics and governance.
Lastly, the success of the Simla Delegation encouraged Muslims to develop
their own sense of nationalism. By demanding separate electorates, more
seats in legislative councils, and better access to government jobs, Muslims
 12

began to establish themselves as a distinct and important community. This

growing political consciousness led directly to the formation of the Muslim
League on 30th December 1906, giving Muslims their own platform to
protect and promote their interests in India.

Formation of Muslim League 1906

IO
Q: Describe the aims of the formation of Muslim League. (4)

The Muslim League was formed in December 1906 with the aim of

D
protecting the political and social rights of Muslims in India. It wanted to
ensure separate electorates for Muslims so they couldWARIS have a voice in
SHAHZAD
TU
government. The League also aimed to secure more seats in legislative
councils and government jobs for Muslims. In addition, it encouraged
Muslims to remain loyal to the British government while safeguarding their
interests. Overall, its goal was to represent Muslims as a distinct and
important community in British India.
S
Q: Why was the Muslim League (ML) founded in 1906? (7)
WS

Firstly, the Muslim League (ML) was founded because Muslims felt the
need for a political party of their own. Although the Indian National Congress
(INC) claimed to represent all communities, it mostly worked for Hindu
interests. The partition of Bengal in 1905 and the INC’s support for the
Swadeshi Movement, protests, and strikes made Muslims realize that the
Congress did not consider their progress. Muslims wanted a party that could
protect their rights and counter anti-Muslim activities.
 13

Secondly, the political situation in Britain also encouraged Muslims to form

their own party. In February 1906, the Liberal Party won the elections in
England and showed sympathy toward Indians, especially Muslims. It
announced plans to expand legislative councils to include more Indian
representatives. Muslims realized that to take part in these councils and
safeguard their interests, they needed an organized political party to contest
elections and represent them properly.
Lastly, the success of the Simla Delegation inspired Muslims to form the

IO
Muslim League. In October 1906, 36 Muslim leaders, led by Sir Aga Khan,
met Viceroy Lord Minto at Simla and demanded separate electorates and a
greater share of seats in the councils. Lord Minto’s positive response
showed that organized efforts could succeed. This convinced Muslims that

D
forming a political party was essential, and the Muslim League was officially
created in December 1906 to represent and protect Muslim interests.
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Q: “The Muslim League was established in 1906 because of the Hindus
had their own political party.” Do you agree? Give reasons for your
answer. (14)
S
The Muslim League was established on 30th December 1906, mainly
because Muslims felt the need for their own political party. The Indian
National Congress (INC) was dominated by Hindus, and its policies often
WS

worked against Muslim interests. For example, the INC wanted Hindi to
replace Urdu in several provinces and opposed the partition of Bengal in
1905, which shocked Muslims. The way the INC launched the Swadeshi
Movement with country-wide protests and strikes made Muslims realize that
Hindus did not want Muslims to make political or economic progress. This
created a strong feeling that Muslims needed their own party to protect their
rights.
 14

Another reason for the creation of the Muslim League was the success of
the Simla Delegation in October 1906. A group of 36 Muslim leaders, led by
Sir Aga Khan, met Viceroy Lord Minto and demanded separate electorates,
more seats in legislative councils, and better access to government jobs.
Lord Minto’s positive response showed Muslims that organized efforts could
succeed, and they needed a formal political party to achieve their goals.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the activities of the Arya Samaj, a
Hindu extremist group, had increased. This group aimed to purify India from

IO
non-Hindus, especially Muslims. There were reports of forced conversions
and pressure on Muslim communities, which made them feel insecure about
their cultural and religious identity. Muslims realized that a political party
could help protect their religion, culture, and rights.

D
The victory of the Liberal Party in England in February 1906 also
encouraged Muslims to form their own party. The Liberal Party
WARIS was more
SHAHZAD
TU
sympathetic toward Indians, especially Muslims, and it promised to expand
legislative councils to include more Indian representatives. Muslims realized
that to take part in these councils and protect their interests, they needed a
platform in the form of a political party.
S
Prominent Muslim leaders gathered at the residence of Nawab Salimullah
Khan in Dhaka during the 20th session of the Muhammadan Educational
Conference. They decided to turn the conference into a political party called
the All India Muslim Confederacy, which was soon renamed the All India
WS

Muslim League. The main aim of the party was to protect the political and
socio-economic interests of Muslims while remaining loyal to the British
government.
In conclusion, the Muslim League was founded mainly because the Hindus
had their own political party, and Muslims needed a separate platform to
safeguard their interests. The party helped Muslims protect their political,
cultural, and social rights, and over time it became the founding party of the
Pakistan Movement, which eventually led to the creation of Pakistan.
 15

IO
Indian Councils Act 1909/The Morley-Minto Reforms 1909
Q: What was the Indian Councils Act 1909/The Morley-Minto Reforms?
(4)

D
The Indian Councils Act of 1909, also called the Morley-Minto
WARIS Reforms,
SHAHZAD was
TU
introduced by Viceroy Lord Minto and John Morley, the Secretary of State
for India. The reforms enlarged all councils, adding 60 members to the
Imperial Council and 60 to the Central Executive Council. Provincial
councils were also increased to 50 members in larger provinces and 30 in
smaller provinces. The councils could only advise the government and could
S
not make or change laws. The reforms also gave Muslims separate
electorates, which led the INC to oppose them.
WS

Q: Why were the Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 opposed by the INC?(7)

Firstly, the Indian National Congress (INC) was disappointed by the Morley-
Minto Reforms because the councils were given only nominal powers. The
central and provincial legislative councils could not make, change, or cancel
any laws. Members were allowed only to ask questions, give opinions, or
advise the government respectfully, which did not satisfy the INC’s demand
for self-rule in India. The reforms fell short of Congress’s expectations for
real political power.
 16

Secondly, the INC also wanted a much larger increase in the size of
councils so that more Indians could enter politics and influence decisions.
The British, however, increased the councils only according to their own
policies. They were not ready to give India a parliament or democratic
system. John Morley, the Secretary of State for India, clearly stated, “I for
one would have nothing to do with it,” showing that the British had no
intention of introducing democracy in India.
Lastly, the INC was strongly unhappy with the granting of separate

IO
electorates to Muslims. Muslims were given a higher representation in the
councils than their population size justified. Congress called this
undemocratic because it threatened Hindu dominance in politics. This
special concession to Muslims created resentment in the INC and increased

D
the divide between Hindus and Muslims in Indian political life.
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Q: Why were Morley Minto reforms important? (7)

Firstly, the Morley-Minto Reforms were important because they gave

Indians a greater role in government affairs. The central and provincial
S
councils were expanded, which allowed more Indians to participate in
political discussions and express their opinions. Although the councils could
not make or change laws, this was a first step toward involving Indians in
governance.
WS

Secondly, the reforms showed the British intention to train Indians in

politics. Council members could ask questions and give advice to the
government, helping them understand administration. However, the real
powers remained with the British, as members could not make any law. This
gradual training prepared Indians for more political responsibilities in the
future and allowed the British to control the pace of political participation.
 17

Lastly, the introduction of separate Muslim electorates was a major

breakthrough in British-Muslim relations. It gave Muslims a greater share of
seats in councils and helped them protect their social and political interests,
strengthening their sense of national identity. However, the INC opposed
this measure, claiming it gave Muslims undue advantage over Hindus and
threatened Hindu political dominance.

IO
India during World War 1

Q: What was the Silk Letter Movement/Conspiracy? [4]

D
The Silk Letter Movement was a revolutionary plan WARIS by the Deobandi
SHAHZAD
TU
Muslims in India between 1913 and 1920 to free India from British rule with
help from Germany, Ottoman Turkey, and Afghanistan. Leaders Maulana
Ubaid Ullah Sindhi and Maulana Mahmud Ul Hassan wrote secret letters on
silk cloth, which gave the movement its name. They tried to persuade the
Afghan Amir to start an uprising in the tribal areas of India. However, the
S
British discovered the letters and thwarted the plan.

Q: Why were there mixed views in India about supporting the British in
WS

the WW1? (7)

Firstly, some Indians supported the British during World War I (1914–1918)
because they were idealists. They believed that if the British won the war,
they would reward Indian loyalty by introducing reforms and giving Indians a
greater role in governing the country. They agreed to support the British on
the idea that the war was being fought for self-determination of nations, and
 18

the British themselves admitted that the help of Indians was essential for
winning the war.
Secondly, many Indians, however, did not support the British and were
more realistic or opportunistic. They saw Britain’s weakness during the war
as an opportunity for India to demand self-government. This group believed
that the British needed Indian help, so it was the right time to press for
political rights. They did not trust British promises and wanted to take
advantage of the situation to weaken British control.

IO
Lastly, this anti-British group became active in revolutionary activities both
inside and outside India. This included the Mutiny Party led by Lala
Hardayal in the US in 1913, the rise of nationalists in Punjab in 1915, and

D
the Silk Letter Conspiracy. These mixed views showed that while some
Indians were loyal to the British hoping for reforms, others wanted to use the
war as a chance to challenge British rule. WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
The Lucknow Pact 1916
S
Q: What was the Lucknow Pact? (4)

The Lucknow Pact was an agreement signed in December 1916 between

WS

the Muslim League, led by Jinnah, and the Congress, led by Mahajan.
Under the pact, Congress accepted separate Muslim electorates and one-
third of Muslim seats in the Central Legislative Assembly. Both parties
demanded more seats in councils, provincial autonomy, and protection of
minorities. It was the first major example of Hindu-Muslim unity and showed
that both communities could work together for a Home Rule movement in
India.
Q: Why was the Lucknow Pact signed in 1916? (7)
 19

Firstly, the INC and the Muslim League (ML) decided to work together to
strengthen their demands for self-rule. Jinnah, who had joined the ML in
1913 while still being a member of the INC, persuaded the League to shift
from a policy of loyalty to the British and start demanding Swaraj. This
brought the ML closer to the INC, which was already calling for
constitutional reforms and greater Indian participation in government. Both
parties realized that jointly presenting their demands would be more
effective.

IO
Secondly, the cooperation between the two parties was encouraged by the
British failure to grant more rights before 1914 and their repressive policies
during World War I. The British were planning new reforms, and this
information was leaked to both parties. To discuss key issues and improve

D
understanding, the INC and ML set up joint councils. This helped generate
goodwill and friendship and prepared them to work together in future
political campaigns. WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Lastly, both the INC and ML also aimed to reduce mutual friction and
accommodate each other’s concerns. Muhammad Ali Jinnah played a key
role in promoting Hindu-Muslim unity and was called the “ambassador of
Hindu-Muslim unity” by Gokhale. At the joint session in Lucknow, the INC
S
accepted separate electorates for Muslims and one-third Muslim seats in
the central government. The parties also prepared a common set of
demands for India, showing that cooperation could strengthen the fight for
self-rule.
WS

Q: Why was the Lucknow Pact important? (7)

Firstly, the Lucknow Pact (LP) was important because it was the first and
last time that the INC and Muslim League made a joint demand for political
reforms in India. This showed that both parties could cooperate and present
 20

a united front to the British government, giving strength to Indian demands

for greater participation in governance.
Secondly, the acceptance of separate electorates by the INC had a
significant impact. It implied that in any future self-rule or constitutional
setup, some degree of division between Hindus and Muslims would have to
be recognized. While it helped in accommodating Muslim interests at that
time, it also highlighted communal differences, which later contributed to
political tensions in India.

IO
Lastly, the Lucknow Pact represented the high point of Hindu-Muslim unity,
mainly due to the efforts of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Although this unity was
short-lived and eventually led to communalism, the pact promoted the belief

D
that some form of self-rule was possible in India. It inspired the Home Rule
Leagues of 1917, one led by Tilak and the other by Annie Besant, and
helped generate hope among Indians for greater political rights and reforms.
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
The Mont-Ford Reforms (Govt of India Act, 1919)
S
Q: What were the Mont-Ford reforms/The Government of India Act
1919?(4)
The Mont-Ford Reforms or the Government of India Act 1919 was
WS

introduced by John Montague and Lord Chelmsford. It created a bicameral

legislature at the Centre with an Upper House (Council of States) and a
Lower House (Legislative Assembly), where 103 out of 145 members were
elected. At the provincial level, Diarchy was introduced, giving ministers
control over some subjects previously reserved for the Governor. The
reforms also extended separate electorates to Sikhs and increased the
number of voters to 5.5 million, but both the INC and Muslim League
opposed these measures.
 21

Q: What was the Rowlatt Act? (4)

The Rowlatt Act was passed by the British in 1919 after a committee led by
Justice Rowlatt reported on possible unrest following the Mont-Ford
reforms. The Act gave the police and local authorities the power to arrest
people without a warrant, detain them without bail, and even control where
they could live. In protest, Gandhi launched a nationwide strike, and Jinnah

IO
resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council. The Act led to widespread
anger, culminating in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar, April 1919,
where thousands of unarmed protesters were fired upon.
Q: Who was General Dyer? (4)

D
General Dyer was a British commander in charge of the police in Amritsar.
On 13th April 1919, he ordered his troops to fire on WARIS a large crowd of
SHAHZAD
TU
peaceful Indians gathered at Jallianwala Bagh, who were protesting the
Rowlatt Act. Hundreds were killed and many more injured in the massacre.
Dyer was later tried for his actions and removed from his post for his cruelty.
S
Q: Describe the Amritsar Massacre? (4)
The Amritsar Massacre took place on 13th April 1919 at Jallianwala Bagh
during protests against the Rowlatt Act. After unrest in Amritsar and the
WS

killing of five Europeans, a crowd of 20,000 peaceful protesters gathered in

the park. General Dyer, who had banned public meetings, sealed the only
exit and ordered his troops to fire without warning. Over 1,600 rounds were
fired, killing about 400 people and wounding around 1,200. Dyer was later
tried by the Hunter Committee and removed from service, but faced no
further punishment.
 22

Q: What was the Hunter Committee or Hunter Commission? (4)

The Hunter Committee or Hunter Commission was set up by the British
government in 1919 to investigate the Amritsar Massacre at Jallianwala
Bagh. Its purpose was to examine the actions of General Dyer and the
circumstances that led to the killing of hundreds of unarmed protesters. The
committee collected evidence, eyewitness accounts, and reports to
understand the causes of the tragedy. As a result, Dyer was found guilty of
excessive use of force and removed from his post, although he did not face

IO
any further punishment.

Q: Why were Indians not given self-rule by 1919? (7)

D
Firstly, after World War I ended in 1918, the British were focused on
rebuilding Britain, which had suffered huge losses during the war. India
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
became a secondary issue for them, and they were also aware that other
colonies were demanding independence, thinking Britain was weakened.
Leaving India abruptly was not easy, so the Indian demand for self-rule was
rejected at this time.
S
Secondly, India was still extremely valuable to the British as the “Jewel in
the Crown”. Its resources, trade routes, and strategic location were
important for Britain’s economy, navy, and global trade. The British relied on
Indians, especially Muslims and Sikhs, for the army, as well as thousands of
WS

British employees, missionaries, and businessmen. Giving India self-rule

without careful planning could have turned these assets into liabilities,
threatening British interests in the region.
Lastly, the British were concerned about their prestige and image. They felt
that giving India self-rule after World War I might show weakness to the rest
of the world. They also thought that Indians were not yet politically mature or
trained to run the government independently. For these reasons, the British
 23

continued their control over India and introduced measures like the Montford
Reforms of 1919 instead of granting full self-rule.
Q: Why were Montford reforms introduced in 1919?
Firstly, the Montford Reforms were introduced because of the mounting
pressure from Indians demanding self-rule. Over the years, Indians had
grown politically aware and were insisting on a greater role in governing
their country, which the British could no longer ignore.

IO
Secondly, the Lucknow Pact between the INC and Muslim League in 1916
showed that the two major communities in India could unite for common
demands. This made it clear to the British that Indians were serious about
constitutional reforms and greater participation in councils, increasing the

D
urgency to introduce new measures.
Lastly, international developments also influenced theWARIS British decision.
SHAHZAD
TU
Woodrow Wilson, the President of the United States and a wartime ally of
Britain, had insisted on granting the right of self-determination to nations
after World War I. Britain faced pressure to show goodwill and respond to
Indian demands, which contributed to the introduction of the Montford
Reforms in 1919.
S
Q: Why was the Government of India Act 1919 opposed? (7)
Firstly, the Montford Reforms failed because they gave Indians only limited
WS

powers in government. While the councils were expanded and some

subjects were handed to Indian ministers under diarchy, the real power
remained with the British. Indians could advise or discuss, but they could
not make or change laws, which went against the growing demand for self-
rule.
Secondly, the reforms were opposed because they continued separate
electorates and divisions among communities. Muslims, Sikhs, and other
minorities were given special representation, which the INC saw as
 24

undemocratic and a threat to Hindu political dominance. This reinforced

communal divisions instead of creating unity among Indians, making the
reforms unpopular with nationalists.
Lastly, the reforms failed to satisfy Indian aspirations because the country
had grown politically aware after World War I. Indians had expected
substantial constitutional change in return for their support during the war,
but the reforms fell short of real self-governance. The limited powers and
continued British control disappointed both the INC and the Muslim League,

IO
leading to widespread opposition and protests across India.

D
Q: “The Montague-Chelmsford reforms were more important than any
other political developments between 1909 and 1919.’ WARIS
Do you agree or
SHAHZAD
TU
disagree? Give reasons for your answer. (14)

The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms were introduced in 1919 by John

Montague and Lord Chelmsford and became the most significant political
S
development in India between 1909 and 1919. These reforms enlarged the
legislative councils at both the central and provincial levels, increased the
number of voters to 5.5 million, and extended the right of separate
electorates to Sikhs. At the Centre, a bicameral legislature was created,
WS

consisting of the Council of State (Upper House) and the Legislative

Assembly (Lower House). This setup included elected members, Muslims,
and even a Council of Princes to discuss important matters.
At the provincial level, the reforms introduced Diarchy, which divided
subjects between the Governor (reserved subjects) and the ministers
(transferred subjects). This was a major step forward because it allowed
Indians to handle some areas of administration while the British still retained
control over key subjects. The expansion of councils, the increase in voters,
 25

and the protection of minorities were welcomed by many as a progressive

step toward self-rule.
Despite these advances, the real power remained with the British. The
Viceroy at the Centre could pass any law he wanted, and provincial
Governors could veto laws they disliked. The Council of Princes, though
created for discussion, had no real authority and became mostly a talking
shop. The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms therefore gave the illusion of
power but not complete control to Indians.

IO
At the same time, other political developments were also taking place. The
Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 had expanded councils and given Muslims
separate electorates, but these councils had little real power. The INC

D
opposed these reforms, especially the separate electorates for Muslims,
while the Muslim League welcomed them as recognition of their political
importance. This set the stage for more organized political activity and
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
demands for greater rights.
The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was another important event during this period.
Through the efforts of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the INC and the Muslim
League held a joint session and agreed on a common charter of demands,
S
including provincial autonomy, enlargement of councils, and separate
electorates for Muslims. The pact was a high point of Hindu-Muslim unity
and reflected a growing desire for self-rule, supported by the Home Rule
Leagues of Tilak and Annie Besant.
WS

In conclusion, while developments like the Morley-Minto Reforms and the

Lucknow Pact were important for building political awareness and Hindu-
Muslim cooperation, the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms were the most
significant between 1909 and 1919. They introduced Diarchy, bicameral
legislature, increased Indian participation, and reflected the British
willingness to gradually grant rights, making them a key milestone in India’s
journey toward self-government.
 26

Q: How successful were political developments in seeking a solution

to the problems in the sub-continent between 1909 and 1919? Explain
your answer. (14)

The Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 were the first major political step during
this period. Drafted by Lord Minto and John Morley, these reforms enlarged
the central and provincial councils and added more Indian members.

IO
Muslims were given the right of separate electorates, which encouraged the
growth of Muslim nationalism. However, the reforms were opposed by the
INC, as the councils still had no power to make, change, or annul laws, and
the party wanted greater Indian participation and control. While the reforms

D
allowed more Indians to express their opinions, they failed to satisfy the
demand for real self-rule.
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was another important political development. It
brought together the INC and Muslim League for the first time, with Jinnah
representing the ML and Ambika Charan Mahajan leading the INC. Both
parties agreed on provincial autonomy, enlarged councils, and separate
Muslim electorates, including one-third representation for Muslims at the
S
Centre. This was a high point of Hindu-Muslim unity and reflected the
growing demand for self-rule. However, it also highlighted the communal
divide, as separate electorates reinforced the distinct identity of Muslims in
India.
WS

The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (Government of India Act 1919) were

introduced to reward Indian contribution during World War I. They created a
bicameral legislature at the Centre with the Council of States and the
Legislative Assembly, and introduced Diarchy at the provincial level.
Separate electorates were also extended to Sikhs, and the number of voters
increased. While these reforms were claimed to be a step toward self-rule,
both the INC and Muslim League opposed them, as they expected more
real power and political rights.
 27

Alongside these reforms, the British implemented the Rowlatt Act, which
allowed the police to arrest anyone without a warrant and detain them
indefinitely. This created widespread anger and protests across India.
Leaders like Gandhi and Jinnah strongly criticized the Act. The situation
escalated to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, where hundreds of unarmed
protesters were killed. This showed that the British were still unwilling to
grant real political freedom and maintained strict control over India.
Despite the political developments, the overall impact was limited. The

IO
reforms and the Lucknow Pact did create some awareness and political
participation, and the idea of self-rule gained support. Hindu-Muslim
cooperation was demonstrated briefly, and minority rights were partially
recognized. However, the power remained with the British, and Indians were

D
still frustrated by the lack of real authority in councils and administration.
In conclusion, the political developments between 1909 and
WARIS 1919 were
SHAHZAD
TU
partly successful in raising political awareness and promoting discussions
on self-rule. But they failed to solve India’s major problems, as the British
retained real power, communal divisions grew, and Indian expectations
were not met. The period ended with dissatisfaction, protests, and violence,
showing that these reforms were more symbolic than effective in granting
S
India true self-government.

Q: whatever was offered to them by the British. The political deadlock

WS

persisted despite efforts by both the British and the Indians.

Which of the following had the most important effect on the Pakistan
Movement 1909 and 1919? [10/14]
Ans.
(i) The Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909
(ii) The Reversal of Partition of Bengal, 1911
 28

(iii) The Lucknow Pact, 1916

The Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 were an important step in Indian politics.
Drafted by Lord Minto and John Morley, they enlarged the central and
provincial legislative councils and increased the number of Indians in
government. Importantly, the reforms gave Muslims separate electorates,
allowing them to participate in politics and express their opinions. This was
a major step toward the growth of Muslim nationalism. However, the INC
opposed these reforms, viewing them as undemocratic, which alerted

IO
Muslims that their interests could be ignored in a Hindu-dominated political
system.
The reversal of the partition of Bengal in 1911 had an even greater impact

D
on Muslims. The Hindu-dominated INC organized protests, strikes, and
boycotts of British goods and institutions, including the Swadeshi
movement. This widespread anti-partition campaign eventually forced the
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
British to reverse the division. The reversal shocked the Muslims, who felt
betrayed by both the British and the INC. They realized that their political
and economic interests could be ignored or undermined in a Hindu-majority
India, which created a sense of urgency for Muslims to have their own
political organization and safeguards.
S
The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was another key development. It brought the
INC and the Muslim League together, with Jinnah representing the ML and
Ambika Charan Mahajan leading the INC. The pact agreed on provincial
WS

autonomy, enlarged councils, and separate Muslim electorates, giving

Muslims one-third representation in the central government. This reflected a
high point of Hindu-Muslim unity and highlighted the demand for self-rule in
India. However, it also emphasized the communal divide, as separate
electorates reinforced the distinct identity of Muslims.
Among these developments, the reversal of the partition of Bengal had the
most important effect on the Pakistan Movement. It created political
awareness among Muslims, showing them that their rights and opportunities
 29

could be denied in a Hindu-majority political system. The failure of the

British and the INC to safeguard Muslim interests made it clear that Muslims
needed a separate political voice to protect their community.
The Morley-Minto reforms contributed by formally recognizing Muslims as a
distinct political community, giving them separate electorates and
encouraging political participation. The Lucknow Pact further strengthened
the idea of Muslim representation and cooperation with the INC. Both were
important in shaping political awareness but did not create the same sense

IO
of urgency among Muslims as the Bengal partition reversal, which directly
showed their vulnerability.
In conclusion, while the Morley-Minto reforms and the Lucknow Pact were

D
significant, it was the reversal of Bengal’s partition in 1911 that had the
strongest influence on the Pakistan Movement. It made Muslims realize that
in a Hindu-dominated India, they could be politically WARISand SHAHZAD
economically
TU
marginalized, and it encouraged them to seek self-rule and protection
through the Muslim League, laying the foundation for the Pakistan
Movement.
Q: Was the introduction of the Rowlatt Act was the sole cause of
S
violence in India during 1919 and 1920? Explain your answer. [14]

The Rowlatt Act of 1919 was one of the main causes of unrest in India. The
British had set up a committee under Justice Rowlatt in 1917 to investigate
WS

revolutionary activities during World War I. The committee recommended

strict laws similar to the Defence of India Act, 1915, which allowed the police
to arrest anyone without a warrant, detain them indefinitely, and hold trials
without jury. These measures angered Indians because they went against
basic principles of justice. Leaders like Gandhi and Jinnah protested
strongly; Gandhi launched a nationwide strike, and Jinnah resigned from the
Imperial Legislative Council. The act was passed despite protests, earning
the nickname “Black Bills”.
 30

The enforcement of the Rowlatt Act created widespread public anger. The
British banned public meetings and arrested nationalist leaders like Dr.
Satyapal and Dr. Saif-ud-Din Kitchlew. In Punjab, tensions grew rapidly, and
by April 1919, riots broke out in Amritsar. A large crowd of about 20,000
people gathered at Jallianwala Bagh, unaware that General Dyer had
banned public assemblies. Dyer ordered his troops to open fire without
warning, killing around 400 people and wounding more than 1,200, including
men, women, and children. This tragic event, the Amritsar Massacre,

IO
showed the extreme consequences of the Rowlatt Act and greatly
intensified anger across India.
The violence, however, was not caused solely by the Rowlatt Act. The
Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (Government of India Act 1919) also

D
disappointed Indians. While the reforms expanded legislative councils,
introduced a bicameral system at the Centre, and transferred some
WARIS SHAHZAD
provincial powers to ministers under Diarchy, real authority remained with
TU
the Viceroy and provincial governors. Indians had expected more power
after their sacrifices in World War I, but the reforms fell short. The
introduction of separate electorates for minorities further increased
communal tensions, and extremist groups left the Congress, adding to
unrest.
S
Both the Rowlatt Act and the limited reforms highlighted the gap between
Indian expectations and British intentions. While Indians hoped for political
concessions and self-rule after World War I, the British retained full control
WS

and applied harsh laws to suppress dissent. The Rowlatt Act directly
violated basic freedoms, while the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms failed to
satisfy demands for real power. Together, these measures created a volatile
political environment that encouraged protests, strikes, and violent incidents
across India.
The situation in Punjab, especially the Amritsar Massacre, became a
symbol of British oppression. The Rowlatt Act was central to this tragedy
because it allowed extreme measures against civilians, undermining faith in
 31

British justice. The massacre and the suppression of protests made Indians
realize that constitutional reforms alone could not protect their rights and
safety under British rule. This fueled further nationalist and revolutionary
activities during 1919 and 1920.
In conclusion, while there were multiple factors contributing to unrest, the
Rowlatt Act was the most important cause of violence in India during
1919–1920. It directly negated fundamental rights, led to widespread anger,
and resulted in the Amritsar Massacre, making it the primary trigger for

IO
protests and violence across the subcontinent.

D WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Khilafat Movement 1919-1924
S
Q: What was the All India Khilafat Conference? (4)
WS

The All India Khilafat Conference was held in Delhi in November 1919. It
was led by the Ali Brothers, Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar and Maulana
Shaukat Ali. The aim of the conference was to ask the British to respect the
Turkish Empire and the Khalifa. Leaders like Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and
Gandhi also attended. The conference decided to send a group to Britain to
show that Indian Muslims strongly supported the Khilafat.

Q: What was the Khilafat Movement? (4)

 32

The Khilafat Movement was started in 1919 by Muslim religious leaders of

India to protect the Khilafat and Turkey. The main leaders were Maulana
Muhammad Ali Johar, Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.
Gandhi supported the movement and joined it with his Non-Cooperation
Movement. A delegation met British Prime Minister Lloyd George, and many
Muslims joined the Hijrat Movement by migrating to Afghanistan. The
movement ended in 1924 when Kemal Ataturk abolished the Khilafat.

IO
Q: What was the Moplah uprising? (4)
The Moplah Uprising was a violent revolt by the Moplahs, who were Muslim
peasants in South India, during the Khilafat Movement. They were angry

D
with the British and Hindu landlords. In August 1921, about 10,000 Moplahs
at Tirur attacked a police station, took weapons, andWARIS damaged
SHAHZAD
Hindu
TU
property and temples. The British army crushed the uprising and killed over
4,000 Moplahs, while British losses were around 100 only.

Q: What was the Hijrat Movement? (4)

S
The Hijrat Movement was started in August 1920 by Muslim leaders of the
Khilafat Movement, such as Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar and Maulana
Shaukat Ali. They told Muslims to leave India (Dar-ul-Harb) and migrate to
WS

Afghanistan (Dar-ul-Islam). About 18,000–20,000 Muslims sold their homes

and left their jobs to migrate. The Afghan government refused to accept
them, many suffered hunger and illness, and many died when returning to
India, which showed the failure of the movement.
Q: Who was Sultan Muhammad/Mehmet VI? (4)
Sultan Mehmet VI was the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, ruling from
1918 to 1922. During World War One, he supported Germany against
 33

Britain, which caused Turkey to lose important areas like Baghdad,

Jerusalem, and Istanbul. In 1920, the Treaty of Sèvres ended Ottoman
power. He lost support and was removed by the Turkish Grand National
Assembly led by Kemal Atatürk, and he was sent into exile to Italy. He died
in 1926 and was buried in Damascus.

Q: What was the Chauri-Chaura incident? [4]

IO
The Chauri-Chaura incident took place in February 1922 in Chauri-Chaura
village, Gorakhpur district (Uttar Pradesh). During the Non-Cooperation and
Khilafat Movement, an angry crowd of supporters of Gandhi attacked a
police station. The police fired at the crowd, and in return the mob set fire to

D
the police station, killing 22 policemen. Because the incident was violent,
Gandhi withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement, which WARIS greatly weakened
SHAHZAD
TU
the Khilafat Movement.

Q: What was Non-Cooperation Movement? (4)

S
The Non-Cooperation Movement was started by Gandhi in 1920. Later,
Muslim leaders joined it when it was linked with the Khilafat Movement. The
third Khilafat Conference was held in July 1921 in Delhi. The leaders asked
WS

people to boycott British schools, leave government jobs, and not help the
British in any way. After this, many Khilafat leaders were arrested, and
Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar was sent to jail for two years, which made
him very popular among Muslims.

Q: Why was the Khilafat Movement founded? (7)

 34

Firstly, the Khilafat Movement was founded because Indian Muslims wanted
to protect the Khilafat and Turkey after World War One. Turkey had
supported Germany in the war, and Muslims feared that Britain and France
would punish Turkey if Germany lost. The British promised during the war
that they would not harm the Khilafat, and many Muslim soldiers fought for
Britain because of this promise. However, after the war, the Treaty of
Sèvres (1920) showed that the Ottoman Empire would be divided, which
made Muslims feel betrayed.

IO
Secondly, Muslims had strong religious feelings for Turkey because the
Sultan of Turkey was also the Khalifa, the spiritual leader of all Muslims. He
was the protector of the holy places of Islam in Arabia. Any punishment of
Turkey was seen as an insult to Islam. To defend the honour of the Khalifa,

D
Muslim leaders like Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar and Maulana Shaukat Ali
organised the All-India Khilafat Conference in 1919 to start a movement to
protect the Khilafat. WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Lastly, the Khilafat Movement was also founded because Muslims did not
trust British policies. In Kanpur, the British governor Sir James Meston
ordered part of a mosque to be demolished, while a Hindu temple was not
touched, which angered Muslims. Leaders like Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
S
criticised Muslims who supported the British. Also, British actions in
Afghanistan and Persia (Iran) showed that they ignored Muslim feelings,
which increased Muslim fears and made the Khilafat Movement necessary.
WS

Q: Why did the Khilafat Movement fail by 1924? (7)

Firstly, the Khilafat Movement failed because it was poorly organised and
depended too much on Gandhi’s support. Gandhi joined the movement on
the condition of non-violence (Ahimsa). However, in February 1922, a
violent incident took place at Chauri-Chaura in Gorakhpur district, where an
angry mob burned a police station and killed 22 policemen. Because of this
violence, Gandhi withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement, which caused
the Khilafat Movement to lose Hindu support and become weak. This
 35

showed that the Khilafat leaders made a political mistake by trusting Gandhi
too much.
Secondly, the Hijrat Movement of 1920 badly damaged the Khilafat
Movement. Muslim leaders declared India as Dar-ul-Harb and asked
Muslims to migrate to Afghanistan (Dar-ul-Islam). About 18,000 Muslims
sold their houses and left their jobs, hoping for a better future. However, the
Afghan government refused to accept them, many suffered from hunger and
illness, and many died while returning to India. Those who returned faced

IO
poverty and unemployment, which made them lose trust in the Khilafat
leaders and reduced support for the movement.
Lastly, the most important reason for the failure was the action of Kemal

D
Atatürk (Mustafa Kemal Pasha) in Turkey. In 1922, he ended the rule of
Sultan Mehmet VI and made Turkey a republic. After signing the Treaty of
Lausanne, Atatürk became very popular in Turkey. In 1924, he abolished
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
the Khilafat completely and sent the Khalifa into exile. This showed that
Turkey itself no longer wanted the Khilafat, which ended all hopes of Indian
Muslims and finally caused the complete failure of the Khilafat Movement.
S
Q: The Khilafat Movement (KM) was founded mainly due to the deep
seated fears among the Muslims about the anti- Muslim British
WS

policies. Explain why you might agree and disagree? (14)

The Khilafat Movement was founded mainly because Indian Muslims were
afraid of British policies that seemed anti-Muslim. The Muslims had been
watching the British actions in India and other countries and were
suspicious of their intentions. One clear example was in Kanpur, where the
British governor Sir James Meston ordered the demolition of part of a
mosque to widen a road, but a Hindu temple on the same road was left
untouched. Muslims had asked the governor not to touch the mosque, but
 36

their requests were ignored. This angered many Muslims and made them
feel that the British did not respect Muslim holy places.
Many Muslim leaders, such as Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, spoke strongly
against Muslims who cooperated with the British. They believed that the
British were trying to create fear of Hindus among Muslims so that Muslims
could be controlled more easily. Because of this, many Muslim soldiers
deserted the British army when they were asked to fight against Turks in
World War One. The situation in neighboring Muslim countries, Afghanistan

IO
and Persia, also worried Indian Muslims, as Britain and Russia decided how
these countries should be run without asking the Muslim populations.
The fear of British policies became even stronger at the end of World War

D
One. Turkey had supported Germany, so Muslims feared that the British
would punish Turkey harshly after their victory. The Treaty of Versailles and
Treaty of Sèvres confirmed that the British and their alliesWARIS
planned to break
SHAHZAD
TU
the Ottoman Empire and punish Germany. Indian Muslims felt that the
British had betrayed their promises, so they quickly formed the Khilafat
Committee to protect the sacred institution of the Khalifa.
Turkey was important to Muslims not only as a country but also because its
S
Sultan was the Khalifa, the spiritual leader of all Muslims. The Khalifa was
also the custodian of the holy places in Arabia and other parts of the Middle
East. For centuries, Muslims had respected the Khalifa, and his name was
even mentioned in the Friday sermons as a sign of respect. Indian Muslims
WS

felt morally and religiously responsible to protect the Khalifa from being
harmed or disrespected.
The Khilafat Movement also had roots in the beginning of World War One,
when Indian Muslims feared that they might be forced to fight against other
Muslims in Turkey. Many Muslim soldiers had joined the British army only
after being promised that the Khalifa and Turkey would be respected. When
these promises were broken after the war, Indian Muslims felt disillusioned
 37

and wanted to take action to save the Khalifa, which led to the Khilafat
Movement.
In addition to religious reasons, the movement was also about political
fears. Muslims thought that the British wanted to weaken Muslims in India to
make it easier for them to control the country and expand their empire
elsewhere. Leaders like Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar and Maulana
Shaukat Ali organized conferences and campaigns to unite Muslims and
save the Khalifa, showing that the fear of British anti-Muslim policies was a

IO
very strong reason for the movement.
Conclusion:
The Khilafat Movement was largely founded because of fear of British anti-

D
Muslim policies, combined with religious respect for the Khalifa and Turkey.
Indian Muslims felt morally, religiously, and politically obliged to protect the
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Khalifa, and the movement became a symbol of Muslim unity and resistance
against the British. While religion played a part, the fear of British betrayal
and unfair policies was the main reason for its foundation.
S
Q: The Khilafat Movement failed because Gandhi withdrew his
WS

support. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. (14)

The Khilafat Movement suffered a major setback when Gandhi withdrew his
support. Gandhi had joined the movement on the condition of Ahimsa (non-
violence). In February 1922, a violent incident occurred at Chauri-Chaura in
Gorakhpur district, where an angry mob burned a police station and killed
22 policemen. Gandhi was shocked by this event and announced that he
would no longer support the movement. His withdrawal was a huge blow
 38

because he had united Hindus and Muslims, and without his support, the
movement lost the backing of the Hindu majority.
The Hijrat Movement of 1920 also weakened the Khilafat Movement.
Leaders like Maulana Abul Kalam Azad declared India as Dar-ul-Harb (land
under enemy rule) and asked Muslims to migrate to Afghanistan, promising
them a better future. Around 15,000–20,000 Muslims sold their homes, left
their jobs, and traveled to Afghanistan. However, the Afghan government
could not support them, many died during the long journey, and those who

IO
returned found their homes and jobs taken. This created economic
hardships and reduced faith in the Khilafat leaders.
In southern India, the Moplah uprising of 1921 further damaged the

D
movement. Around 10,000 Moplah Muslims in Tirur attacked the police
station, seized weapons, and damaged Hindu property and temples. British
troops responded by killing over 4,000 Moplahs, while their ownSHAHZAD
WARIS losses were
TU
minimal. This violence divided Muslims and Hindus, and the Hindu
community gradually withdrew support from the Khilafat Movement.
The Khilafat Movement also suffered because Muslims in other countries
did not support it. Indian Muslims realized that their fellow Muslims abroad
S
were less concerned about the Khilafat than they had expected. This made
them feel isolated and discouraged, weakening their confidence in
continuing the struggle.
The final blow came from Kemal Atatürk (Mustafa Kemal Pasha) in Turkey.
WS

In 1922, he made Turkey a republic and removed the last Khalifa, Sultan
Mehmet VI, from power. He regained some lost territories and signed the
Treaty of Lausanne. In 1924, the new Turkish government abolished the
Khilafat and sent the Khalifa into exile. This showed that even Turkey no
longer cared about the Khilafat, which left Indian Muslims disillusioned and
made the movement pointless.
 39

Other factors, such as the failure of the Hijrat Movement, Moplah violence,
and lack of unity among Muslims, also contributed to the decline of the
Khilafat Movement. Without Gandhi’s support and the backing of the Turkish
Khalifa, the movement could not continue, and Indian Muslims felt helpless
and disappointed.
Conclusion:
The Khilafat Movement did not fail only because Gandhi withdrew his

IO
support. While his withdrawal was important, the abolition of the Khilafat by
Kemal Atatürk, the failure of the Hijrat Movement, Moplah violence, and lack
of support from other Muslim countries were equally significant. These
factors together sealed the fate of the Khilafat Movement, making it
impossible to continue.

D WARIS SHAHZAD
S TU
WS

Q: How successful was the Khilafat Movement? Or

The Khilafat Movement did not achieve any major objective. Do you
agree? Give reasons for your answer.
The Khilafat Movement was largely a failure because it could not achieve its
main goal of protecting the Khalifa and the Ottoman Empire. One reason
 40

was poor leadership and weak planning. The Hijrat Movement of 1920
caused serious problems for thousands of Muslims. They sold their houses,
left their jobs, and migrated to Afghanistan, expecting a better life. However,
the Afghan government could not support them, and many died on the way
back. Those who returned faced poverty and unemployment, which made
them lose trust in the Khilafat leaders.
Another reason for the failure was the temporary Hindu-Muslim unity. The
Khilafat leaders had joined Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement, which

IO
required non-violence. When violence broke out at Chauri-Chaura in 1922,
Gandhi withdrew his support, leaving the Khilafat Movement weakened.
This also caused Hindus to stop supporting the movement, and communal
clashes started in different parts of India. For example, during the Moplah

troops.

D
uprising in Southern India, over 4,000 Moplah Muslims were killed by British
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
The ultimate aim of saving the Khalifa was also not achieved. In 1924,
Kemal Atatürk abolished the Khilafat and sent the last Sultan Mehmet VI
into exile. This showed that even Turkey no longer cared about the struggle
of Indian Muslims, which destroyed the foundation of the Khilafat
Movement.
S
Despite these failures, the movement had some positive effects. It brought
Hindus and Muslims together for the first time in a joint struggle against the
British. Their combined efforts created pressure on the British, and it
WS

showed that both communities could reject British rule together. The policy
of non-cooperation encouraged political awareness among Muslims and
helped them realize their own strength.
The Khilafat Movement also changed the way Muslims were seen in India.
They were no longer considered passive supporters of the British. They
learned that they could fight for their own rights independently, and this
helped them in later years. The temporary Hindu-Muslim unity also taught
 41

Muslims that they would sometimes need to work alone to achieve their
goals, which later influenced the demand for Pakistan in 1940.
In addition, the movement helped Muslims unite for a common cause and
made them aware of their political and religious identity. They understood
the importance of organizing themselves and protecting their rights. This
political awakening was an important outcome, even though the main goal
of saving the Khilafat was not achieved.

IO
Conclusion:
On the whole, the Khilafat Movement was a failure because it could not
save the Khalifa or the Ottoman Empire. However, it helped Muslims unite,
become politically aware, and challenge the British. The movement taught

D
Indian Muslims a valuable lesson about their own strength, and although it
failed in its main aim, it laid the foundation for future political struggles in
WARIS SHAHZAD
India.
S TU
WS

Pakistan Movement
1927-1940

Simon Commission/Report
 42

Q: What were the Delhi Proposals?

In response to increasing communal violence, Quaid-e-Azam
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, leader of the All-India Muslim League,
organized an All-Muslim Party Conference on 20 March 1927 in
Delhi, which he presided over. Its aim was to safeguard Muslim

IO
political rights and improve relations with the Congress. The
proposals included separate provincial status for Sindh, provincial
reforms in NWFP and Balochistan, and one-third Muslim
representation in the Central Legislative Assembly. In return, the

D
Muslim League agreed to give up separate electorates. These
proposals later became part of Jinnah’s Fourteen Points (1929).
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Q: What was the Simon Commission Report?
The Simon Commission was a constitutional commission sent by
the British Conservative government in 1927, headed by Sir John
Simon. It was made to suggest future constitutional reforms for
S
India, but it faced strong opposition because no Indian member was
included. The report recommended a federal system of
government, the abolition of diarchy, and the end of separate
WS

electorates, but it did not give one-third Muslim representation at

the centre and opposed provincial status for Sindh and NWFP.
Both the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League
rejected the report, and in response the Nehru Report was
produced in 1928.
 43

Q: Describe the Simon Commission

The Simon Commission was a constitutional commission sent by
the British Conservative government in 1927, headed by Sir John
Simon. It was formed to review the working of the Government of
India Act 1919 and suggest future constitutional reforms for India.
The commission had seven British members and no Indian
members, which caused strong opposition throughout India. As a

IO
result, both the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim
League rejected the Simon Commission.

D
Q: Why was the Simon Commission sent to India? (7)
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Firstly, the Simon Commission was sent to India in 1927 because
the British government had promised in the Government of India
Act 1919 that the Act would be reviewed after ten years. However,
after the Khilafat Movement (1919–1924), communal violence
between Hindus and Muslims increased, and political cooperation
S
became difficult. Major Indian political parties, including the Indian
National Congress and the All-India Muslim League, were unhappy
with the 1919 Act and demanded new constitutional reforms,
WS

especially the end of diarchy.

Secondly, Indians wanted more provincial autonomy and found the
system of diarchy confusing and ineffective. By 1927, the situation
in India had become very serious, so the British Conservative
Government decided to review the 1919 Act two years earlier than
planned. This led to the decision to send a commission to study
India’s constitutional problems and suggest reforms.
 44

Lastly, the commission was sent because Lord Birkenhead, the

Secretary of State for India, feared that the Conservative Party
might lose the upcoming elections and that the Labour Party might
give too many political concessions to Indians. To prevent this, the
Conservative government appointed a seven-member commission
under Sir John Simon in 1927, which arrived in India in 1928.
However, its report was later rejected by all major Indian political
parties.

IO
Q: Why was the Simon Commission / Report rejected?

D
Firstly, the Simon Commission (1927–28) was rejected because
the commission had seven British members and noWARISIndian member.
SHAHZAD
TU
This made the Indian National Congress (INC) and the All-India
Muslim League (AIML) angry, and they called it an “all-white
commission.” Indians wanted to take part in making their future
constitution, but Lord Birkenhead, the Secretary of State for India,
S
believed that Indians were too divided to agree. As a result, all
major political parties considered the commission an insult to Indian
self-respect and rejected both the commission and its report.
WS

Secondly, the report was rejected because it faced strong public

protests in 1928. When the commission arrived in India, it was
welcomed with black flags and strikes in many cities such as
Bombay, Calcutta, and Lahore. A large protest in Lahore was led
by Lala Lajpat Rai, a famous Congress leader. He was badly
beaten by the police and later died in November 1928, which
increased public anger and strengthened opposition to the
commission.
 45

Lastly, the recommendations of the Simon Commission Report

were unacceptable to both the INC and the Muslim League.
The INC wanted a strong central government, while the Muslim
League wanted more provincial autonomy. Although the report
supported separate electorates for Muslims, it refused to give one-
third Muslim representation at the centre. It also rejected the
demand to make Sindh and NWFP separate provinces, which
disappointed Muslims. Therefore, the report failed to satisfy any

IO
major party and was completely rejected.

D Nehru Report 1928

WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Q: What was the all parties conference? (4)
The All Parties Conference was a meeting of major Indian political
S
parties held in 1928 to discuss India’s future constitution. It was
organised in response to the Simon Commission Report, which was
rejected by Indians. The conference was led by leaders of the
WS

Indian National Congress, including Motilal Nehru, and aimed to

produce a constitutional plan acceptable to all communities. As a
result, the Nehru Report (1928) was prepared, but it was rejected
by the Muslim League as it ignored Muslim demands.
Q: What was the Nehru Report? (4)
 46

The Nehru Report was a constitutional report prepared by the

Nehru Committee, headed by Motilal Nehru, and approved by the
All Parties Conference in September 1928. It demanded Dominion
Status (self-rule) for India and proposed a federal system of
government with a bicameral legislature. The report made Hindi the
official language and rejected separate electorates, offering only
reserved seats for minorities. Because it ignored Muslim demands
such as one-third Muslim representation, the All-India Muslim

IO
League rejected it in January 1929.
Q: Describe the recommendations or amendments of Mr.
Jinnah on Nehru Report. (4)

D
Jinnah tried to save Hindu-Muslim unity by suggesting four
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
amendments in January 1929. He demanded one-third Muslim
seats in both houses of the central legislature, representation in
Punjab and Bengal according to population, residuary powers for
provinces, and full provincial status for Sindh and NWFP. However,
the INC refused to accept these demands, and Jinnah called it “the
S
parting of the ways”, marking a clear division between Hindus and
Muslims in Indian politics.
Q: What was Salt March? (4)
WS

The Salt March was started by Mahatma Gandhi on 12 March 1930

as part of the second phase of the non-cooperation movement of
the Indian National Congress (INC). He began from his ashram
near Ahmedabad and marched for 24 days to the coastal town of
Dandi, accompanied by thousands of followers. The march aimed
to protest against the unfair British Salt Laws, but it soon grew into
a movement against all unfair laws of British rule. In response, the
 47

British government banned the INC and arrested Gandhi, Nehru,

and other leaders.
Q: What was Gandhi’s ‘Satyagraha’ campaign? (4)
Satyagraha was a campaign of non-violent resistance developed by
Mahatma Gandhi during the Khilafat Movement (1919–1924). The
word means “truth-force” and involved peaceful protests against

IO
British rule. Supporters had to show self-sacrifice and were
encouraged to face torture or imprisonment without violence.
Methods included sit-ins, strikes, hunger strikes, protest marches,
and boycotts. Gandhi’s Salt March of 1930 was part of this

D
campaign. Although Jinnah disagreed with this approach,
Satyagraha made Gandhi famous internationally.
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Q: Why was the Nehru Report rejected? [7]
Firstly, the Nehru Report (1928) was rejected because it ignored
S
the political rights of Muslims. Although it was prepared by an All-
Parties Conference, Muslims had very little representation. Most
important Muslim leaders were absent because Jinnah was in
England to see his wife, who was seriously ill. Only Sir Ali Imam
WS

and Shoaib Qureshi represented Muslims, but they were not major
leaders of the Muslim League, and they were possibly forced to
accept the report.
Secondly, the report demanded too many sacrifices from Muslims.
It rejected separate electorates and one-third Muslim seats in the
Central Government, breaking the earlier Lucknow Pact of 1916
 48

agreement between Hindus and Muslims. It also proposed Hindi as

the official language, ignoring the diversity of India. These points
made Muslims feel that the Indian National Congress (INC) did not
respect their political and cultural rights.
Lastly, Jinnah tried to save Hindu-Muslim unity by suggesting four
amendments in January 1929. He demanded one-third Muslim
seats in both houses of the central legislature, representation in

IO
Punjab and Bengal according to population, residuary powers for
provinces, and full provincial status for Sindh and NWFP. However,
the INC refused to accept these demands, and Jinnah called it “the
parting of the ways”, marking a clear division between Hindus and

D
Muslims in Indian politics.
WARIS SHAHZAD
S TU
WS
 49

14 points of Mr Jinnah 1929

Q: What were Jinnah’s 14 Points? (4)

In January 1929, Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah presented

IO
his Fourteen Points at a Muslim League session in Delhi, and they
were formally accepted in March 1929. These points were designed
to protect the political rights of Muslims and other minorities in
India. Jinnah demanded one-third Muslim representation in the

D
Central Government, the preservation of existing provincial
boundaries, and that no law affecting any community should be
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
passed without the approval of three-fourths of that community’s
members. His Fourteen Points became a key guide for the Muslim
League and formed the basis for future negotiations on
constitutional reforms, ensuring Muslim political safeguards in a
Hindu-majority India.
S
Q: Why did Jinnah present his 14 Points in 1929?
WS

Firstly, Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah presented his

Fourteen Points in January 1929 in response to the Nehru Report
(1928), which had greatly disappointed him. The Nehru Report
asked for too many sacrifices from Muslims, rejected separate
electorates, and did not give one-third Muslim representation in the
Central Legislative Assembly. Although it promised reserved seats
and religious liberty for all minorities, it ignored the Muslims’
 50

political rights. Jinnah’s proposed amendments to the Nehru Report

had also been rejected by the INC, leaving him frustrated.
Secondly, Jinnah wanted to safeguard Muslim political rights and
lay down the basis for future negotiations with the Indian National
Congress (INC) or the British government. His Fourteen Points
demanded adequate Muslim share in all legislatures, governments,
and state services, and protection of provincial boundaries. Since

IO
the points were presented shortly after the rejection of his
amendments to the Nehru Report, it became clear that the gap
between Hindus and Muslims was widening, making compromise
increasingly difficult.

D
Lastly, the Fourteen Points marked the foundation of Muslim
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
political demands and eventually led to the demand for Pakistan in
1940. Jinnah had tried his best to work with the INC, but their
leadership was uncompromising. When presenting the points, he
warned, “No scheme for the constitution of the Government of India
will be acceptable unless all the following basic principles are given
S
effect to.” These points became a key part of the manifesto and
objectives of the Muslim League, ensuring that Muslim rights were
protected in future negotiations.
WS

Q: The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was the only beacon of hope for
Hindu-Muslim Unity between 1914 and 1930. Do you agree?
(14)
 51

The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was a major agreement between the

Indian National Congress (INC) and the All-India Muslim League
(ML) that marked a rare moment of Hindu-Muslim unity. In 1913,
the Muslim League, on the advice of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, added
self-rule (Swaraj) to its political demands, which gave common
ground with the INC. In 1916, the annual sessions of both parties
were held jointly in Lucknow, and under the leadership of Jinnah
from the League and S.P. Mahajan from the Congress, the pact

IO
was finalized. The INC agreed to separate Muslim electorates and
one-third Muslim representation in the Central Government, while
both sides supported minority protection and provincial autonomy.

D
The pact created a cordial atmosphere between Hindus and
Muslims and became the high point of Hindu-Muslim cooperation in
British India. WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Before the Lucknow Pact, political reforms like the Morley-Minto
Reforms of 1909 and the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919
had promised Indians a greater role in governance. The Mont-Ford
reforms introduced diarchy, giving Indians control over “transferred
S
subjects” like education, agriculture, and health, while “reserved
subjects” like finance and foreign affairs remained with the British.
Although the reforms slightly increased Indian participation, they
WS

were discriminatory and limited in power, which disappointed both

the INC and the Muslim League. Interestingly, this shared
disappointment against British policies also brought Hindus and
Muslims closer, showing the possibility of joint action even before
the Lucknow Pact.
The Khilafat Movement (1919–1924) further tried to unite Hindus
and Muslims, as Gandhi supported it with his non-cooperation
 52

movement, bringing both communities onto one platform against

the British. However, practical support from the Muslim League was
limited, and the unity was fragile. Communal tensions and Hindu-
Muslim riots that followed, especially after Gandhi withdrew his
support after the Chauri Chaura incident (1922), showed that
cooperation was short-lived and highly dependent on leadership
and shared goals.

IO
By 1928, the All-Parties Conference was convened to draft a
constitution for India. The result was the Nehru Report, prepared by
Motilal Nehru, which demanded immediate Dominion Status, a
federal government with a strong centre, and protection of

D
minorities through reserved seats. However, the report ignored key
Muslim demands, such as one-third representation and
WARIS separate
SHAHZAD
TU
electorates, and also introduced Hindi as the national language,
which alarmed Muslims. These recommendations were seen as
asking too many sacrifices from Muslims, and Jinnah called the
situation the “parting of the ways”, marking the breakdown of
Hindu-Muslim unity.
S
In 1929, Jinnah presented his Fourteen Points as a response to the
Nehru Report to protect Muslim political rights. He demanded a
WS

federal system with provincial autonomy, one-third representation

for Muslims in all cabinets and legislatures, and that no law
affecting any community could be passed without approval of three-
fourths of that community. The Congress rejected these demands,
showing that political differences between Hindus and Muslims had
become irreconcilable. This was a clear sign that unity, like that of
the Lucknow Pact, was no longer achievable under the prevailing
political climate.
 53

The period between 1914 and 1930 also saw increasing communal
tensions, failed negotiations, and growing separatist demands.
While the Lucknow Pact had shown that Hindus and Muslims could
cooperate for common political goals, later events such as the
rejection of the Nehru Report and the 14 Points by Jinnah
highlighted deep differences. By the late 1920s, the gap between
the communities was widening, making Hindu-Muslim unity
increasingly unlikely without compromise from one side.

IO
In conclusion, the Lucknow Pact of 1916 truly remained the only
beacon of hope for Hindu-Muslim unity between 1914 and 1930. It
demonstrated the possibility of collaboration between the two

D
largest communities of India against the British and protected
Muslim political rights while promoting shared self-rule.
WARIS Later
SHAHZADefforts
TU
at unity, such as the Khilafat Movement or negotiations through the
Nehru Report, failed due to lack of mutual compromise, rising
communalism, and the uncompromising stance of both Congress
and Muslim League leadership, making the Lucknow Pact a unique
high point in this period.
S
WS
 54

Round Table Conferences 1930-32

IO
Q: What were round table conferences?

D
The Round Table Conferences were a series of three meetings
held in London between 1930 and 1932 to discuss constitutional
reforms in India. They were arranged by the BritishWARIS SHAHZAD
government to
TU
decide how India could be given self-government. Important
leaders like Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Allama Iqbal, Mahatma Gandhi,
and British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald took part. The
Muslims demanded separate electorates and protection of their
S
rights, but no final agreement was reached, so the conferences
failed to solve India’s political problems.
Q: What was the Gandhi-Irwin Pact?
WS

The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was an agreement signed on 5 March 1931

between Mahatma Gandhi and the Viceroy Lord Irwin. It was made
so that Gandhi could attend the Second Round Table Conference,
as he had been in jail during the first one in 1930. Under the pact,
Gandhi agreed to end the Civil Disobedience Movement, while Lord
Irwin promised to release political prisoners and return confiscated
 55

property. Gandhi also agreed to cooperate with the British

government instead of demanding immediate independence.

Q: What was the Communal Award?

IO
The Communal Award was announced on 16 August 1932 by the
British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald after the failure of the
Second Round Table Conference. It was introduced to settle
communal problems in India. The Award allowed separate

D
electorates for minorities, including Muslims, Sikhs, and others, and
also used the principle of weightage. Although it WARIS
reduced Muslim
SHAHZAD
TU
majority in Punjab and Bengal, the Muslim League accepted it for
future political agreement, while the Congress rejected it and
Gandhi protested by starting a fast against the treatment of the
Untouchables.
S
Q: Why was it necessary to hold three RTCs? (7)
WS

Firstly, it became necessary to hold the Round Table Conferences

because the Simon Commission Report of 1927 was rejected by all
major Indian political parties, including the Congress and the
Muslim League. Indians were angry because no Indian member
was included in the commission. This rejection created political
unrest and confusion in India. To break this deadlock and to
discuss constitutional reforms, the British government arranged the
First Round Table Conference, which was held in London from
 56

November 1930 to January 1931. The Muslim League attended,

but the Congress did not, as Gandhi was in jail due to the Civil
Disobedience Movement.
Secondly, since the Congress was the largest political party in
India, no important decisions could be made without its
participation. The British government realised that Gandhi’s
presence was necessary to make progress. As a result, Lord Irwin

IO
held talks with Gandhi, leading to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in March
1931. Under this agreement, Gandhi agreed to end the movement
and was released from prison, allowing him to attend the Second
Round Table Conference held from September to December 1931.

D
Lastly, the Second Round Table Conference failed due to serious
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
disagreements between Gandhi and Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali
Jinnah over the rights of minorities. Jinnah demanded firm
constitutional safeguards, while Gandhi believed religious freedom
was sufficient. This deadlock made another meeting necessary, so
the Third Round Table Conference was held in
S
November–December 1932. However, it achieved little because the
Labour government had been replaced by a Conservative-led
national government, and only a small number of delegates,
WS

including Allama Iqbal and Sir Aga Khan, attended.

Q: Why was the Second Round Table Conference of 1931

unsuccessful? (7)
 57

Firstly, the Second Round Table Conference was unsuccessful

because of serious disagreements between the Congress and
Muslim leaders. The conference was held from September to
December 1931, and Gandhi attended it due to the Gandhi-Irwin
Pact (March 1931). Gandhi claimed to represent all Indians and
argued that minorities only needed religious freedom. However,
Muslim leaders such as Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Sir
Aga Khan, and Allama Iqbal strongly disagreed and demanded

IO
proper constitutional safeguards for minorities, especially Muslims.
This difference of opinion created tension and no agreement could
be reached.

D
Secondly, Gandhi’s rigid attitude made the situation worse. He
supported the Nehru Report and refused to accept the Muslim
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
demand for separate political rights. By insisting that Congress
alone spoke for all communities, he ignored Muslim concerns. This
angered Muslim leaders, particularly Jinnah and Allama Iqbal, who
firmly stood by the need to protect Muslim political interests. As a
result, cooperation between the two sides completely broke down.
S
Lastly, the political situation in Britain also affected the conference.
By 1931, the Labour government had been replaced by a
WS

Conservative-dominated national government, which showed little

interest in Indian constitutional reforms. Because of this lack of
support and the ongoing communal deadlock, the conference failed
to solve major issues. The only important result was the recognition
of Sindh and the NWFP (KPK) as Muslim-majority provinces, while
the main problems remained unresolved.
 58

Q: Why was the Third Round Table Conference of 1932

unsuccessful? (7)

IO
Firstly, the Third Round Table Conference was unsuccessful
because it lacked proper representation. It was held in London from

D
November to December 1932, but the Indian National Congress did
not attend due to its opposition to the Communal Award of August
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
1932. Only 46 delegates took part in the conference. Because the
Congress, the largest political party in India, was absent, no
important decisions about India’s future constitution could be made.
Secondly, the political situation in Britain had changed by 1932.
S
The Labour government, which had supported the Round Table
Conferences, had been replaced by a Conservative-dominated
national government. The new government showed little interest in
WS

Indian constitutional reforms and treated the conference as a mere

formality. This lack of British seriousness further reduced the
chances of success.
Lastly, although Muslim leaders such as Allama Iqbal and Sir Aga
Khan attended, the conference failed to resolve the communal
problem between Hindus and Muslims. No agreement was reached
on minority rights or power-sharing arrangements. As a result, the
 59

Third Round Table Conference ended without solving the major

political issues of India.

IO
How successful were the three RTC’s of 1930 – 1932?
Or
The three RTC’s achieved little. Do you agree? Explain your
answer.

D WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Or
The first RTC of 1930 was more successful than those of 1931
and 1932. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]
S
The First Round Table Conference was held in London in
November 1930 and was attended by 89 delegates, including
WS

Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Sir Aga Khan. Its main
aim was to discuss constitutional reforms and review the Simon
Commission Report. The conference agreed that India should have
a federal system of government, and the princely states agreed in
principle to join the federation if their rights were protected. This
showed some success of the first RTC.
 60

However, the importance of the First RTC was reduced because

the Indian National Congress did not attend. Gandhi was in jail due
to the Civil Disobedience Movement, and Congress demanded
guarantees that British decisions would be fully implemented, which
Britain refused to give. As a result, major issues such as the details
of federalism and the role of princely states remained unresolved.
This limited the overall success of the conference.

IO
In order to involve Congress, Lord Irwin held talks with Gandhi,
resulting in the Gandhi-Irwin Pact of March 1931. Gandhi agreed to
end the movement and attend the Second Round Table
Conference, which was held from September to December 1931.

D
This conference was more representative, as it was attended by
major leaders including Gandhi, Jinnah, AllamaWARIS Iqbal, Sir Aga
SHAHZAD
TU
Khan, and representatives of the princely states.
The Second RTC achieved some progress. Sindh, Orissa, and
NWFP (KPK) were recognised as separate provinces, and diarchy
was transferred from provinces to the centre. Despite this, the
S
conference failed to settle the most important issue, which was the
rights of minorities. A serious deadlock developed between Gandhi
and Jinnah, as Gandhi believed religious freedom was sufficient,
WS

while Jinnah demanded firm constitutional safeguards for Muslims.

Another reason for the failure of the later RTCs was the change in
the British government. The Labour government, which had
supported Indian reforms, was replaced by a Conservative-
dominated national government. The new government showed less
interest in reaching a settlement and made it clear that Britain
 61

would impose its own solution if Indian leaders failed to agree. This
weakened the effectiveness of the conferences.
Before the Third Round Table Conference, the Communal Award of
August 1932 was announced by Ramsay MacDonald. Congress
rejected it, while the Muslim League accepted it, even though
Muslim majorities in Punjab and Bengal were reduced. The Third
RTC, held in November–December 1932, was attended by only 46

IO
delegates. Congress did not attend, Gandhi was in jail again, and
Jinnah was absent. Although Allama Iqbal and Sir Aga Khan
represented Muslims, the conference achieved very little.
Conclusion:

D
Overall, the three Round Table Conferences were only
WARIS partially
SHAHZAD
TU
successful. They failed to resolve major political and communal
issues, especially the question of minority rights. However, they
were important because they provided a forum for discussion and
helped shape the Government of India Act 1935, which later
S
influenced the constitutions of Pakistan and India. Therefore, while
the RTCs achieved little in the short term, they had long-term
constitutional importance.
WS

The Government of India Act 1935

Q: What was the Government of India Act 1935? (4)

 62

The Government of India Act 1935 was passed by the British

Parliament in August 1935 after the Round Table Conferences. It
introduced a federal system in India with two houses, the Council of
State and the Legislative Assembly. The Act gave more powers to
the provinces and created three new provinces: Sindh, NWFP and
Orissa. About 25% of the Indian population was given the right to
vote, but real power still remained with the British because the
Viceroy could veto laws made by the provinces.

D IO
Why was the Government of India Act 1935 so important to the
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
future of the Sub-continent? (7)
Firstly, the Government of India Act 1935 was very important
because it was the last major law passed by the British before
independence. It introduced a federal system and a parliamentary
S
style of government, which showed that the British were slowly
moving towards giving self-rule to India. The Act increased the role
of Indians in politics by enlarging the Central Legislative Assembly
and the Council of State, allowing more Indian members to take
WS

part in law-making. However, the Viceroy and provincial Governors

still had emergency powers, which meant full independence was
not yet given.
Secondly, the Act greatly increased political participation by
expanding the right to vote. The number of voters increased five
times, and about 25% of the Indian population, including around 5
 63

million women, could vote by 1935. Although nearly 75% of people

were still excluded, this was a major step forward. The Act also
created three new provinces in 1936: Sindh, the North-West
Frontier Province (NWFP), and Orissa. Sindh and NWFP were
Muslim-majority areas, which was important for future Muslim
politics in the Sub-continent.
Lastly, the Act gave greater provincial autonomy, meaning

IO
provinces could run their own affairs more freely than before. This
made India look closer to independence and helped Indians gain
experience in governing themselves. For the first time, Princely
States were allowed to choose whether to join political activities.

D
The Act became the basis for future talks between Indian leaders
and the British and later influenced the constitutions ofSHAHZAD
WARIS both India
TU
and Pakistan after 1947, showing its long-term importance to the
future of the Sub-continent.
S
Why did Indians reject the Government of India Act 1935?
Or Why was there so much opposition to the Government of
India Act of 1935? (7)
WS

Firstly, Indians rejected the Government of India Act 1935 because

it did not give complete independence, which was the main demand
of Indian political leaders in the 1930s. Important powers such as
defence and foreign affairs were kept in British hands, while Indians
were given only limited authority. This showed that real power still
remained with the British, and many Indians believed the Act only
created an illusion of self-government, not true freedom.
 64

Secondly, although the Act claimed to give more power to the

provinces, the provincial Governors and the Viceroy had very
strong control. A Governor could declare an emergency at any
time, take over the provincial government, and veto any law passed
by Indian ministers if it went against British interests. Because of
these powers, Indian ministers could not govern freely. As a result,
both the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League
(ML) felt that Indians had been given far fewer powers than

IO
promised.
Lastly, even though the number of voters increased five times, only
about 25% of the population, including some women, was allowed

D
to vote due to strict property qualifications. Nearly three-quarters of
Indians still had no voting rights. The Princely States were also
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
unhappy as they feared losing their authority. Due to these
reasons, the Act was strongly opposed. Muhammad Ali Jinnah
clearly stated that the Act was “thoroughly rotten, fundamentally
bad and totally unacceptable.” Jawaharlal Nehru first called it a
“Charter of Slavery” and later said it was “like a machine with strong
S
brakes but no engine.” These statements show how deeply
disappointed Indian leaders were with the Act.
WS

Which of the following was the most important in the

development
of the Pakistan Movement:
(i) 14 points of M.A Jinnah
 65

(ii) Gov. of India Act of 1935

(iii) Simon Commission

The Pakistan Movement developed over time as Muslims of the

Sub-continent began to fear political and religious domination by
the Hindu majority. British reforms failed to protect Muslim rights,

IO
which increased Muslim political awareness. Leaders like
Muhammad Ali Jinnah played a key role in guiding Muslims
towards a separate political identity. Among the many factors, the

D
Simon Commission (1927), Jinnah’s Fourteen Points (1929), and
the Government of India Act 1935 all contributed in different ways
to the growth of the Pakistan Movement. WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
The Simon Commission, sent to India in 1927 under Sir John
Simon, aimed to review the Government of India Act 1919.
However, it included no Indian members, which led to strong
opposition from both Hindus and Muslims. While Muslims were
S
initially divided, the Commission’s failure led to the Nehru Report
(1928), which demanded a strong central government and rejected
separate electorates. This report alarmed Muslims and made them
WS

realize that Congress would not protect their interests, indirectly

strengthening Muslim unity.
In response to the Nehru Report, Muhammad Ali Jinnah presented
his Fourteen Points in 1929. These points clearly demanded
provincial autonomy, separate electorates, and protection of Muslim
culture and religion. Although Jinnah did not ask for a separate
country, the points gave Muslims a clear political programme. They
 66

united the All-India Muslim League and became the basis of Muslim
demands in future negotiations, including the Round Table
Conferences (1930–32).
The Government of India Act 1935 was another important step. It
introduced provincial autonomy, increased the number of voters to
about 25% of the population, and created new provinces such as
Sindh and NWFP, both Muslim-majority areas. This allowed

IO
Muslims to gain political experience, especially after the 1937
elections, where Congress rule in many provinces further
convinced Muslims that their rights were unsafe in a united India.

D
However, when comparing all three factors, the Fourteen Points
stand out as the most important. The Simon Commission and the
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
1935 Act were British efforts and had many weaknesses. In
contrast, the Fourteen Points were a Muslim response to Congress
dominance and clearly defined Muslim political demands. They
helped Muslims think beyond cooperation and towards
safeguarding their future as a separate community.
S
In conclusion, while the Simon Commission exposed Congress
attitudes and the Government of India Act 1935 gave Muslims
political experience, it was Jinnah’s Fourteen Points that played the
WS

most decisive role in developing the Pakistan Movement. They

united Muslims under one leadership, shaped future negotiations,
and laid the foundation for the demand that eventually led to the
creation of Pakistan in 1947.

How successful was the Government of India Act 1935? (14)

 67

The Government of India Act 1935 had several successes. One

major success was the introduction of provincial autonomy. From
1937, Indian ministers were able to run provincial governments with
much less British interference. This gave Indians valuable
experience of self-government and helped prepare them for
independence. The creation of new provinces such as Sindh,

IO
NWFP and Orissa also strengthened political awareness, especially
among Muslims.
Another success of the Act was the expansion of the right to vote.

D
The electorate increased almost five times, and about 25% of the
population, including nearly 5 million women, gained voting rights.
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Although most Indians were still excluded, this was a major
improvement compared to earlier reforms and helped develop
political participation and democratic thinking.
The Act was also successful in providing a constitutional framework
S
for the future. It introduced elected legislatures and a parliamentary
system, which later became the basis of the constitutions of India
and Pakistan. In this sense, the Act played an important role in
shaping the political structure of the Sub-continent.
WS

However, the Act also had serious failures. The proposed federal
system at the centre never worked because many Princely States
refused to join. Important subjects such as defence, finance and
foreign affairs remained under British control, which meant India
was not truly independent. This showed that real power still lay with
the British authorities.
 68

Another major failure was the strong authority of the Viceroy and
provincial Governors. They could veto laws, dismiss ministries and
declare emergencies whenever they felt British interests were
threatened. Because of these powers, Indian ministers could not
govern freely. Due to this, Muhammad Ali Jinnah strongly criticized
the Act and described it as “thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad
and totally unacceptable.”

IO
The Act also failed to satisfy Indian political leaders and increased
disappointment and opposition. The 1937 elections brought
Congress to power in many provinces, and its rule often ignored
Muslim concerns. Jawaharlal Nehru first called the Act a “Charter of

D
Slavery” and later mocked it by saying it was “like a machine with
strong brakes but no engine.” These statements clearly show how
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
unhappy Indian leaders were with the Act.
In conclusion, the Government of India Act 1935 was only partly
successful. It helped Indians gain political experience and moved
the Sub-continent closer to independence. However, British control,
S
weak federal arrangements and strong opposition from Indian
leaders limited its success. Therefore, the Act was an important
step forward, but it failed to fully meet Indian expectations.
WS

Elections 1937

Q: What were the outcomes of the provincial elections of

1937? [4]
 69

The provincial elections of 1937 showed a clear difference in

political strength between the parties. The Indian National
Congress (INC) performed very well and won 707 seats, forming
governments in five provinces and becoming the largest party in
four others. The Muslim League (ML) won only 109 seats, which
made it realize that it needed to reorganise and improve its image
among Muslims. After coming to power, the Congress introduced
policies like the Wardha Scheme, made Bande Matram

IO
compulsory, and showed disrespect towards mosques and Muslim
prayers, which increased Muslim fears and strengthened support
for the Pakistan Movement.

D WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Q: Why was Muslim League unable to get victory in 1937
elections? (7)
Firstly, the Muslim League (ML) was not successful in the 1937
elections because it was much weaker than the Indian National
S
Congress (INC). The Congress won 707 seats, forming
governments in five provinces and becoming the largest party in
four others, while the ML won only 109 seats. This showed that the
League had not yet built strong support among Muslims and lacked
WS

influence in many areas.

Secondly, the ML suffered from an “image problem”. Many
Muslims saw it as weak and ineffective in protecting their interests.
Its organization was poor, leadership at the local level was limited,
and it had less presence in Muslim-majority provinces, which
reduced its overall political strength. The Congress, on the other
 70

hand, was already well-established and popular across the Sub-

continent.
Lastly, the elections showed the need for the League to
reorganize. Congress governments introduced the Wardha
Scheme, made Bande Matram compulsory, and often showed
disrespect to mosques and Muslim prayers, which worried Muslims.
The League realized it had to improve its image, protect Muslim

IO
rights, and unite Muslims for future elections. This failure in 1937
helped the League become stronger and laid the foundation for the
Pakistan Movement.

D
Q: Why were the 1937 elections important for the ML?
WARIS (7)
SHAHZAD
TU
Firstly, the 1937 elections were important for the Muslim League
(ML) because they gave the party its first major experience of
contesting elections. Although both the ML and the Indian National
Congress (INC) had opposed the Government of India Act 1935,
S
they decided to participate in the elections. Out of 489 Muslim
seats, the ML won only 109, but it also captured some seats in
Hindu-majority provinces. These elections helped the ML learn how
WS

to launch election campaigns and begin creating a vote bank

across different regions.
Secondly, the elections made the ML realize it had a serious
“image problem.” Many Muslims saw the ML as a party of elite
Muslim aristocrats, while the Congress was popular among all
social and economic classes. The results showed that the League
needed to reorganize and reach out to ordinary Muslims. After
 71

1937, Jinnah worked hard to improve the ML’s image so that it

could gain support from all classes and expand its influence
throughout India.
Lastly, the 1937 elections highlighted the importance of winning
seats in Hindu-majority provinces. In Muslim-majority provinces,
there was no fear of Hindu domination, but in Hindu-majority areas,
Muslim votes were crucial. By winning these seats, the ML could

IO
show that it represented all Indian Muslims and effectively counter
the Congress’s claim of being an “all-India party.” This lesson
became key in shaping the League’s strategy for future elections
and strengthening its political position.

D WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Q. How successful were the provincial elections held in India
in 1937? Explain your answer. (10 or 14)
S
The provincial elections of 1937 were very important in changing
the politics of India. Even though both the Indian National Congress
WS

(INC) and the Muslim League (ML) did not fully agree with the
Government of India Act 1935, they decided to take part in the
elections. Nehru said that the Congress wanted to “carry its
message to millions of voters and scores of millions of the
disenfranchised, to acquaint them with our future programme and
policy.” The results were a big win for the INC, which got 707 out of
1585 seats, had a clear majority in five provinces, and was the
 72

largest party in four more. It formed governments in United

Provinces, Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, Madras, Bombay,
Assam, and NWFP, claiming to represent all Indians.
The elections showed that the Muslim League was weak. Out of
482 Muslim seats, the ML won only 109, which is about 25% of the
total. In some areas, Congress even won Muslim seats. In Punjab,
the ML got only 1 seat out of 86, while the Unionist Party and other

IO
groups won most of the seats. This poor result showed the ML that
it needed to reorganize and improve its image, because many
Muslims thought it was a party for rich aristocrats and princes. The
League also understood the importance of winning seats in Hindu-

of Hindu domination.
D
majority provinces, because Muslim-majority provinces had no risk
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
The elections also showed problems with Congress rule. The INC
refused to work with the ML even where it was the largest party and
asked ML members to join Congress to be part of the government.
Once in power, Congress introduced policies that upset Muslims,
S
like making Bande Matram compulsory and introducing Gandhi’s
Wardha Scheme in education. Muslims felt let down by the British,
who seemed to support Congress more than protecting Muslim
WS

rights. This created fear and insecurity among Muslims in India.

Even with these problems, the elections gave the ML important
lessons. It learned how to run election campaigns, build a vote
bank, and improve its organization. The League realized it had to
work harder to unite Muslims across provinces and social classes
and fix its image as a party for the elite. This helped the ML grow
stronger as a political party.
 73

The elections also made Muslim nationalism stronger. The poor

results for the ML and Congress rule showed many Muslims that
their rights were not safe under Congress. The policies of Congress
and the British support for it encouraged Muslims to seek a
separate political platform, which later became the basis for the
Pakistan Movement.
In conclusion, the 1937 provincial elections were both a

IO
disappointment and a success. They were disappointing for the
Muslim League in terms of seats, but they gave it important lessons
in politics and organization. The Congress won many seats and
formed governments in several provinces. Overall, the elections

D
were successful in shaping Indian politics, bringing Muslims
together under the League, and showing the needWARIS forSHAHZAD
a separate
TU
Muslim homeland.

The congress rule 1937-39

S
4 marks
WS

Q: What was the INC Rule? (4)

The Indian National Congress (INC) formed governments in 8 out
of 11 provinces after the 1937 elections. During its rule, it
introduced several policies that upset Muslims and threatened their
culture and religion. Gandhi’s Wardha Scheme was implemented in
 74

schools, religious education and Urdu teaching were banned, and

students had to bow to Gandhi’s portrait. Singing of the Hindu
national song, Bande Matram, was made compulsory, and the INC
flag was hoisted with the Union Jack. Muslims were also
disrespected, with Azan being disturbed and pigs thrown in
mosques in some places. When the INC ministers resigned in
1939, Muslims celebrated the Day of Deliverance on 22 December
1939.

IO
Q: What was the Wardha Scheme?
The Wardha Scheme was introduced by Gandhi as part of the INC

D
rule from 1937–1939. It was a Basic Education scheme that made
Hindi the main language in schools and removed all religious
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
education. Students had to learn hand-spinning of cotton as part of
their lessons. In some schools in the Central Provinces, Muslim
students were made to bow before Gandhi’s portrait. The scheme
also ignored the Urdu language, which upset Muslims and showed
that they could not fully trust the INC to protect their rights. This
S
made Muslims dislike the INC rule even more.
Q: What was Bande Matram?
WS

Bande Matram was a Hindu national song that became very

important during the INC rule (1937–1939). The Congress made it
compulsory to sing it in morning assemblies in schools and
government offices. Many Muslims felt upset because it was a
religious song of Hindus, and they were forced to sing it even
though it went against their beliefs. This caused frustration and
anger among Muslims and added to their dislike of the INC rule.
 75

Q: What was Vidya Mandir Scheme?

The Vidya Mandir Scheme was an educational plan introduced by
the INC during 1937–1939. It was part of their efforts to change
school education and was connected to Gandhi’s ideas, like the
Wardha Scheme. Under this scheme, students were taught in
Hindi, and religious education and Urdu were ignored. Students
also had to follow certain practices, like bowing to Gandhi’s portrait.

IO
Many Muslims felt upset because the scheme ignored their
language and culture, which made them distrust the INC rule.
Q: What was the Day of Deliverance?

D
The Day of Deliverance was celebrated by Muslims on 22
December 1939 after all INC ministers resigned from the
WARIS provincial
SHAHZAD
TU
governments. The INC resigned because the British declared India
a part of World War II without consulting Indian leaders, which
angered them. Muhammad Ali Jinnah asked the Muslim community
to mark this day and told all local, district, and provincial branches
S
of the Muslim League (ML) to hold public meetings in support of it.
He also asked that the celebrations be peaceful and calm. The INC
opposed this celebration.
WS

7 marks
Q: Why was the INC rule hated so much? / Why did Muslims
celebrate the Day of Deliverance at the end of the INC rule? (7)
Firstly, the INC rule was hated by Muslims because it introduced
many anti-Muslim policies. Under Gandhi’s Wardha Scheme, hand-
spinning of cotton was made part of school lessons, Hindi was
 76

enforced as the main language, and religious education was

banned. In some schools, Muslim students had to bow to Gandhi’s
portrait, which went against their religious beliefs. These policies
made Muslims feel that their culture and religion were being
ignored.
Secondly, Muslims were upset by other INC rules that showed
Hindu dominance. The Bande Matram, a Hindu national song, was

IO
made compulsory in morning assemblies, and Muslims had to sing
it even though it contained anti-Muslim expressions. In some
places, the Azan was disturbed, pigs were thrown in mosques, and
cows could not be slaughtered in Hindu-majority areas. Extremist

D
Hindus even abused and attacked Muslims, and the INC flag was
hoisted with the Union Jack on official buildings. WARIS
All ofSHAHZAD
this made
TU
Muslims feel unsafe in a Hindu-majority India.
Lastly, the Day of Deliverance was celebrated by Muslims on 22
December 1939 because the INC ministers resigned after the
British involved India in World War II without consulting them.
S
Muhammad Ali Jinnah called on Muslims to celebrate this day
peacefully to mark relief from INC rule. The celebration showed
how much Muslims were unhappy with the INC and how they
WS

wanted their rights and culture to be respected in India.

Q: How did Jinnah reorganize ML between 1937 and 1939? [7]

After the disappointing results of the 1937 elections, Jinnah focused
on reorganizing the Muslim League (ML) and bringing Muslims
together under its banner. At the Lucknow meeting in October
 77

1937, he asked party members to build support from the

grassroots, pointing out that the ML had only won seats in areas
where it had strong local branches. Jinnah toured many cities, gave
speeches, and campaigned actively, which led to a tremendous
increase in membership. By 1938, several thousand Muslims,
including leaders from Bengal, Assam, and Punjab, joined the
League.

IO
Jinnah also encouraged Muslims to seek political guidance from
Islam, emphasizing that the religion promoted liberty, equality, and
strong community bonds. This message helped Muslims
understand that their rights and cultural interests were threatened

D
under Congress rule. Despite criticism from Muslim members of the
INC who doubted his efforts, Jinnah continued with determination.
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
At the 1938 annual meeting, he even created a women’s sub-
committee led by Miss Fatimah Jinnah, involving Muslim women in
the political mission of the League and broadening its appeal.
By 1939, Jinnah’s efforts had made the ML a strong and
S
recognized political force. The INC became alarmed and held talks
with him, though they refused to accept that the ML alone
represented all Muslims. Muslims, feeling threatened by Congress
WS

policies, celebrated the Day of Deliverance in December 1939 on

Jinnah’s call. Finally, in March 1940, the historic ML session in
Lahore saw overwhelming support from representatives across
Muslim-majority and minority provinces for Jinnah’s demand for a
separate Muslim homeland, laying the foundation for Pakistan.

14 marks
 78

Q: Was the main reason why Congress rule (1937 – 1939) was
hated so much because of the Bande Matram? Explain your
answer. [14]
The Congress rule from 1937 to 1939 was deeply hated by
Muslims, but the hatred was not only because of the Bande

IO
Matram. While the compulsory singing of this Hindu national song
in provincial assemblies offended Muslims, there were many other
policies and actions of the INC that created fear and resentment.
The Bande Matram, composed by Bankim Chatterji, included lines

D
praising Hindu gods like Durga and Lakshmi, and its daily singing
made Muslims feel they were being forced to accept Hinduism. This
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
was certainly a visible symbol of religious pressure, but it was part
of a larger set of measures that targeted Muslims’ culture and
religion.
The INC introduced several anti-Muslim measures, which together
S
were called INC tyrannies. The Congress flag was hoisted along
with the Union Jack to show that political power belonged only to
the British and the INC. Muslims were forbidden to eat beef, were
punished for slaughtering cows, and were often prevented from
WS

building new mosques. During prayers, Azan was disturbed, drums

were beaten in front of mosques, and pigs were thrown into
mosques in some areas. Sometimes, Muslims were even attacked
in anti-Muslim riots, with their homes and property destroyed.
These measures made Muslims feel unsafe and convinced them
that their religion, culture, and political rights would be ignored in a
Hindu-dominated India.
 79

Education under the Wardha Scheme also caused fear among

Muslims. Teaching was made in Hindi, religious education was
banned, and students had to spin cotton by hand as part of their
lessons. Muslim students were also required to bow before
Gandhi’s portrait, which went against their religious beliefs. The
Urdu language was undermined, and Muslims saw these policies
as a direct threat to their culture and identity. The combination of
these policies, along with the compulsory singing of Bande Matram,

IO
created a sense of insecurity and oppression that went far beyond
one song.
While the Bande Matram was an important symbol of Hindu

D
dominance, the hatred for INC rule was much broader. Muslims felt
politically marginalized because INC governments refused to share
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
real power, often ignoring Muslim representation. Policies in
education, religion, and culture made Muslims feel that the INC
wanted them to assimilate into Hindu traditions, and this reinforced
the idea that their survival in a united India would be difficult.
S
The Day of Deliverance, celebrated by Muslims on 22 December
1939 after the resignation of INC ministers, reflected their deep
resentment. The celebration was called by Muhammad Ali Jinnah
WS

to mark relief from policies that threatened Muslim rights and

culture. It was a response not only to the Bande Matram but to all
the anti-Muslim measures, the disrespect to mosques, and the
policies that ignored Muslim identity.
In conclusion, the main reason Muslims hated the INC rule was not
only the Bande Matram, though it was a very visible and offensive
symbol. The hatred was also due to a series of anti-Muslim policies,
 80

including restrictions on religious practices, attacks on culture and

language, educational policies, and political marginalization.
Together, these measures created fear, insecurity, and resentment,
which made the INC rule deeply unpopular among Muslims and
strengthened support for a separate political identity, ultimately
contributing to the Pakistan Movement.

IO
Q: Do you agree that the celebration of Day of Deliverance in
1939 was justified? Give reasons.

D
The Day of Deliverance was celebrated by the Muslim League (ML)
on 22 December 1939 after the resignation of all INC ministers from
the provincial governments. Muslims had many WARIS reasons
SHAHZAD to be
TU
unhappy with Congress rule from 1937 to 1939, as the INC had
introduced several anti-Muslim measures, often called the INC
tyrannies. The Congress flag was hoisted alongside the Union
Jack, signaling that real power belonged only to the British and
S
Congress. Muslims were forbidden to eat beef, slaughter cows, or
build new mosques, and in some areas, Azan was disturbed and
pigs were thrown in mosques. Anti-Muslim riots also occurred,
where Muslims were attacked and their homes and property were
WS

damaged. Even complaints to local authorities were ignored or

biased in favor of Hindus. Viceroy Lord Linlithgow admitted that
there were “many instances of continued oppression in small
ways.” These measures created fear among Muslims that their
religion and culture were under threat.
The Wardha Scheme and other educational policies also upset
Muslims. Schools were required to teach in Hindi, religious
 81

education was banned, and students had to spin cotton by hand.

Muslim students were sometimes forced to bow before Gandhi’s
portrait, which went against their religion. The Bande Matram, a
Hindu national song composed by Bankim Chatterji, was made
compulsory in assemblies, and its lyrics praised Hindu gods. This
made Muslims feel they were being forced to accept Hindu
traditions. All these actions contributed to the feeling that Muslims
were unsafe under INC rule, which justified celebrating the Day of

IO
Deliverance to mark relief from Congress policies.
However, the celebration was also partly unjustified. By separating
themselves from the INC, the Muslim League deteriorated relations

D
with Congress and reduced the possibility of a united Hindu-Muslim
front. The INC ministers had resigned to pressure the British
WARIS SHAHZADduring
TU
World War II, hoping to gain concessions for independence. By not
cooperating, the ML reduced the political pressure on the British,
who were focused on the war, and missed an opportunity for a joint
struggle. In hindsight, the celebration of the Day of Deliverance
strengthened division and may have delayed chances for a united
S
effort against British rule, even though it reflected genuine Muslim
grievances.
WS

In conclusion, the celebration of the Day of Deliverance was

justified to an extent, because INC policies had seriously
threatened Muslim culture, religion, and political rights. However, it
was not fully justified, because by breaking away from the INC, the
Muslim League lost the chance to work with Congress to push the
British toward independence. While the Day of Deliverance marked
relief from oppressive Congress rule, it also increased Hindu-
Muslim divisions and reduced cooperation against the British.
 82

Allama Iqbal and Ch Rehmat Ali

4 marks

Q: Who was Allama Iqbal? (4)

IO
Allama Iqbal was a philosopher and poet born in Sialkot in 1877.
He became famous for his poetry and was honored by the British
for his services. He was elected to the Punjab Legislative Assembly

D
in 1926. Iqbal gained wide recognition after his Allahabad address
in 1930, where he suggested the idea of a Muslim state in the
north-western Muslim-majority provinces of India. He also
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
represented Muslims in the second and third Round Table
Conferences and encouraged Jinnah to return to India to lead the
Muslims. He died in 1938, and Jinnah paid him tribute during the
Lahore Resolution in March 1940.
S
Q: What was Allahabad Address? (4)
The Allahabad Address was delivered by Allama Iqbal in 1930
WS

while presiding over a Muslim League session in the absence of

Jinnah. In this speech, he asked Muslims for a separate homeland
and suggested that the north-western Muslim-majority provinces of
India, including Punjab, Sindh, NWFP (now KPK), and Baluchistan,
could form this future Muslim state. The address highlighted the
need to protect Muslim rights, religion, and culture. Because of this
vision, Iqbal is often called the architect of Pakistan.
 83

Q: Who was Ch. Rehmat Ali? (4)

Chaudhry Rehmat Ali was born in 1897 and studied in England in
the 1930s. He attended the Round Table Conferences and strongly
opposed the idea of an Indian federation, instead supporting a
separate and independent Muslim state in the north-western
Muslim-majority provinces of India. In 1933, he introduced the word
“Pakistan” in his pamphlet Now or Never, where each letter

IO
represented a Muslim-majority region. Although his idea became
popular among some Muslims, Jinnah considered the plan too early
and did not fully support him, so Rehmat Ali was less famous than
Allama Iqbal and Jinnah.

D
Q: What was Now or Never? (4)
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Now or Never was a pamphlet published in 1933 by Chaudhry
Rehmat Ali. In it, he proposed the creation of a separate Muslim
state in the north-western provinces of India. This pamphlet was the
first to use the name “Pakistan”, where each letter stood for a
S
Muslim-majority region: Punjab, Afghania (NWFP), Kashmir, Sindh,
and Baluchistan. The pamphlet argued that Muslims could not live
safely in a united India and needed their own independent
homeland.
WS

7 marks

Q: Why was Dr Allama Muhammad Iqbal was asked to chair

the Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930? (7)
 84

Firstly, Allama Iqbal was asked to chair the Muslim League at

Allahabad in 1930 because by that time he had become a well-
known poet, thinker, and politician. His poetry inspired Indian
Muslims and gave them a sense of Muslim identity and nationalism.
It encouraged Muslims to work hard and be independent in all
areas of life. This made him respected as a wise and sincere leader
who cared about the future of Muslims in India.

IO
Secondly, Iqbal’s views were different from Jinnah’s at the time.
Jinnah hoped for some kind of joint struggle with Hindus against the
British and even suggested dropping separate electorates for
Muslims if Congress accepted his amendments in the Nehru

D
Report. Iqbal, however, was against any unity with Hindus because
he feared the consequences of a Hindu-majorityWARIS India. He also
SHAHZAD
TU
opposed British rule because it went against Islamic principles, and
he criticized colonialism in his speeches. Over time, his ideas
developed into a demand for a separate homeland for Muslims.
Lastly, Iqbal used his influence to persuade Muslim League
S
leaders to organize an effective political force to protect Muslims’
rights. He had studied the Western colonial system during his time
in Europe and understood the dangers of both British imperialism
WS

and Hindu dominance in India. Because of his knowledge, vision,

and respected status, he was seen as the right person to represent
Indian Muslims. At the Allahabad session of 1930, he formally
demanded a separate Muslim state and explained his ideas clearly
in his historic address, which later inspired the Pakistan Movement.
 85

Q: Why was the Allahabad address important for the Muslims?

(7)
Firstly, the Allahabad Address of Allama Iqbal in 1930 was
important because it gave Muslims a clear political vision for the
future. In his speech, Iqbal suggested the idea of a separate
Muslim state in the north-western Muslim-majority provinces of
India, including Punjab, Sindh, NWFP (KPK), and Baluchistan. This

IO
made Muslims start thinking seriously about protecting their
religion, culture, and political rights in a Hindu-majority India.
Secondly, the address inspired Muslims to unite politically. Iqbal’s

D
words encouraged them to support the Muslim League and work
together for their own interests. He showed that Muslims needed a
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
strong political platform to ensure their rights and future security,
especially because Congress policies were becoming Hindu-
dominated and anti-Muslim. His speech made Muslims aware that
they could not rely on others to protect them.
S
Lastly, the Allahabad Address became a foundation for the idea of
Pakistan. Because of this address, Iqbal is called the “Architect of
Pakistan”. His vision influenced future Muslim leaders, especially
Jinnah, to demand a separate homeland. It gave Muslims hope and
WS

direction, helping them prepare for the political struggle that

eventually led to the creation of Pakistan.
Q: Why was Ch. Rehmat Ali important?
Firstly, Chaudhry Rehmat Ali was important because he presented
the first clear scheme for an independent Muslim homeland. As a
young student, he attended the Round Table Conferences in
 86

London in the 1930s and opposed any kind of Indian federation. He

wanted Muslims to have a separate state in the north-western
Muslim-majority provinces of India and tried to persuade Muslim
leaders to accept his plan, though most of them were not convinced
at that time.
Secondly, Rehmat Ali gave the name “Pakistan” to the proposed
Muslim state in his famous pamphlet Now or Never, published in

IO
1933. The word Pakistan literally means “land of the pure”, and
each letter represented a Muslim-majority region: Punjab, Afghania
(NWFP), Kashmir, Iran, Sindh, Tokharistan, Afghanistan, and
Balochistan. Even though Jinnah did not meet him, the Muslim

D
League later adopted the name Pakistan for the future independent
Muslim state, and the Lahore Resolution of 1940 isWARIS
also called the
SHAHZAD
TU
Pakistan Resolution.
Lastly, Rehmat Ali’s ideas were ahead of his time. Unlike Allama
Iqbal, who suggested a Muslim state either within or outside India,
Rehmat Ali demanded a completely separate and independent
S
country. Most Muslim leaders did not accept his ideas initially, but
his work introduced the concept of partition and influenced many
Muslims to seriously think about a separate homeland in the 1930s.
WS

Q: Why did Muslims not demand complete independence from

Britain before 1940? (7)
Firstly, Muslims did not demand complete independence from
Britain before 1940 because they wanted a greater role in
governing India while still under British protection. On Jinnah’s
 87

advice, the Muslim League in 1913 changed its policy from

supporting the British to asking for self-rule, especially after feeling
betrayed by the reversal of the partition of Bengal in 1911. The
League was careful not to pressure the British too much because
they feared that if the British left too soon, Muslims would be at the
mercy of the Hindu majority.
Secondly, Muslims were further cautious after the Nehru Report of

IO
1928, which rejected Muslim demands such as separate
electorates and one-third of the seats in the Central Legislative
Assembly. The report called these demands “illegal fears” and
proposed a strong central government that would be dominated by

D
Hindus. Jinnah tried to persuade the INC to accept amendments to
protect Muslim rights, but the Congress rejected his
WARISadvice.
SHAHZAD Until
TU
the late 1930s, Jinnah still hoped for Hindu-Muslim unity and
believed Muslims could have security without demanding complete
independence.
Lastly, the INC rule of 1937–1939 changed everything. The
S
Congress introduced a number of anti-Muslim policies in the
provinces it controlled, which made Muslims realize that living
under a Hindu-dominated India would threaten their religion,
WS

culture, and political rights. This experience forced Jinnah and the
Muslim League to formally demand a separate Muslim homeland,
which was finally presented in the Lahore Resolution of March
1940. This was why Muslims did not seek full independence from
Britain before 1940—they first sought protection and security within
the framework of British rule.
 88

14 marks

Assess the significance of the contributions of Allama Iqbal

and
Rehmat Ali to the Pakistan Movement. Explain your answer.

IO
Or
Was the work of Allama Iqbal more important to the Pakistan
Movement than that of Rehmat Ali? Explain your answer. [14]

D
Allama Iqbal and Chaudhry Rehmat Ali both made important
contributions to the Pakistan Movement, but in WARIS SHAHZAD
different ways.
TU
Allama Iqbal was a poet, philosopher, and politician. He became
famous for his inspiring poetry, which encouraged Muslims to be
proud of their culture, religion, and heritage. He was elected to the
Punjab Legislative Assembly in 1926 and later presided over the
S
Muslim League session in Allahabad in 1930. In his Allahabad
Address, he explained the Two Nation Theory and suggested that
the north-western Muslim-majority provinces, including Punjab,
WS

Sindh, NWFP, and Balochistan, could form a separate Muslim

state. His ideas made many Muslims seriously consider the
possibility of Pakistan.
Iqbal’s poetry and speeches gave Muslims hope and direction. He
warned that the British and Hindus were often opposed to Muslim
interests and emphasized that European-style democracy could not
work in India without recognizing communal groups. His work
 89

inspired Muslims to unite politically and culturally. He also

persuaded Jinnah to return to India to lead the Muslim community,
which was a key step in organizing the movement. Because of his
vision and leadership, Iqbal is called the “Architect of Pakistan.” His
ideas formed the foundation for the political demands that the
Muslim League would later make.
Chaudhry Rehmat Ali contributed by turning the idea of a Muslim

IO
homeland into a concrete plan. While studying in England in the
1930s, he opposed any kind of Indian federation and proposed a
completely independent Muslim state in the north-western
provinces. In 1933, he published the pamphlet Now or Never, in

D
which he coined the name “Pakistan”, meaning the land of the pure.
Each letter represented a Muslim-majority region: Punjab, Afghania
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
(NWFP), Kashmir, Sindh, Tokharistan, Iran, Afghanistan, and
Balochistan. Although most Muslim leaders and Jinnah did not
initially support him, his ideas helped the Muslim League adopt the
name Pakistan for the independent state, and the Lahore
Resolution of 1940 is sometimes called the Pakistan Resolution
S
because of his influence.
Both Iqbal and Rehmat Ali influenced the idea of Pakistan, but
WS

Iqbal’s contribution was broader. His Allahabad Address clearly

explained why Muslims needed their own homeland and inspired
them to unite politically. His poetry created a sense of Muslim
nationalism and gave the movement energy. Rehmat Ali’s
contribution was more practical, giving a name and a concrete map
for the future state, but it did not immediately gain widespread
support.
 90

Iqbal’s work also had a lasting impact on Jinnah and the Muslim
League. His ideas strengthened the League’s position and helped
Muslims see the importance of demanding a separate state.
Without Iqbal’s vision and guidance, it is unlikely that the demand
for Pakistan would have gained the political and emotional strength
it needed. Rehmat Ali’s ideas complemented Iqbal’s by providing a
practical plan, but the movement needed Iqbal’s inspiration to grow.

IO
In conclusion, both Allama Iqbal and Chaudhry Rehmat Ali played
key roles in the Pakistan Movement, but Iqbal’s contribution was
more significant. His poetry, speeches, and leadership laid the
foundation of Muslim nationalism, guided Jinnah’s leadership, and

D
prepared Muslims for the demand for Pakistan. Rehmat Ali helped
give a name and practical vision, but Iqbal’s WARIS
ideasSHAHZAD
gave the
TU
movement its direction, unity, and inspiration, making him the
central figure in the creation of Pakistan.
S
Q: Which of the following contributed the most to the Pakistan
Movement:-
(i) Allama Iqbal’s Address of 1930
WS

(ii) Chaudhry Rehmat’s scheme of Pakistan

(iii) Jinnah’s Lahore Resolution of 1940? (14)
All three contributions—Allama Iqbal’s Allahabad Address,
Chaudhry Rehmat Ali’s Pakistan scheme, and Jinnah’s Lahore
Resolution—were very important for the Pakistan Movement, but
 91

each played a different role. Allama Iqbal, a philosopher, poet, and

politician, gave his historic Allahabad Address in December 1930,
where he explained the Two Nation Theory. He said that Muslims
were a distinct community in India and predicted the need for a
separate homeland in the north-western Muslim-majority provinces:
Punjab, NWFP, Sindh, and Balochistan. He also spoke against
Western imperialism and emphasized that European-style
democracy could not be applied in India without recognizing

IO
communal groups. His ideas inspired Muslims to consider the
division of India and persuaded Jinnah to return to India, later
making him known as the Architect of Pakistan.

D
Chaudhry Rehmat Ali contributed by giving the Pakistan Movement
a name and a concrete plan. While studying in Cambridge
WARIS SHAHZADin the
TU
1930s, he attended the Round Table Conferences and developed
the idea of a completely independent Muslim state in the north-
western provinces. In 1933, he published the pamphlet Now or
Never, where he coined the word “Pakistan”, meaning “land of the
pure”. Each letter represented a Muslim-majority area: P for
S
Punjab, A for Afghania (NWFP), K for Kashmir, S for Sindh, TAN
for Balochistan. Although most Muslim leaders, including Jinnah,
considered the idea premature, the Muslim League later adopted
WS

the name Pakistan, and Rehmat Ali’s vision influenced the

movement’s goals.
The Lahore Resolution of 1940, led by Jinnah, marked the formal
political demand for Pakistan. Initially, Jinnah supported a
federation of India with maximum provincial autonomy, but the
INC’s rule from 1937 to 1939 showed Muslims that their rights
could not be protected in a Hindu-majority India. At the ML session
 92

on 22–23 March 1940, the resolution demanded that Muslim-

majority regions in the north-west and north-east of India be
grouped as independent states with full autonomy. This resolution
gave Muslims a clear and achievable goal and marked the start of
the active struggle for Pakistan, which was achieved seven years
later in 1947.
Allama Iqbal’s address was important because it inspired Muslim

IO
nationalism and gave a vision for a separate homeland. It prepared
the minds of Muslims to see themselves as a distinct nation.
Rehmat Ali added a practical plan and a name for the state, which
helped Muslims identify a specific goal. The Lahore Resolution,

D
however, was the political action that turned these ideas into a real
movement, uniting Muslims under the leadership of WARIS
Jinnah.
SHAHZAD
TU
Iqbal and Rehmat Ali laid the intellectual and conceptual
foundations of Pakistan. Without Iqbal, Muslims may not have had
the inspiration or political confidence to demand a separate state.
Without Rehmat Ali, the movement would have lacked a name and
S
clear map of the Muslim homeland. Together, their contributions
gave direction, motivation, and identity to the Pakistan Movement.
In conclusion, while all three contributions were crucial, the Lahore
WS

Resolution of 1940 was the most significant. It converted ideas into

action, provided Muslims with a tangible political goal, and started
the organized struggle for Pakistan. The work of Iqbal and Rehmat
Ali laid the foundation, but it was Jinnah and the Lahore Resolution
that made the creation of Pakistan possible.
 93

Pakistan Movement 1940-47

● Lahore Resolution 1940
● Cripps Mission 1942
● Quit India Movement 1942
● Gandhi Jinnah talks 1944
● Wavel Plan 1945
● Simla conference 1945

IO
● Elections 1945-46
● Cabinet Mission Plan 1946
● 3rd June Plan and partition 1947

D WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Q: What was the Lahore/Pakistan Resolution?
S
The Lahore Resolution was passed at the annual meeting of the
All-India Muslim League held at Minto Park in Lahore on 22 March
WS

1940. The meeting was led by Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali

Jinnah and was attended by Muslim League members from
different parts of India. During the meeting, Maulvi Fazl-ul-Haq
presented a resolution demanding a separate and independent
Muslim state for the Muslims living in Muslim-majority areas. The
resolution was passed on 23 March 1940 and was called the
Lahore Resolution, which later became known as the Pakistan
Resolution.
 94

Why did ML make a demand for Pakistan in 1940? (7)

Firstly, the Muslims wanted a separate homeland where they could
live freely and safely. Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the
All-India Muslim League tried many times to work with Hindus to
keep India united. Jinnah even agreed to accept the Nehru Report
with some changes to protect Muslim political rights, but the Indian
National Congress refused. After this, Jinnah presented his 14

IO
Points, but these were also rejected.
Secondly, during the Second Round Table Conference in 1931,
Mahatma Gandhi refused to give proper constitutional protection to

D
Muslims. He believed that religious freedom alone was enough, but
Jinnah did not agree. Jinnah felt that Muslim rights would not be
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
safe in a Hindu-dominated India. This disagreement increased the
gap between Hindus and Muslims.
Lastly, the rule of the Congress from 1937 to 1939 badly affected
Muslims. Muslims faced unfair treatment, their religious freedom
S
was attacked, and Muslim students were forced to follow Hindu
practices under the Wardha Scheme. Because of these actions,
Muslims felt unsafe under Hindu rule. Therefore, the Muslim
League celebrated the Day of Deliverance and decided to demand
WS

a separate country, Pakistan, where Muslims could live without

fear.

WW2
 95

Q: Describe the Atlantic Charter. [4]

The Atlantic Charter was an agreement made in August 1941
during the Second World War between the British Prime Minister
Winston Churchill and the US President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Both leaders met on a ship near the coast of Newfoundland. In the
Atlantic Charter, they agreed that all nations should have the right
to self-determination, self-government, and freedom of speech.

IO
They also supported fair economic conditions for all countries and
said that force should not be used to solve problems.

D
What was the August Offer? (4)
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
The August Offer was made in August 1940 by the Viceroy Lord
Linlithgow during the Second World War. He promised that no new
constitution for India would be made without the agreement of the
Muslims.
S
However, the Muslim League wanted equal or more Muslim
members in the Defence Council. This demand was refused, so the
Muslim League rejected the August Offer and its members resigned
from government posts.
WS

What was the Cripps Mission Plan? (4)

The Cripps Mission Plan was announced in March 1942 when the
British sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India. He tried to solve the
political problems between the British and the Indians. He offered
 96

India Dominion Status after the Second World War and said that a
Constituent Assembly would be elected to make a new constitution.
The plan also allowed any province to leave the Union if it wanted.
However, the plan was rejected by Mahatma Gandhi and
Muhammad Ali Jinnah for different reasons.

IO
What was the Quit India Movement/Resolution? (4)
The Quit India Movement started in August 1942. In May 1942,
Mahatma Gandhi spoke at a meeting of the Indian National

D
Congress in Allahabad and strongly criticised the British for not
keeping their promises made in the Cripps Mission Plan. He asked
the Congress to begin a non-violent struggle against British rule.
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
On 8 August 1942, the Quit India Resolution was passed,
demanding that the British leave India immediately. This caused
protests and riots across the country, and the British used force to
control the situation.
S
WS

7 marks

Why did the Cripps Mission fail? (7)

 97

Firstly, the Cripps Mission Plan did not satisfy either the Indian
National Congress or the All-India Muslim League. In March 1942,
the British sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India. He offered India
Dominion Status after the Second World War and said that a
Constituent Assembly would make a new constitution. He also said
that provinces could leave the Union of India, but he did not clearly
explain what would happen to those provinces.

IO
Secondly, Muhammad Ali Jinnah rejected the plan because it did
not clearly accept the idea of Pakistan. He was unhappy with the
“opting out” clause and wanted the British to clearly recognise
Pakistan, which the Muslim League had already demanded in

Cripps Mission.
D
March 1940. Because of this, the Muslim League did not accept the
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Lastly, Mahatma Gandhi also rejected the plan. He called it a
“post-dated cheque on a failing bank,” meaning he did not trust the
British promises. He believed the British would leave India after the
war and could not keep their promises. In May 1942, he started the
S
Quit India Movement, after which he was arrested.
WS

Why did the Congress start the Quit India Movement? (7)
Firstly, Mahatma Gandhi was very unhappy with the failure of the
Cripps Mission Plan. In May 1942, while speaking at a meeting of
the Indian National Congress in Allahabad, he criticised British
 98

behaviour and said it had caused great pain to Indians. He believed

the British were not serious about giving India freedom.
Secondly, there was fear of a Japanese attack on India because
Japan had captured Singapore. Gandhi argued that if the British left
India, Japan would not attack. Even if Japan did attack, he believed
Indians could resist through non-violent protest based on his idea of
Satyagraha.

IO
Lastly, Gandhi knew that after the Second World War the British
would not be able to rule India because they had suffered heavy
losses in the war. On 8 August 1942, the All India Congress

D
Committee passed the Quit India Resolution, demanding that the
British leave India at once. Gandhi called for a peaceful mass
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
movement. Soon after, Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and other
leaders were arrested and the Congress was banned. This caused
unrest across India. The British used strong force to control the
situation, but pressure on them continued to increase.
S
WS

Why did the Muslim League condemn the Quit India

Movement? (7)
Firstly, the Quit India Movement was started in 1942 by Mahatma
Gandhi and the Indian National Congress to force the British to
 99

leave India. The All-India Muslim League believed that this

movement would fail and only make the British more angry. The
British reacted strongly and used force, which caused many deaths.
The Muslim League felt this suffering was unnecessary and
harmful.
Secondly, Muhammad Ali Jinnah believed that the Quit India
Movement was a plan by Congress to take full control of India after

IO
the British left. He feared that Congress would then ignore Muslim
demands and would never agree to the creation of Pakistan. He
also said that Congress was trying to pressure and blackmail the
British at a time when they were busy fighting the Second World
War.

D WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Lastly, although Gandhi talked about Hindu-Muslim unity, the
Muslim League did not trust Congress. On 16 August 1942, a
meeting of the Muslim League Working Committee was held in
Bombay under Jinnah’s leadership. The League decided that the
Quit India Movement was really meant to establish Hindu rule in
S
India. Jinnah advised Muslims to stay peaceful and not take part in
the movement or in any anti-Congress action.
WS

Gandhi Jinnah Talks 1944

What were the Gandhi Jinnah Talks? (4)
The Gandhi–Jinnah Talks were held in 1944 to discuss the future of
India. After his release from prison in May 1944, Mahatma Gandhi
 100

wrote to Muhammad Ali Jinnah and asked to meet him. Jinnah

invited Gandhi to his house in Bombay, where several meetings
were held in September 1944. The talks failed because Gandhi did
not accept the Two-Nation Theory and wanted a united struggle
against the British. He also wanted defence and foreign policy to be
controlled by the central government, which Jinnah did not agree
with.

IO
Why did the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks fail?
Firstly, the talks failed because Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammad
Ali Jinnah did not agree on representation. After Gandhi’s release

D
from jail in May 1944, meetings were held at Jinnah’s house in
Bombay in September 1944. Gandhi wanted to be treated as a
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
leader of all Indians, but Jinnah saw him only as a leader of the
Indian National Congress. This created mistrust between the two
leaders.
Secondly, Gandhi rejected the Two-Nation Theory. He believed
S
that Muslims were not a separate nation and said religion alone
could not make a nation. Jinnah strongly disagreed and argued that
Hindus and Muslims had different history, culture, and traditions.
Because of this basic difference in ideas, they could not reach an
WS

agreement.
Lastly they disagreed on power and trust. Jinnah wanted important
matters like defence and foreign policy to be controlled by the
provinces, while Gandhi wanted these powers with the central
government. Gandhi also said he would consider partition only if
the Muslim League joined Congress in a joint struggle against the
 101

British. Jinnah did not trust this offer, so the talks ended without
success.

The Simla Conference, 1945

Describe the Simla Conference/Wavell Plan. (4)

IO
The Simla Conference was held in June 1945 under the Wavell
Plan. The plan was made by the Viceroy Lord Wavell after
discussing it with the British government. He invited all major Indian
political parties to Simla to discuss the future government of India.

D
The plan suggested an Executive Council with equal numbers of
Hindu and Muslim members, while defence would remain under the
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Viceroy and a British member. However, the conference failed on
14 July 1945 because Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah
could not agree on Muslim representation.
S
WS

Why did the Simla Conference fail? (7)

Firstly, the Simla Conference was held in June–July 1945 under
the plan made by the Viceroy Lord Wavell. The conference was
 102

held in Simla and was attended by all major political parties. The
plan suggested an Executive Council with equal numbers of Hindu
and Muslim members. Muhammad Ali Jinnah argued that non-
Muslim minorities like Sikhs, Christians, and Scheduled Castes
would support the Indian National Congress, making Muslims weak
in the Council. Lord Wavell refused to increase the number of
Muslim members, so disagreement started.

IO
Secondly, Gandhi tried to weaken the claim of the All-India Muslim
League that it represented all Muslims. He demanded that
Congress should be allowed to nominate some Muslim ministers as
well. Jinnah strongly rejected this idea and said that the Muslim

D
League had won all Muslim seats in elections since 1940. This
issue created serious conflict between Congress WARIS
and SHAHZAD
the Muslim
TU
League.
Lastly, Jinnah feared that accepting Gandhi’s demand would
damage the Muslim League’s position in Muslim-majority areas,
especially in the NWFP where Congress was strong. Because of
S
this fear and continued disagreement, no agreement could be
reached on the Wavell Plan. As a result, the Simla Conference
ended in failure.
WS

Do you agree that during the Second World War there was no
significant progress towards independence in the sub-
continent? Give reasons for your answer. [14]
 103

During the Second World War, there were several attempts to

negotiate India’s future, but the results were mixed. The Indian
National Congress resigned from provincial governments at the
start of the war to pressure the British for independence. The British
needed India’s support in the war, so they sent the Cripps Mission
in March 1942, led by Sir Stafford Cripps, with proposals for India’s
future. The plan offered a Union of India with mostly Indian
ministers and the possibility of Dominion status after the war. It also

IO
allowed provinces to opt out of the Union.
The Cripps Mission Plan was rejected by both Mahatma Gandhi
and Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Gandhi thought the British were not

D
serious and called it a “post-dated cheque on a failing bank.” He
started the Quit India Movement, and many INC leaders
WARIS SHAHZAD were
TU
arrested. Jinnah was unhappy because the plan did not clearly
mention Pakistan and the opting-out clause did not meet his
demands.
After Gandhi’s release, he wrote to Jinnah and proposed talks
S
about India’s future. Jinnah invited him to his home in Bombay in
1944, and several rounds of discussion were held. Gandhi
suggested a joint struggle between INC and ML, after which the
WS

partition could be discussed. The talks showed that Gandhi

recognized Jinnah as a major leader and was willing to consider
Muslims’ demands under certain conditions.
The talks ended in failure because Gandhi and Jinnah could not
agree on key points. Gandhi wanted to be treated as an Indian
leader for all communities, but Jinnah saw him only as an INC
spokesman. Gandhi rejected the Two-Nation Theory, saying a
 104

community could not become a nation just by religion. Jinnah

insisted that defence and foreign policy should be under provincial
governments if India remained united. This disagreement caused a
deadlock.
By 1945, the Second World War was ending, and the British started
planning to leave India. Lord Wavell drafted the Wavell Plan, and
the Simla Conference was held in June-July 1945. The plan

IO
suggested an interim Executive Council with equal numbers of
Hindu and Muslim ministers. All parties agreed in principle, but
Gandhi wanted to nominate some Muslim ministers too, and Jinnah
rejected this because he felt the Muslim League alone represented

D
all Muslims. The conference ended without success.
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Although these negotiations failed to give immediate independence,
they built political pressure on the British. The disagreements
between INC and ML delayed progress, but the talks showed that
both sides were strong political forces. Eventually, this pressure
contributed to the British decision to leave India and agree to the
S
partition in 1947. So, while there was little immediate progress
during the war, the negotiations helped create conditions for India’s
independence.
WS

The 1945 Elections

 105

Q: Describe the 1945-46 Elections. (4)

The 1945–46 elections were held on the orders of the British
Labour Prime Minister Clement Attlee, who asked Lord Wavell to
organize them for central and provincial assemblies. The Indian
National Congress campaigned for a united independent India,
while the All-India Muslim League wanted a separate Pakistan. The
Congress won 91% of non-Muslim votes and a majority in eight

IO
provinces, including 19 out of 36 seats in the NWFP. The Muslim
League won 87% of Muslim votes, all Muslim seats in the central
assembly, and 446 out of 495 seats in the provincial assemblies.

D
Why did ML perform better in the 1945 Elections? (7)SHAHZAD
WARIS
TU
Firstly, the Muslim League was now more organized and popular
than before. Muhammad Ali Jinnah had united the party and
encouraged it to build support from the grass roots. By 1938, chief
ministers from Assam, Bengal, and Punjab had joined the party,
S
and the ML won most by-elections between 1940 and 1945.
Secondly, the Muslim League launched a better election campaign
in 1945. It worked to improve its image because people earlier saw
WS

it as a party of rich Muslims only. Jinnah reached out to ordinary

Muslims in all provinces and gained their support. This made the
party stronger and more accepted by the general Muslim
population.
Lastly, the Congress rule from 1937–39 had scared many Muslims.
They felt their identity would be at risk in an India controlled by the
 106

Indian National Congress. The demand for Pakistan gave Muslims

a clear goal, and almost all Muslims voted for the Muslim League in
1945 to achieve that objective.

Was the success of the Labour Party in winning the British

General Election in 1945 the most important reason why the

IO
subcontinent of India was partitioned in 1947? Explain your
answer. [10/14]
The Labour Party won a big and unexpected victory in the 1945

D
General Election. It won 393 seats, while the Conservative Party
got only 197. The Labour Party was against imperialism and
wanted to support independence for India. After WARIS
thisSHAHZAD
election, it
TU
seemed likely that India could gain some form of independence.
However, the new government was pro-Congress and supportive of
Gandhi, so the idea of partition was not favored. Instead, they
preferred a federal India with one united country.
S
After the Simla Conference in 1945, Lord Wavell announced new
elections. The results showed that the Congress had control over
non-Muslim votes, while the Muslim League had strong support
WS

from Muslims. This meant that the Muslim League had become an
equal political force to the Congress. The demand for partition
could no longer be ignored by either Congress or the British
government.
In March 1946, the British Cabinet Mission arrived in India to make
a plan for independence as a federation. They met with about 470
Indian leaders. Jinnah insisted that partition was the only solution
 107

for Muslims. The Mission suggested grouping provinces to solve

the problem. The Muslim League agreed as long as the groupings
were compulsory, but Congress refused to follow any British plan.
The British decided to form an Interim Government with Jawaharlal
Nehru of Congress as its head. Members of the Muslim League
also joined the government later. However, the League worried that
the British might leave India without a proper settlement and that

IO
Congress would control the process of making the new country.
To put pressure on the British, the Muslim League organized Direct
Action Day in the summer of 1946. Massive riots broke out, and

D
thousands of people died. The British became increasingly worried
that a civil war could happen. This led them to consider partition
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
more seriously. The violence in Punjab in March 1947 convinced
Nehru that partition should happen quickly.
Finally, the 3rd June Plan of 1947, prepared by Lord Mountbatten,
formally brought about the partition in August 1947. The Labour
S
Party’s victory was a key factor in this outcome. After winning the
election, the party wanted to focus on rebuilding England after the
Second World War instead of keeping control of India. Their
support for Indian independence, as promised in the Atlantic
WS

Charter of 1941, made partition and independence possible.

The Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946

What was the Cabinet Mission Plan? (4)
 108

The Cabinet Mission Plan was sent to India in March 1946 by the
British. It included Sir Stafford Cripps, Lord Pethick-Lawrence, and
A. V. Alexander. The Mission first suggested forming an All India
Interim Government, but both the Indian National Congress and the
All-India Muslim League rejected it. Later, they proposed an Indian
Federation with three groups of provinces: Hindu-majority areas,
western Muslim provinces, and Bengal and Assam. The Muslim
League accepted this plan, but Jawaharlal Nehru said it was only a

IO
scheme and not binding on any government.

D
What was the Direct Action Day? (4)
Direct Action Day was called by the All-India Muslim League
WARIS SHAHZAD on 16
TU
August 1946. By this time, the British were planning to leave India,
and the Muslim League feared that Hindus would dominate the
country if Pakistan was not created. The League wanted to show
Muslim unity and strength, so they asked Muslims to prepare for
S
the final struggle for Pakistan. This day led to widespread
communal riots, especially in Calcutta, where about 4,000 people
were killed in what became known as the ‘Great Calcutta Killing’.
WS

What was the 3 June Plan? (4)

The 3 June Plan was announced by British Prime Minister Clement
Attlee and implemented by the new Viceroy Lord Mountbatten in
March 1947. He realized that India would have to be divided, so on
 109

3 June 1947 he announced that there would be two independent

states, India and Pakistan, each with Dominion status. Muslim-
majority provinces could choose which state to join. Both countries
would use the 1935 Act as their temporary constitution until new
constitutions were made.
What was the Radcliffe Award?

IO
The Radcliffe Award was announced on 16 August 1947 to decide
the border between India and Pakistan. Lord Mountbatten set up a
Boundary Commission led by Sir Cyril Radcliffe. The Commission
had four assistants, two chosen by the All-India Muslim League and

D
two by the Indian National Congress. The Muslim League was
unhappy because Calcutta in Bengal and Ferozepur and
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Gurdaspur in Punjab went to India, but Jinnah accepted the Award,
even though reluctantly.
What was the Independence Act?
The Independence Act was passed on 15 August 1947 and made
S
India and Pakistan two separate Dominion states. Each state could
make its own laws freely. The 1935 Act was used as a temporary
constitution until both countries made their own. Pakistan
WS

celebrated its Independence Day on 14 August, and India on 15

August.
Q: Who was Lord Mountbatten?
Lord Mountbatten was a great-grandson of Queen Victoria. He
joined the Royal Navy at the age of 16 and served as Supreme
Commander of South-East Asia during the Second World War. In
 110

March 1947, Prime Minister Clement Attlee sent him as the last
Viceroy of India. He created the plan for India’s independence and
partition, known as the 3 June Plan. On 15 August 1947, he
became the first Governor-General of independent India and
served until 21 June 1948. He and his family were killed by the Irish
Republican Army in 1979.

IO
Who was Mahatma Gandhi?
Mahatma Gandhi was the leader of India’s struggle for freedom

D
from British rule. He is famous for using non-violent methods, called
Satyagraha, to fight for justice and independence. Gandhi led many
important movements, including the Non-Cooperation Movement,
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Civil Disobedience Movement, and Quit India Movement. He
worked to unite Hindus and Muslims, improve the lives of the poor,
and promote truth and peace throughout India.
S
Who was Jawaharlal Nehru? (4)
Jawaharlal Nehru was a leader of the Indian National Congress and
WS

a key figure in India’s struggle for independence. He worked closely

with Mahatma Gandhi and supported non-violent methods to end
British rule. After independence in 1947, Nehru became the first
Prime Minister of India and helped build a modern, democratic, and
industrialized nation. He is also known for promoting education,
science, and foreign policy based on peace and cooperation.
 111

Were the 14 points of Mr. Jinnah the most important

achievement of Mr. Jinnah between 1929 and 1947? Do you
agree? (14)
The fourteen points of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, presented in 1929,
were a major achievement because they clearly stated the political
rights and safeguards for Muslims in India. These points demanded
one-third Muslim seats in the central government, protection of

IO
provincial boundaries, and that no law affecting any community
should be passed without the agreement of three-fourths of that
community. They became the foundation for all future negotiations
with the Indian National Congress and the British government, and

D
eventually influenced the demand for a separate Muslim state.
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
After returning from England in 1934, Jinnah reorganized the All-
India Muslim League and worked hard to strengthen its support in
Muslim-majority provinces. He traveled across India, raised the
party’s membership, and brought important leaders from Assam,
Bengal, and Punjab into the League. His efforts helped improve the
S
image of the Muslim League and made it a strong political force
among Indian Muslims.
The Lahore Resolution of 1940 was another key achievement.
WS

Presided over by Jinnah, it officially demanded a separate and

sovereign Muslim state in the north-western and north-eastern
provinces of India. This resolution marked the beginning of an
organized struggle for Pakistan, making Jinnah the central leader
guiding Muslims in their political and independence efforts.
Jinnah also played an important role during the Cripps Mission in
1942. He rejected the plan for a Union of India because it did not
 112

clearly define the status of provinces that wanted to opt out. By

insisting on a clear and specific mention of Pakistan, Jinnah
maintained the focus on the demand for a separate state and
ensured that the Muslim League’s position was strong during
negotiations.
The Gandhi-Jinnah talks of 1944 were another significant
achievement for Jinnah. Even though the talks failed, Gandhi

IO
recognized Jinnah as a major leader and negotiated on an equal
footing with the Muslim League for the first time. Jinnah stood firm
and did not accept any proposal to withdraw the demand for
Pakistan, showing his determination and political strength. The

D
conditional acceptance of Pakistan by Gandhi highlighted the
importance of Jinnah’s leadership in these negotiations.
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Finally, the victory of the Muslim League in the 1945 elections and
the announcement of the 3 June Plan in 1947 confirmed Jinnah’s
success. The League won most Muslim seats in the central and
provincial assemblies, which strengthened Muslim political power.
S
The 3 June Plan officially created two separate states, India and
Pakistan. This showed that the fourteen points were indeed
Jinnah’s most important achievement between 1929 and 1947, as
WS

they laid the groundwork for all negotiations that eventually led to
the creation of Pakistan.

The Cripps Mission Plan contributed the most towards the

creation of Pakistan between 1940 and 1947. Explain why you
might agree and disagree. (14)
 113

The Cripps Mission Plan of March 1942 was sent by the British to
India to gain support during the Second World War. It was led by
Sir Stafford Cripps and offered dominion status to India after the
war. The plan allowed any province to opt out of the Union of India.
This showed that the British were willing to consider giving India
self-rule in the future. Both Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammad Ali

IO
Jinnah rejected the plan, but for different reasons. Gandhi said the
British would leave India soon anyway and called it a “post-dated
cheque on a failing bank.” Jinnah rejected it because it did not
clearly mention Pakistan. By rejecting the plan, the British indirectly

D
recognized that a separate state for Muslims could be possible.
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Before the Cripps Mission, the Muslim League had already made
important progress with the Lahore Resolution in March 1940.
Presided over by Jinnah, the Resolution demanded that Muslim-
majority regions in north-western and eastern India be grouped to
form independent states. This resolution officially started the
S
Pakistan Movement and gave Muslims a clear political goal. It
showed that the Muslim League had become the main
representative of Muslims in India and strengthened Jinnah’s
WS

position for demanding Pakistan.

The Gandhi-Jinnah talks of 1944 were another important step, even
though they failed. Gandhi came to Jinnah to discuss the future of
India, which showed that he recognized Jinnah as a major leader
and the Muslim League as a key political party. Gandhi suggested
a joint struggle for independence first, followed by discussion of
partition, which showed a conditional acceptance of Pakistan.
 114

Jinnah, however, insisted on the two-nation theory and wanted

defence and foreign affairs under provincial control in a united
India. These talks highlighted Jinnah’s determination to achieve
Pakistan and strengthened the idea of a separate Muslim state.
The 1945-46 elections further boosted the Muslim League. The
League won 87% of Muslim votes and all 30 Muslim seats in the
Central Assembly. In the provincial assemblies, it won 446 out of

IO
495 seats. This proved that the Muslim League was the only
political party that represented Muslims effectively. The election
results increased the confidence of Muslims in the League and
strengthened their demand for Pakistan.

D
The Cripps Mission may be seen as an important contribution to
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
Pakistan because it hinted that the British were willing to leave
India and allowed provinces to opt out of a united India. This
possibility encouraged Jinnah and the Muslim League to push
harder for a separate state. Combined with the Lahore Resolution,
the Gandhi-Jinnah talks, and the success in the 1945-46 elections,
S
the Cripps Mission played a role in giving momentum to the
Pakistan Movement.
Finally, all these efforts led to the 3 June Plan of 1947, announced
WS

by Lord Mountbatten. This plan created India and Pakistan as two

separate states on 15 August 1947, with Muslim-majority provinces
voting to join Pakistan. Sindh and Balochistan joined Pakistan
directly, while Punjab, Bengal, and NWFP were divided or decided
by referendum. The 3 June Plan reflected the pressure and unity of
the Muslim League and showed that Jinnah’s consistent efforts,
 115

supported by the confidence gained after the Cripps Mission, were

crucial in achieving Pakistan.

To what extent was Direct Action Day more significant in the

creation of Pakistan than other key events of the 1940s?
Explain your answer. (14)

IO
The Direct Action Day of 16 August 1946 was called by the All-India
Muslim League to show the strength and unity of Muslims. The
League was worried about the future of Muslims after the British left

D
India and feared that a Hindu-dominated Congress would control
the country. The British were already inviting Congress to form an
interim government, which added to Muslim concerns. Jinnah
WARIS SHAHZAD
TU
asked Muslims to protest peacefully and in a disciplined way, but
violence erupted in many parts of India. In Calcutta alone, about
4,000 people died. The scale of the violence worried the British and
forced them to reconsider their plans for India’s future, showing that
S
the Muslim League was a powerful political force.
The Lahore Resolution of 1940 was another key event in the
creation of Pakistan. Presided over by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, it
WS

demanded that Muslim-majority regions in north-western and

eastern India be grouped to form independent states. This
resolution officially started the Pakistan Movement and gave
Muslims a clear political goal. It set the stage for all future actions
by the Muslim League and became the basis for demanding a
separate homeland.
 116

The Cripps Mission in March 1942 also influenced the creation of

Pakistan. Led by Sir Stafford Cripps, it offered dominion status to
India after the war and allowed provinces to opt out of the Union of
India. Gandhi rejected the plan because he knew the British would
soon leave India, while Jinnah rejected it because it did not clearly
mention Pakistan. The plan, though turned down, indirectly showed
that the British were willing to consider a separate Muslim state.

IO
The Gandhi-Jinnah talks of 1944 highlighted the political strength of
the Muslim League. Gandhi suggested a joint struggle for
independence, after which the issue of partition could be discussed.
Jinnah, however, insisted that Muslims were a separate nation with

D
distinct cultural, religious, and linguistic identities. He demanded
that defence and foreign affairs be under provincial WARIScontrol in a
SHAHZAD
TU
united India. Although the talks failed, they showed that Jinnah’s
determination and the Muslim League’s position were strong,
keeping the demand for Pakistan alive.
The 1945-46 elections gave a clear political advantage to the
S
Muslim League. It won 87% of Muslim votes, all 30 Muslim seats in
the Central Assembly, and 446 out of 495 seats in the provincial
assemblies. This proved that the League was the main
WS

representative of Muslims and strengthened their demand for

Pakistan. The election results showed both the British and
Congress that the Muslim League had the support of the majority of
Muslims in India, giving credibility to its claims for a separate state.
Finally, the 3 June Plan of 1947, announced by Lord Mountbatten,
formally divided India into India and Pakistan. Muslim-majority
provinces voted to join Pakistan, while the remaining areas stayed
 117

with India. The plan reflected the pressure and unity of the Muslim
League and the effect of Direct Action Day, which had forced the
British to take the demand for Pakistan seriously. In conclusion,
Direct Action Day was the most significant event in creating
Pakistan because the violence and demonstration of Muslim unity
persuaded the British to accept the idea of a separate Muslim
homeland.

D IO WARIS SHAHZAD
S TU
WS