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BCS 152: COMMUNICATION AND

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BCS 152: COMMUNICATION AND STUDY SKILL

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Nature and Purpose of communication

Definitions and meaning of communication

Several scholars have been studying communication for centuries. As such
great deal has been learnt about what it is and how it works (Bell and Smith,
2006). To communicate effectively, you need to consider:
i) How communication takes place, and
ii) How people could communicate even better.
The word ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’,
which means ‘to make common’ (Bell and Smith, 2006, p. 14). The primary
meaning of communication is not to recite, deliver, speak, write or sermonize.
These do not make the flow of ideas and feelings common because
communication is not a one-way activity or process. It involves promotion of
common interests shared by all the participants in the communication
process.
Communication means ‘making common’ your thoughts, ideas, opinions,
feelings and attitudes with the audience/receiver and receiving the response
of your audience to your thoughts and feelings. This is what skilled
communicators do. They promote mutual understanding by sharing meaning.
To do this, skilled communicators are able to send their information to the
intended receiver so that the receiver understands the information. According
to Bell and Smith (2006), it is essential for the communicator to be aware of
the following elements of communication:
a. The information source ( the idea or message they want to
communicate)
b. The signal (the stream of words or images they use to send the

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 message)
c. The transition (the sending of the message)
d. The channel (the medium in which they send the message);
e. The destination or receiver of the message; and
f. Feedback or response from the receiver.
Further, Adams and Calanes (2006) state that communication refers to the
perception, interpretation and response of people to messages produced by
other people. It is an exchange of information, ideas, opinions, feelings and
attitudes between two or more people. People send verbal and nonverbal
messages, words, gestures, facial expressions and so forth, and others
observe, interpret and respond to the messages in order to create mutual
understanding.
This means that members of a group pay attention to each other and
coordinate their communication behaviour to accomplish group tasks. It is
communication with others that creates the interdependence necessary for
individuals to be called a group.
From the definition above by Adams and Calanes, communication can also be
viewed as a dialogue between the sender and the receiver of the message
using previously agreed symbols to present their thoughts. The primary aim
of this exchange of thoughts is to create mutual understanding between the
sender and the receiver; to share meaning. It is therefore, a two-way process
in which people share human experiences. This exchange of information can
be through speech, writing and body or visual means or the combination of the
three methods.
Communication can also be defined as:
The giving, receiving or exchange of information and opinions, by
writing, speech or visual means or any combination of the three so that
the material communicated is completely understood by everyone
concerned (Sillars, 2010, p.1).
From this definition, it can be deduced that it is a process of exchanging ideas,

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facts, opinions, feelings and attitudes in order to create mutual understanding
between people and a process of sharing human experiences between people.
It is through communication that people persuade and influence others to do
what they want done. What people will do and how efficient they carry out
their duties largely depends on the quality of information they receive. To be
useful, information should be accurate, adequate and timely. Therefore,
communication affects performance.
People use communication to manage and resolve conflicts.

Characteristics of communication
Leggett, et al, (1978) outline seven characteristics of the various definitions of
communication:
i. Communication is symbolic. People communicate with one another
through the use of symbols to convey their thoughts. These symbols
include use of words, the body or parts of the body, numerals,
sounds, pictures and actions. The symbolic nature of
communication is central to any definition of communication.
A symbol is anything that arbitrary represents something else with
which it has no natural or direct relationship. For example, your name
has no relationship with who you are. It is merely a symbol that
represents you. All words are symbols and there is no inherent or
direct relationship between the word and what it represents.
Another example is that the same food can be referred to as dinner,
supper or evening meal.

The use of symbols in communication allows people to travel

simultaneously in the past, present and future. Symbols allow us to
name individual and group experiences, and naming our experiences
is the primary way we have to fuse that experience with meaning.
That is, the name carries with it a complex set of meanings
(denotative and connotative meanings). For example:

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 ● Leader
● Chairperson
● Secretary
● Africa
● Fail
● Student.
● Chair
● Commander
● Balance – the amount/ balance the scale/ …
Because symbols (words) are arbitrary, their meaning must be interpreted. A
problem can arise from misuse and misinterpretation of symbols (words). For
example by passing each other’s meaning (when you use homonyms). -Read
(present or past tense?), Pen (writing instrument and enclosure)

ii. The second characteristic of communication is that communication is

personal. This means that since communication is symbolic,
meanings are in people, not in words themselves. Consider the
following examples and see if everyone will have the same factors of
measurement/the same meaning:
● A nice person
● A good phone
● A beautiful woman
● A good student
Open to personal interpretations (arising from personal experiences)

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 iii. The third characteristic of communication is that it is a transactional
process, not a state. This means that communication is a complex
process involving human senses, feelings, emotions, meanings and
cultural experiences, not just words. It is difficult to tell the impact of
what you say on the listeners/receivers. It is also irreversible and
affects your future communication. It does not only involve sending
but also getting responses.

iv. Communication is both a sender and receiver phenomena. It is

interactive and has a dual nature. It is not a one-way process but
rather a two-way process. In this process no one is a permanent
sender or receiver.(role exchange/Interchangeability)
Communication is effective when two or more people interact
through exchange of information.

v. All messages involve content and relational dimensions. The content

dimension refers to the ideas or ‘what’ of the message while the
relational dimension refers to ‘how’ the message is expressed. This
is affected by the horizontal relationship of the interlocutors.
Superior /Senior and Subordinate/Junior: Major and Captain; Colonel
and Major,...

vi. Communication is intentional. Communication has as its central

interest those behavioural situations in which the source transmits a
message to the receiver with the intention to affect the latter’s
behaviour (Miller, 1966). It is not random or aimless, is purposeful.

vii. Communication is contextual. Communication always occurs within

some context such as cultural, relational, academic, religious,
business or psychological. Context helps to interpret spoken words.

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 Consider the following statement
Bring everything that is of no use in your house. Don’t forget your husband.

Nature of Communication
Communication is an integral part of human life. People spend most of their
time communicating with one self and with others. It is the art of sending and
receiving messages. Human communication has a profound effect on people.
It is through communication that people
conduct their life,
define themselves,
and it is vehicle by which relationships with others are
initiated,
maintained
and terminated.

It is therefore the life blood of human relationships and

experiences. It helps us to develop relationships, understand ourselves and
others and the world we live in.
It is a means through which people influence and persuade others to do what
they want done and influence change of behaviour. People are usually
persuaded by those they consider:
● As experts or specialists in that field;
● By those who are close to them;
● By those they like;
● By those they believe.
● By those who inspire them.
Persuasion is also dependent on one’s self-esteem. It is easier to persuade
people with low self-esteem than it is those with high self-esteem.
It is through communication that people manage and resolve conflicts. The

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Russia –Ukraine situation??
STOP 15/03/2022, START 16/03/2022

Aspects of Communication
Leggett et al. (1978) identify three aspects of communication:
i. As an exchange of ideas, information, facts, opinions, feelings and
attitudes among people, communication is concerned with getting
things or tasks done. It is a tool that is used to get tasks done, to
meet human needs: get others do what you want them to do willingly
in order to achieve certain goals and objectives. In this respect,
communication is used to
● inform others,
● command,
● instruct,
● influence,
● persuade others,
● educate,
● make requests,
● seek information or
● entertain others.
In this aspect, communication affects an individual’s performance. The
quality of work done largely depends on how effective communication
is. To be effective, communication should be:
●Clear to both parties involved;
●Complete by providing all the relevant details needed (being
factual);
●Correct in all aspects (facts, spellings, grammar, punctuation, style,
format and tone);

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 ● Concise by being brief and to the point, and avoiding unnecessary
information or wordiness/verbosity (the fact or quality of using more
words than needed)

●Courteous by being polite and tactful, choosing your words and

tone carefully; and,
●Ethical – do not distort information; manipulate figures, lie, or
cheat. Truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, respect for self and
others, accuracy and honesty are essential in ethical
communication practice.
RARE Students

ii. The second aspect is that communication is used as a powerful

strategy to create, and maintain human relationships. We use
communication to get to know and understand ourselves and
others. If communication is used to get tasks done, then it is
important to create supportive relationships with others. We need to
establish and maintain meaningful and satisfactory human relations
with others in order to achieve our goals.
Human relations is a term that is used to describe how people who
work together THINK and TREAT one another. Often times, what you
think about yourself will determine how you treat yourself and what
you think about others will surely determine how you treat them.
Human communication is the heart of human relations.
Communication is what connects human beings and it helps you in
the following ways:
●Self-awareness which helps you to understand yourself better. It
helps you to understand why you behave and act the way you do.
This in turn, helps you to understand why others behave and act
differently. How you behave affects others;
●Self-acceptance-accepting yourself as you are;

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 ●Self-disclosure enables others to know and understand you;
●Trust yourself and others;
●Conflict management and dispute resolution-human relationships
are conflictual by nature and communication helps you resolve
conflicts caused by misunderstanding by avoiding ‘blame game’,
confrontation, or use of power but rather build consensus.
iii. The third aspect of communication is concerned with improving skills
that will enable us to convey information from one person to another.
In order to get work done, meet human needs, establish and
maintain mutual human relations, we all need to obtain and develop
sufficient competence at communicating early in our lives and
careers.
Since communication affects performance of individuals and their
relationship with others, we need to develop both sending and
receiving communication skills. We need to learn how to listen,
speak, read and write and interpret information, feelings and needs
of others.

Importance of communication
In human life ability to communicate efficiently is of utmost importance.
It is the basis for personal and organizational success because what the
individual or organization will do, largely depends on ability to communicate
and relate with others. Information can only be useful if it is accurate,
adequate, ethical and timely.
Effective communication is a pre-requisite for progress in [Link] organizations,
communication:
• links all the sections and departments of the organization together in
order to co-ordinate their activities;
• Enables everyone in the organization to know what is expected of them
(rights and obligations);

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 • Is a means of motivating others and influencing them to do what you
want them to do willingly;
• Enables those in management or leadership to base their decisions on
information received;
• Increases individual and organizational performance
• Improves interpersonal and group relationships.
• Stops or reduces rumours or misinformation.
• Enhances unity in the organisation.

With effective flow of information, members of an organization,

• can identify problems and resolve them;
• Can make intelligent decisions;
• Co-ordinate work flow;
• Supervise others;
• Develop and maintain mutual relationships with others;
• Promote unity, cohesion and cooperation;
• Conduct the affairs of the organization more efficiently & from an
informed position;
Poor communication leads to:
● Poor performance; inefficiency, demoralizing/ low moral, absenteeism;
● Conflicts, disputes, suspicions, mistrust, confusion, strikes, works
stoppages, riots;
● Increased employee turnover/ attrition
● Rumours, poor decisions, costly errors;
● Indiscipline, accidents;
● Poor interpersonal and interdepartmental relationships, poor human
relations; and
● Poor customer service delivery
●

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Why should you study communication?
1. Communication is essential. Studying communication is essential for
you because it is central in your life. Effective communication can help
you to solve problems in your personal and professional life and improve
your relationships with others. Communication experts believe that
poor communication is the main cause of many problems.
2. Communication is consequential. Every act of communication has
consequences; positive or negative. In other words, communication can
either constructive or destructive. What you say can have positive or
negative results. Communication principles and practices can resolve
disputes among nations, friends and families. Effective communication
may not solve all the problems but better communication practices
probably can begin to solve or avoid many problems.
3. Communication is ubiquitous. Communication is inevitable. No one can
avoid communication because we engage in communication every day
of life and communication plays a major role in every aspect of life. The
ability to communicate effectively can enhance and enrich a person’s
life.
4. Studying communication can improve the way you see yourself. Self
knowledge is as result of communication experiences. As we engage in
thought (intrapersonal communication) and interact with others
(interpersonal communication) we learn about ourselves.
This interaction helps us to develop self-awareness, self-concept and
self-efficacy. Communication affects self-perception which leads to
greater awareness and appreciation of self. This helps you to develop
self-confidence.
self-image, self-esteem, and the ideal self.
5. Studying can improve the way others see you (The way you present
yourself can change due to being exposed to new information/ trends.)
This is achieved through self-presentation and image management. As
you communicate, you learn how to control your behavior which will lead
to positive outcomes with others.

6. Studying communication can increase what you know about human

relationships. Studying communication includes learning about how
people relate to each other and what type of communication is
appropriate for a given situation. Most people value relationships with
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 others and find great comfort in family members, friends and community
relationships. Within these relationships, we learn about trust, intimacy
and reciprocity.
Human relations provide us with affection (receiving and providing
warmth and friendliness), inclusion (feelings that we belong and
providing others with messages that they belong), pleasure (to share
happiness and fun) and control (to manage our lives and to have
influence).

According to Schutz (1976) cited in Pierson (2003, p.170) there are three
basic IPC needs that are met when we interact with others;
●Need for inclusion or being involved with others;
●The need for affection (to love and be loved by others);
●The needs for control, influence others, and control our
environment.
There are also negative aspects of interpersonal relationships such as
obsession which includes fatal attraction, and jealousy, misunderstandings,
gossip, conflicts, selfishness, sexual, physical, mental and emotional abuse.
All these are harmful to individuals and destructive to relationships.
We also learn that:
● We are different from each other,
● Some people may be receptive or dismissive towards us;
● Others may behave as if they are superior or inferior to us;
● Others may be approachable and others may not;
● Others may be helpful or harmful; and
● Others may see things differently.
7. Studying communication can teach you life skills which will enhance
your success in your academic and professional life. Any job
advertisements will give you an understanding of the importance of
improving your communication skills in work places. Communication
skills are not only important for students at university but throughout
work life.
These life skills include:
●Oral skills such as listening and speaking skills;

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 ●Critical thinking ;
●Decision making;
●Problem solving, conflict resolution;
●Team building.
8. Studying communication can help you exercise freedom of speech.
Communication shapes your political life- to receive and communicate
information to express personal opinion.

Language and Communication

• Language is means through which human interactions take place: a
medium of communication;
• Language is a learnt, shared and arbitrary system of vocal symbols
used by people in the same speech community to interact/
communicate their cultural experiences and expectations;
• The use of language as means of communication entails use of words
as symbols that represent objects or concepts.

Variety and standards of language

• Language use changes with time and varies widely at any given time
(old and modern English)
• It varies from one geographical area to another, one occupational and
social group to another and from one setting/situation to another;
• The language used in conversation differs from written language
according to its audience and purpose.

Standard and Nonstandard English

• One of the most important kinds of variations is between standard and
nonstandard English;
• The distinction rests largely on the educational, economic and social
status of the people using the language (Leggett, Mead, and Charvat,
1978);
• Standard English describes the spoken and written language of

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 educated people;
It is the written language of business, education, journalism, law, public
documents and literature.

Varieties of Standard English

• Standard English varies according to its use or function;
• Such variations are referred to as functional varieties;
• Functional varieties are between informal and formal usage;
• The term Informal describes the English of everyday speaking and
writing, casual conversation between friends, business associates,
personal letters, and writing close to general speech.
• Formal English describes the language of books and articles,
academic and professional work

Nonstandard English
• Describes the language of people who have had relatively little formal
education;
• People who read and write but do not require that in their daily lives;
• It differs from standard English in its use of verb and pronoun forms;
• The distinctions between standard and nonstandard English are not
between good and bad or right and wrong but what is acceptable and
what is not in a particular situation.

Use of language
• Kuiper, Koenrand and Allan (2004) define a language as a code for
conveying a variety of information;
• A language contains set of symbols called words which are put
together to make phrases and sentences (word order);
• A code is a system of symbols that allows things to represent others
for the purpose of communication.

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Language Functions
Language has three main functions:
• It is the primary vehicle for human communication (ceremonial and
perfomative);
• It reflects both the personality of an individual and the culture of his or
her society;
• It makes possible the growth and transmission of culture from one
generation to another.
Forms of Communication
Nonverbal Form:
• Refers to communicating without using words;
• Is more difficult to study as it varies from culture to culture;
• Is sometimes sent unconsciously- without thinking about the
messages we send;
• Body language, facial expressions and vocal expressions are not easy
to control (self presentation);
• Can be used to: confirm, substitute or contradict verbal messages;
• It also includes use of graphics, statistical data, use of time, space and
clothing.

Nonverbal Form:
• Refers to communicating without using words;
• Is more difficult to study as it varies from culture to culture;
• Is sometimes sent unconsciously- without thinking about the
messages we send;

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 • Body language, facial expressions and vocal expressions are not easy
to control (self presentation);
• Can be used to: confirm, substitute or contradict verbal messages;
• It also includes use of graphics, statistical data, use of time, space and
clothing.
Verbal Form
• There is a limit to the use of non-verbal communication without the
help of words or language especially when discussing past events, ideas
or abstractions;
• We need symbols that stand for our thoughts;
• Verbal communication consists of words arranged in meaningful
patterns;
• The use of words could be orally or written.
Mass Media
• This form includes use of both electronic and print media;
• Electronic media include phones, television, faxes, teleconferencing,
internet and many such devices for sending and receiving information;
• Print media include newspapers, magazines, journals.
Use of words
• Words are mere symbols used to convey meaning;
• But a word is not the same as the object it stands for;
• When words are used by group of people to share meaning, they have
a language;
• To communicate effectively, a language would have to describe exactly
the world it represents;
• Yet, languages usually lack the complexity and dynamics of the things

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 they try to describe.
The symbolic nature of words can be summarized in three premises:
• Words which make up our store of knowledge are not the things they
represent (a map is not the territory);
• Words can never say everything about anything (the map does not
represent all of the territory);
• With language it is possible to speak words about words, words about
words and so on (Berlo, 1960).
Elements of Effective writing
• We depend on language to express ourselves;
• The effective use of language requires effective use of words;
• It also depends on how words are put together meaningfully (word
order);
• To use a language as means of expressing ourselves requires
developing both linguistic and communicative competences.
The Process of Communication
• The process of communication refers to both the elements of and how
communication takes place;
• The main terms or elements used to describe the process of
communication include:
– The source, sender, idea, encoding the idea/ message,
transmission, channel, noise, receiver, perception, decoding,
interpretation, understanding, and feedback.
Barriers to effective writing
• Barriers to effective use of language show in such forms as:
– Grammatical errors, that is failure to observe rules of the target

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 language;
– Poorly constructed sentences (word order and inflections);
– Inappropriate use of words, wrong spelling;
– Failure to use paragraphs and punctuation marks correctly;
– Failure to organize ideas logically and coherently.
Other barriers to effective communication
• Individual differences such as age, culture, attitudes, perceptions,
social status, level of education;
• Perceptual errors such as stereotyping, biasness, selective exposure
and selective perception;
• Severe competitiveness or rivalry between people; desire to
manipulate others, defensive climate;
• The context of communication;
• Sending the wrong message;
• Distortions, over communication;
• Poor communication skills, poor attitudes, poor interpersonal
relationships, hostility;
• Individual differences such as age, culture, attitudes, perceptions,
social status, level of education;
• Perceptual errors such as stereotyping, biasness, selective exposure
and selective perception;
• Severe competitiveness or rivalry between people; desire to
manipulate others, defensive climate;
• The context of communication;
• Sending the wrong message;

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 • Distortions, over communication;
• Poor communication skills, poor attitudes, poor interpersonal
relationships, hostility;
• Inference-observation confusion and frozen evaluation.
Study of words
• Words are the building blocks of sentences;
• We arrange words meaningfully to share messages with others;
• Words are symbols that are used to represent the world (concrete or
abstract);
• It is a name of something; a pairing of a symbol and something else
• The study of words begins with the dictionary;
A good dictionary records:
• Spelling of words;
– orthographic spelling (such as bread, brave, brain);
– Phonetic spelling which is concerned with how a word is
pronounced ( such as /bred/, /breiv/, /brein/;
– Word history (etymology)
– Word class/part of speech;(nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs, conjuctions, articles)
– Word structure
– Word forms, functions, relationship and word meaning.
Structure of words: Morphology
• A word has a class, structure, forms, function and meaning;
• The structure of a word refers to the internal parts that constitute the
word;

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 • Morphology is the study of morphemes, the smallest units of grammar;
• A word has a stem and inflection;
• The process in which words have internal structure is known as
morphological process.
Morphemes
Words are made up of morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest or minimal
building block of a word. It functions as part or the whole of a word:
Examples:
car, table, student, walk, write, work, speak
Ice-cold, sunlight, goodness, wonderful
Kindly, television, gentleness,
careful, carefully.
Types of morphemes
• Free morphemes refer to the part of the word that is a word on its own
(meaningful on its own;
• Examples: boy, happy, write, ice-cold, sun-light; gentle-man
• Bound morphemes refer to the part of the word that cannot stand on
its own ( meaningless own its own):
• Examples: un-; -ly; -ish; -ful; -al
Use of morphemes
• A morpheme can be attached to the stem of the word at the beginning
or end of the word;
• Examples:
– Unhappy beautiful happily
– Impossible smartly joyful

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 – Normal workerworkable
– Lovely co-pilot childhood
– carefulZambian organisation
Prefixes and suffixes
• A morpheme which is placed at the beginning of a stem/word is
referred to as a prefix;
• Another term we use for such a morpheme is affix;
• An affix placed after the stem is known as a suffix;
• Example of prefixes
– Uncooperative , unkind, impossible, befriend, dislike
Examples of suffixes Examples of suffixes
• Careful carefully slowly childish;
• Boyhood childish, selfish joyful;
• Zambian punishable careless;
• A prefix precedes a free morpheme;
– Unkind; rejoin, postpone,
• A suffix follows a free morpheme.
– Kindness scholarship beautiful
Derivational and Inflectional Morphology
• Bound morphemes are used in two distinctive ways:
– To create new words (derivational morphology);
– To change the form of words (inflectional morphology): for tenses
and plurals;
Words can be created by using prefixes, suffixes, or both (prefixation,

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suffixation and affixation);
Words can also be formed by compounding two free morphemes (duty-free,
signpost);
Prefixes change the meaning of a word but do not change the word class.
Suffixes
• Usually, but not always, change the class of the free morpheme to
which they are attached:
• Examples:
– Exploit (V)-ation exploitation (N)
– Joy (N) -ful joyful (Adj)
– Friend (N)-ship friendship (N)
Suffixes associated with nouns
• Words ending with the bound morphemes:
-acy, -action, -er/-or, -ess, -ity, -ment, -ness and –ship are usually nouns;
• Examples: diplomacy, similarity, taxation, department, writer, actor,
madness, relationship’
• Words with suffixes like: -able, -ful, -ical, -less, -like, -ous, and –y are
usually adjectives
Examples of suffixes associated with adjectives
• Profitable
• Accountable
• Desirable
• Empirical
• Gloomy

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 • Animal-like noise
• A godless society
• Courageous
Suffixes associated with verbs
• Words with the suffixes –ise or –ize are usually verbs:
Examples: dramatise, democratise, Zambianise, economize, sensitise;
• Suffixes associated with adverbs: Words with the suffix –ly are usually
adverbs
• Examples: slowly, quickly, carefully, faithfully, intelligently, and
democratically.
Inflectional morphology
Inflectional morphology
• Derivational morphology often involves a change in word class;
• However, inflectional morphology does not.
• In written English, inflection can mark the following:
i. Plurals:
Examples: student students; baby babies;
gas gases
Possessives of all nouns
ii. Examples:
iii. This girl’s purse.
iv. That is children’s hospital.
v. These are adults’ books.
vi. iii. Present tense:
vii. Examples: write- She writes; He cries.
viii. iv. Present participle form verbs:
ix. Examples:do doing; justify justifying

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Form and Function of words
• The same form/class of a word may perform different function or job in
a sentence.
Example:
i. John bought a new computer ( John functioning as subject).
ii. The school bought John a computer ( John functioning as an object).
iii. He jumped out of a moving car (modify).
iv. We are moving to the new campus next week.

Grammatical categories of words

• The major categories include:
– Phrases
– Noun phrases, verb phrases, adjectival phrases;
– Independent clauses, dependent clauses,
– Simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, multi-
complex sentences.

Grammatical categories of words

• The major categories include:
– Phrases
– Noun phrases, verb phrases, adjectival phrases;
– Independent clauses, dependent clauses,
– Simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, multi-

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 complex sentences.
Grammatical functions of words
– Nouns, noun phrases can function as subjects or objects of verbs;
– Verbs are part of the predicate of in a sentence,
– Nouns and personal pronouns can function as subject, subject or
object complements in a sentence.
– Adjectives, adjective phrases, adverbs and adverb phrases function
as modifiers.
Phrases
• A phrase a group of words that acts or functions as a noun, verb, adjective,
adverb or preposition;
• Such phrases can be classified as:
- Noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases or
preposition phrases.
Noun Phrases
• A noun phrase (NP) usually begins with a determiner and usually has a
noun as the most important word;
• It can function as a subject, object or complement in a clause/sentence;
Examples:
-The Dean of students has accommodated all the first years students.
• The Young often get mistreated by society.
• The blue sky above the beautiful sea ……
• The workers are picking the flowers.
• All the first year students have been registered.
• Some of those lazy students missed their deferred examination last

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 week.
• The student sitting in the corner has been working on the project for
weeks.
Adjective, adverb and prepositional Phrases
• An adjective phrase (AdjP) has an adjective as its main word;
• Examples:
- The night became extremely dangerous.
- The newspaper arrived at 20:30 hours.
- You should submit the project paper by the last day of July.
- We finished the project early last month.
Auxiliary verbs
• A verb phrase may have up to four auxiliary verbs;
• The lexical verb will always be the last element in a verb phrase:
• Examples:
– We have finished the project.
– We may have been cheated by the security guard.
- You may have seen the Dean.
Prepositional verbs
• Some verb phrases are made up of a verb and a preposition or particle;
• These are called prepositional verbs;
• Such verbs cannot stand alone;
• They are followed by a noun phrase:
• Examples:
– We looked at the picture.

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 -He stood against his opponents.
Phrasal verbs
• Some verb phrases are called phrasal verbs;
• These are made up of a verb and an adverb;
Examples:
- I gave away my tickets.
- We looked up the meaning of the word.
- The negotiations broke down.
- She grew up on the Copperbelt.
Phrasal and prepositional verbs are common in informal speech and
writing. They can be replaced by one lexical verb.

Word meaning
• Strictly speaking, dictionaries do not define words;
• They record the meaning of meanings that actual usage, past, present,
has attached to words;
• Most dictionaries list the meaning of a word in order of historical use;
• Others list the general and present meaning first;
• Technical words (jargon) are clearly labeled.
Denotative and connotative meaning
• Denotative meaning is the literal or dictionary meaning of words;
• Connotative meaning includes all the different associations and
emotions evoked by the word;
• Examples:

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 – Fail means inability to pass something or do something
Fail is associated with lack of intelligence, dull, lazy, inferior, and
below standard performance.
Sense relations
• Words have relationships with other words;
• Words or expressions that share the same meaning with another word
are referred to as synonyms; (big, large, small, tiny; car, vehicle)
• Antonyms are words that have opposite meaning; (tall, short; big,
small; black, white)
• Homonyms are words that have the same form but have different
meanings or words that are pronounced in the way (homophones)but
have different meaning (site, sight, cite; soul, sole; were, where)
Polysemy
• Words often have different but related meanings;
• When this happens, we can see how the meanings relate to one
another;
• Example: sight view,
– Column pillar, marchers in narrow file
– Speak, talk, chat, converse,

Polysemy
Polysemy refers to words with one form but multiple related meanings.
Superordinate, hyponyms, and hypernyms
• Antonyms can belong to groups of words denoting related things ( boy
and girl denote children; cold and hot denote temperature);

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 • The word child and the word temperature are sometimes called
superordinates or hypernyms;
• Words that are included under a superordinate are called hyponyms;
Examples:
● mammal-lion, rat, cow, dog;
• Building : house, bungalow, factory;
• Move: jog, run, walk,
Semantic redundancy
• Using words that have similar or related meanings can result in
semantic redundancy or tautology:
• Examples:
- The farm has bought ten male bulls.
- One student was found with a pistol weapon.
- He painted naked nudes.
We bought flower plants.
Clauses
• Clauses (Cl) are the main structures used to compose sentences;
• A sentence may contain one main clause referred to a an independent
clause;
• This type of sentence can be called a simple sentence; it expresses
one complete idea or thought;
• It can also contain two independent clauses joined by coordinating
conjunction (double or compound sentence);
• A sentence may contain one main clause and one or more subordinate
clauses (dependent clauses).

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 Elements of a Clause
• There are five types of Clause Element and each has a different
function and position within the clause:
1. Subject
2. Verb
3. Object (direct and indirect objects)
4. Complement (subject and object complement)
Adverbials (adverb, prepositional).
Clause structure
• Most clauses have a subject and a verb;
• Other clause elements are optional;
• The optional elements are used depending on the information and the
kind of verb selected;
Examples:
-Subject + verb: They voted (yesterday).
-subject + verb + object:
The students will need some food.
Subject + verb+ indirect object + direct object
Example:
The University has given each student a computer.
• Subject + verb + subject complement
Example:
John is intelligent.
Mary is a nurse.

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 Alcohol is destructive.
Subject + verb +direct object +object complement.
Examples:
• The government has considered its election promises inappropriate.
• The President appointed Ms Mwansa minister.
Subject + verb +adverbial
Examples:
They voted yesterday.
You must not go near that house.
They left their homes for a tour to Livingstone

Structure of Sentences
• The most important aspects of use of English are word order and
inflections;
• Word order refers to how words are arranged to construct meaningful
sentences:
Examples:
– The lawyer called the thief a liar.
– The thief called the lawyer a liar.
– The liar called the lawyer a thief.
– Blue sky; sky blue.
Grammar of Sentences
• A sentence is basic to human communication;
• We use sentences to express our thoughts, feelings, opinions, ideas

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 and experiences;
• A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought/
idea;
• A sentence must make sense;
• To make sense, a sentence should contain a subject and a predicate.
Examples
• The President signed the bill yesterday.
X One of the players.
X With reference to your letter.
X Although she has lived in Zambia for five years.
X Walked aimlessly for two hours.
• We have won the elections.
• All the workers have been awarded a salary increment.
Types of sentences
• Simple sentence: A simple sentence contains one clause or one main
clause
• Example:
– All the students have graduated.
– We completed the project yesterday.
– We gave our visitors special gifts.
– They worked carefully.
– All my students are intelligent.
– The school has bought computers for all the students.
Compound or Double sentences

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 • A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences linked
by co-ordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, yet);
• Each clause in a compound sentence can stand on its own;
• The co-ordinating conjunctions join sentences that share content in
some way;
Example:
• The hall attendant weeded the borders and removed dead flowers
from the roses.
Other examples of compound sentences
• The children often watched television but (they) preferred (watching)
cartoons.
• We will write an assignment or (we will write) a test.
• We worked so hard yet (we) failed the test.
• Complex sentences
A complex sentence contains one main clause and one or more subordinate
clauses.
Examples of complex clauses
• I decided that the car was too expensive.
• I wonder what I can do.
• I left the room while others were still writing the examination.
• Because I woke up late, I missed the test.
• We entered the room when it was time for our lecture.
Recognising subordinating clauses:
• A subordinating clause can be recognised by identifying a
subordinating conjunction, a wh-word or a non-finite verb

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 • I missed the test because I overslept.
• I woke up when my mother called.
• Leaving my failures behind, I was happy at last.
• The student who lives next door is a thief.
• Once alone, I cried.
• He promised to do his best as long as we took care of him.

Compound-complex sentences
• A compound- complex sentence contains two main clauses and one or
more subordinate clauses;
• Examples:
– John and Peter went to town but their sister stayed at home
because she was unwell.
– The lorry left when it had been loaded and returned after it had
delivered its load.

Mood of a sentence
• The mood of a sentence shows the attitude of the speaker to the
action or event referred to in the verb phrase;
• The speaker can tell, ask or command someone to do something;
• Declarative mood is used to make statements:
Example:
The project has been completed.

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Interrogative mood
• The interrogative mood is used to ask questions;
• The subject of the interrogative follows the auxiliary verbs do, have, be,
or wh-words
Examples:
i. Do you accept take responsibility for the incident?
ii. Have we completed the assignment?
iii. Were the students allowed to borrow books from the new library?
• The interrogative mood is used to ask questions;
• The subject of the interrogative follows the auxiliary verbs do, have, be,
or wh-words
Examples:
i. Do you accept take responsibility for the incident?
ii. Have we completed the assignment?
iii. Were the students allowed to borrow books from the new library?
• The imperative mood is used to command, or order;
• The imperative uses the verb in the base form and has no subject;
• We can use it to call or to address someone:
• Examples:
i. Close the door.
ii. Vote for her next week.
• The imperative mood is used to command, or order;
• The imperative uses the verb in the base form and has no subject;
• We can use it to call or to address someone:

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 • Examples:
i. Close the door.
ii. Vote for her next week.

To write effectively;
A. Sentences must be complete
English sentences consist of a subject (noun, pronoun or noun phrase)
and a predicate (containing a verb).
Examples:
i. The President /has signed the bill.
ii. Students/wrote the exam last week.
iii. We have completed the project.
iv. The Dean of Students wrote the letter.
Sentence Fragment
• When a group of words lacks either a subject or a predicate, the result
is a sentence fragment;

Examples:
i. The student who broke the window.
ii. Fell down yesterday.
iii. The pretty lady in the corner.
iv. The Dean finally agreed to see me. To talk about my financial
problems.
B. Sentences must be distinct
• When two or more sentences run together as one without a
conjunction or full stop, the result is a run-on sentence:
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 Examples:
i. The students completed the project they submitted them to their
tutor. (run-on sentence)
ii. The students completed the projects, they submitted them to their
tutors. ( comma splice)
iii. John is a student, he stole the laptop from the Dean’s office. (comma
splice)
In writing a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full
stop, question or an exclamation mark.
C. Sentences must be orderly
Sentences must have their parts in right places for clarity:
Examples:
a). Martha placed both hands on the microphone, rising to speak.
(microphone cannot rise to speak)
b). He left his car behind, drinking a coke.
c). You can buy the fridge at a discount price which has a double door.

D. Sentences must be clear

Sentences must be clear to avoid ambiguity.
Examples:
i. When Mary visited her mother, she was unwell.
ii. If the baby does not thrive on fresh milk, boil it.
iii. The President said after elections he would raise taxes.
E. Subject and verb must agree in number
• The subject and the verb are the most important parts of a sentence;
• Therefore, when we write, we should choose verbs that agree with the
subject of the sentence in number.
Examples:
i. Goods sometimes cost/costs too much in rural areas.
ii. Each of the workers leaves/leave at 17:00 hours
Other examples
- Either Jim or Henry answers/answer the calls.
- Everyone of them knows/know the causes of our problems.

F. Pronouns in a sentence must agree with the nouns to which they refer.
Examples:
i. Each one of the workers must wear his/their protective clothes.
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 G. Do not shift tenses:

Example:
a). He sat down at her desk and begins to write the report.
H. Avoid use of too many words
i. John is majoring in the field of computer science.
ii. Another aspect of the situation that needs to be examined is the
matter of advertising.
iii. It is a fact that many students read very little.
H. Reduce clauses to phrases
• Examples:
a). We had no lectures last week due to the fact that we were writing exams.
b). The computer, which is made of wood, has been used for three years.
c). The field trip we had last week was educative.
d). This book is intended and designed to explain the basic fundamentals of
economics.
J. Use of parallel structures
• The term parallel structure means that similar ideas should be
expressed in similar grammatical structures (Choy and Clark, 2006).
Examples:
i. We are expected to write all the assignments, to finish all the projects
and to submit them to the course lecturer.
Examples
Sentences that lack parallel structures are awkward:

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Examples:
i. He loved to cook, to read and travelling to remote places.
ii. To live on your own is better than living with your parents.
To write effectively
• You should write clearly and logically;
• Use complete sentences that are distinct;
• Avoid ambiguity;
• Punctuate your work correctly to avoid run-on sentences, sentence
fragments and comma splices;
• Subjects of the sentences must agree with the verbs;
• Pronouns must agree with the nouns they stand for;
• Each paragraph should cover one main point and linked to other
paragraphs logically.

Unit 9: Coherence and Cohesion

• Writing is done for a purpose and to achieve this purpose each
sentence you write should help to build the case which will get the
reader understand your argument;
• So single sentences only have meaning as long as they are part of your
exposition;
• A coherent piece of writing is one in which one central idea or theme
guides all the parts.
Features of coherent writing
• The content or ideas are presented one by one;
• Each sentence following the first fills in detail;

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 • The relationship of each sentence to the one before it and the one after
it should be clear;
• This is done through the grammar of coordination, subordination and
substitution.
Characteristics of Incoherent work
• The ideas come one after the other without being related to each other;
• Incoherent work is not logical and may not follow through with the
ideas that have been put down already and which need completion;
• Paragraphs cover more than one main idea;
• Paragraphs are not arranged logically;
• Relationship of one paragraph to the next is not clear.
Coherence
• Coherence refers to a major idea (thesis) holding the passage or essay
together;
• A thesis tells the reader what the essay is about
• Cohesion occurs when a writer uses words which refer directly to other
words that have already been written in an essay;
• Coherence is invisible but cohesion is visible and can be pointed out.
• Each paragraph has a topic sentence (one main idea) plus supporting
sentences (supporting ideas).
Examples of cohesive ties
i. Peter went to the Dean’s office. He wanted to see his project
supervisor.
In the above sentence, the pronouns He and his refer back to Peter.
This type of reference is known as anaphoric reference or backward reference;

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These words (pronouns which substitute other words) that refer to something
already in the text hold the sentences together to make a text.
Example 2
• Sheila is a student at Mulungushi University. She is studying
Agriculture Business Management and her performance has been good.
-She must be referring back to Sheila.
-Studying should be referring to student;
- her must be referring to Sheila.
• All these refer backwards (anaphoric references). They are also known
as endophoric because they refer to what is in the text.
Cataphoric reference
• Cataphoric reference points forward;
• Forward reference is used when a writer wishes to let the reader know
that some new information should be looked for or should be expected;
Example:
i). You should care for your day-old chicks like this:………………
• The phrase ‘like this’ points forward to the expected information
(cataphoric reference).

Types of Cohesive Ties

There are four types of cohesive ties that can be used to write cohesively:
i. Reference –using personal pronouns
ii. Substitution –using pronouns or synonyms
iii. Ellipsis
iv. Conjunction and subordination

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 v. Repetition

There are four types of cohesive ties that can be used to write cohesively:
i. Reference –using personal pronouns
ii. Substitution –using pronouns or synonyms
iii. Ellipsis
iv. Conjunction and subordination
v. Repetition

How to write good paragraphs

Writing paragraphs are in fact the most basic structure in any writing. So
understanding how to write effective and intriguing paragraphs can improve
your writing greatly. So let's discover how to write a good paragraph.

What Is A Paragraph?

A paragraph is a piece of writing that consists of several sentences. A

paragraph should always have complete, correct, and concise sentences. As
well it should be easy to read and well organized. The paragraph itself
should focus on one subject, theme, or central idea.

In other words, a paragraph could be about an object such as a young boy.

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If the paragraph starts out talking about the boy, it must stay the same
throughout. For example, if the writer were to talk about where a young boy
lives and then go on to describe what the boy looks like these are two
separate ideas. This is demonstrated below:

John lived in San Francisco, California, with his two parents. He had his own
bedroom, which he decorated himself. He and his parents all lived
comfortably in the cozy apartment on the third floor. The apartments were
only three blocks from where he attended J.U. High School.

John was only five years old, but he was extremely smart for his age. He
wasn’t that tall and he was a bit on the skinny side. He had big blue eyes,
light brown hair, rosy cheeks, and a friendly smile. Just looking at him he
seemed like any other kid-- quite normal. Yet, everyone in his class looked at
him differently because John could never be a normal kid. Instead, he
wasn’t normal. No, he was a genius.

In this example you can see that the first paragraph is about where John
lives and the second paragraph covers another topic or idea, which is what
he looks like. When examining a paragraph you can always ask yourself,
what is the main idea in this paragraph? If you see two ideas as in the above
example you might have to create two paragraphs. Although, in order to
understand what a paragraph is and how to write one, you need to know
how a paragraph is constructed.

Elements Of A Paragraph

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A paragraph should contain some structure and particular elements, which
are listed below in relative order:

1.A Topic sentence- motivates the reader to want to read more.

[Link] First main point- proves, backs up, or explains the topic sentence.

[Link] Second main point- usually provides a reason for the first point made.

[Link] Third main point- can help prove the topic sentence or back up the first
or second main point of the paragraph.

[Link] Conclusion- sums up the main points or ideas and it usually completes
the topic.

So just to recap, normally a paragraph starts out with a topic sentence or

idea. The topic sentence is followed by the first, second, or third main points
and then details are added in between each point in order to explain the idea
fully. Once one idea or concept has been described the paragraph is brought
to a conclusion by usually summing up the main points or making a
transition into the next paragraph. However, for a closer look, let’s work
through an example that shows us how to construct a paragraph by using
the five elements listed above.

Example
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1. The Topic Sentence:

The poodle makes a perfect pet because poodles offer their owners a
companionship for life, not to mention that they have a loveable personality.

·This could be your topic sentence. It tells the reader that poodles are in fact
perfect pets. This may or may not be true and so you would need to provide
proofs as to why this could be true. However, it is an interesting statement
and catchy because the reader wants to hear why the author thinks so, or
what justifies this statement.

2. The First Main Point:

Poodles are sweet, smart, playful, and well mannered and they love to be
around people. They are always willing to lend their unquestionable love and
loyalty when you need the most and they are yours for life.

· This main point talks about the dogs’ personality and their companionship
relating to the topic sentence, helping prove that poodles are ideal pets.
Although, most likely a reader would need more convincing.

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3. The Second Main Point:

Apart from being a happy spirited dog and a great companion, the poodle is
small and doesn’t require a lot of room, so they are ideal for apartments or
city settings.

· This is more convincing now. Most of the people that live in cities or small
apartments are looking for a small dog that is suited to their city lifestyle
and this sentence proves that these dogs are ideal as pets. However, you
still need more proof of this fact because not all of us live in the city.

4. The Third Main Point:

The poodle is suited to most environments and lifestyles; whether it'll be

living in the suburbs or downtown, with one person or a couple, or even living
with a family and children, the poodle fits right in.

· This point backs up the topic sentence that the poodle is the perfect pet
because it mentions that this dog will fit into any type of family. This third
point helps prove that this breed of dog is suited for most lifestyles and
settings.

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5. Conclusion:

The poodle is a dog that warms your heart with its character. It becomes a
part of your family no matter where you live and it can provide you with love
and companionship that you won’t want to do without. In fact, you can’t ask
for a better dog.

· The conclusion sums up all the other points made and ties all the points
nicely together. After reading the paragraph and all its elements as a unit
the reader should feel a sense of unity. Often a well written paragraph will
feel complete and it will seem natural to stop reading when the paragraph
closes. So keep in mind for every great piece of writing there are great
paragraphs put together.

Now if you read all the sentences you will see how nicely this paragraph
flows together because it contains all the elements of a paragraph. It
demonstrates the topic sentence, discusses one main idea (a poodle), and
concludes without leaving any loose ends:

The poodle makes a perfect pet because poodles offer their owners a

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companionship for life, not to mention that they have a loveable personality.
Poodles are sweet, smart, playful, and well mannered and they love to be
around people. They are always willing to lend their unquestionable love and
loyalty when you need the most and they are yours for life. Apart from being
a happy spirited dog and a great companion, the poodle is small and doesn’t
require a lot of room, so they are ideal for apartments or city settings. The
poodle is suited to most environments and lifestyles; whether it be living in
the suburbs or downtown, with one person or a couple, or even living with a
family and children, the poodle fits right in. The poodle is a dog that warms
your heart with its character. It becomes a part of your family no matter
where you live and it can provide you with love and companionship that you
won’t want to do without. In fact, you can’t ask for a better dog.

A good paragraph has:

i. Unity;
ii. Coherence;
iii. Adequate development.
• Unity means that a paragraph should have a single clear controlling
idea and all the details in that paragraph should be related to that
controlling idea.
• The controlling idea usually appears at the beginning of the
paragraph: the first sentence in the paragraph;

Coherence
• Coherence requires that all the sentences in a paragraph should be
connected in an orderly and clear way so that the reader can easily see
how each sentence follows the previous one, and how all sentences
relate to the controlling idea.

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 • Adequate development: this requires that there should be enough
details, facts, examples, evidence, explanation or reasons included in a
paragraph to make the controlling idea clear and meaningful to the
reader. Avoid one sentence paragraphs.
• Coherence requires that all the sentences in a paragraph should be
connected in an orderly and clear way so that the reader can easily see
how each sentence follows the previous one, and how all sentences
relate to the controlling idea.
• Adequate development: this requires that there should be enough
details, facts, examples, evidence, explanation or reasons included in a
paragraph to make the controlling idea clear and meaningful to the
reader. Avoid one sentence paragraphs.
Example
The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Dutch
education is lagging behind expectation and desire. Hence, the advisory
‘Committee On Multimedia In Teacher Training’ (COMMITT, at present
PROMMITT), established by the Dutch Minister of Education, has drawn up
recommendations on the design of the learning process in the future and the
role of ICT to support this process, with a focus on teacher training.
The committee argues for a powerful role of teacher training in the process of
educational innovation and the implementation of ICT. The teacher training
institutes are providing the teachers of the future and the committee assumes
that teachers are the key figures in arranging learning processes. The
institutes, therefore, have to anticipate new developments and prepare
prospective teachers for their future role.
Coherent paragraphs
• Each paragraph usually starts with a topic sentence which tells the
reader what to expect in the paragraph;
• The topic sentence is followed by supporting sentences to expand it
such as examples, and explanations;

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 • Use transitional words to link ideas in preceding paragraphs

Transitional words
• Linking adverbs and conjunctions are joining words that provide links
either within a sentence or within the larger context of discourse
(Thorne, 2008).
• Types of transitional words:
i. Additive adverbs: furthermore, in addition, besides, incidentally, similarly,
moreover;
ii. Adversative adverbs: however, nevertheless, on the contrary;
iii Casual adverbs: therefore, as a result, consequently, thus;
iv. Temporal adverbs: meanwhile, after that, then, at once;
v. Sentence adverbs (conjuncts):
firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally, in conclusion
Subordinating conjunctions
• Time: when(ever), while, as, before, until, since, once, when;
• Place: where, wherever;
• Purpose: so that, in order that;
• Reason: because, as, since;
• Condition: if, unless, whether;
• Contrast: although, while, whereas;
• Comparison: as, than, like, as if, as though

Unit 10: Attending and conducting interviews

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In a labour market there are many qualified candidates competing for the
same position. How you do on the interview can often determine whether you
get the job.

Table of Contents
● Types of Interviews
● Interviewing Strategies
● Illegal Questions
● Who gets Hired?
● Negotiating Your Compensation Package
● More Information About The Interview
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
There are several different types of interviews which you may encounter. You
probably won't know in advance which type you will be facing. Below are some
descriptions of the different types of interviews and what you can expect in
each of them.
● Screening Interview

A preliminary interview either in person or by phone, in which a company

representative determines whether you have the basic qualifications to
warrant a subsequent interview.
● Structured Interview

In a structured interview, the interviewer explores certain predetermined

areas using questions which have been written in advance. The
interviewer has a written description of the experience, skills, and
personality traits of an ideal candidate. Your experience and skills are
compared to specific job tasks. This type of interview is very common
and most traditional interviews are based on this format.
● Unstructured Interview

Although the interviewer is given a written description of the ideal

candidate, in the unstructured interview, the interviewer is not given
instructions on what specific areas to cover.
● Multiple Interviews

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 Multiple interviews are commonly used with professional jobs. This
approach involves a series of interviews in which you meet individually
with various representatives of the organization. In the initial interview,
the representative usually attempts to get basic information on your
skills and abilities. In subsequent interviews, the focus is on how you
would perform the job in relation to the company's goals and objectives.
After the interviews are completed, the interviewers meet and pool their
information about your qualifications for the job. A variation on this
approach involves a series of interviews in which unsuitable candidates
are screened out at each succeeding level.
● Stress Interview

The interviewer intentionally attempts to upset you to see how you

react under pressure. You may be asked questions that make you
uncomfortable or you may be interrupted when you are speaking.
Although it is uncommon for an entire interview to be conducted under
stress conditions, it is common for the interviewer to incorporate stress
questions as a part of a traditional interview. Examples of common
stress questions are given later in this document.
● Targeted Interview

Although similar to the structured interview, the areas covered are much
more limited. Key qualifications for success on the job are identified and
relevant questions are prepared in advance.
● Situational Interview

Situations are set up which simulate common problems you may

encounter on the job. Your responses to these situations are measured
against pre-determined standards. This approach is often used as one
part of a traditional interview rather than as an entire interview format.
● Group Interview

You may be interviewed by two or more company representatives

simultaneously. Sometimes, one of the interviewers is designated to
ask stress questions to see how you respond under pressure. A
variation on this format is for two or more company representatives to
interview a group of candidates at the same time.

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INTERVIEWING STRATEGIES
The interview strategies discussed below can be used effectively in any type
of interview you may encounter.
● Before the Interview
● During the Interview
● After the Interview
Before the Interview
Prepare in advance. The better prepared you are, the less anxious you will be
and the greater your chances for success.
● Role play. Find someone to role play the interview with you. This person
should be someone with whom you feel comfortable and with whom
you can discuss your weaknesses freely. The person should be
objective and knowledgeable, perhaps a business associate.
● Use a mirror or video camera when you role play to see what kind of
image you project.
● Assess your interviewing skills. What are your strengths and
weaknesses? Work on correcting your weaknesses, such as speaking
rapidly, talking too loudly or softly and nervous habits such as shaking
hands or inappropriate facial expressions.
● Learn the questions that are commonly asked and prepare answers to
them. Practice giving answers which are brief but thorough.
● Decide what questions you would like to ask and practice politely
interjecting them at different points in the interview.
● Evaluate your strengths. Evaluate your skills, abilities, and education as
they relate to the type of job you are seeking.
● Practice tailoring your answers to show how you meet the company's
needs, if you have details about the specific job before the interview.
● Assess your over-all appearance. Find out what clothing is appropriate
for your industry. Although some industries such as fashion and
advertising are more stylish, acceptable attire for most industries is
conservative.
● Have several sets of appropriate clothing available since you may have
several interviews over a few days.

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 ● Your clothes should be clean and pressed, and your shoes polished.
● Make sure your hair is neat, your nails clean, and you are generally well
groomed.
● Research the company. The more you know about the company and
the job you are applying for, the better you will do in the interview. Get as
much information as you can before the interview.
● Have extra copies of your résumé available to take on the interview.
The interviewer may ask you for extra copies.
● Make sure you bring along the same version of your résumé that you
originally sent the company. You can also refer to your résumé to
complete applications that ask for job history information (e.g., dates of
employment, names of former employers and their telephone numbers,
job responsibilities, and accomplishments).
● Arrive early at the interview. Plan to arrive 10 to 15 minutes early. Give
yourself time to find a rest room so you can check your appearance.
It's important to make a good impression from the moment you enter the
reception area. Greet the receptionist cordially and try to appear confident.
You never know what influence the receptionist has with your interviewer.
With a little small talk, you may get some helpful information about the
interviewer and the job opening. If you are asked to fill out an application while
you're waiting, be sure to fill it out completely.
During the Interview
The job interview is usually a two way discussion between you and a
prospective employer. The interviewer is attempting to determine whether
you have what the company needs, and you are attempting to determine if
you would accept the job if offered. Both of you will be trying to get as much
information as possible in order to make those decisions.
The interview that you are most likely to face is a structured interview with a
traditional format. It usually consists of three phases. The introductory phase
covers the greeting, small talk, and an overview of which areas will be
discussed during the interview. The middle phase is a question and answer
period. The interviewer asks most of the questions, but you are given an
opportunity to ask questions as well. The closing phase gives you an
opportunity to ask any final questions you might have, cover any important
points that haven't been discussed, and get information about the next step in
the process.

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Introductory Phase
This phase is very important. You want to make a good first impression and, if
possible, get additional information you need about the job and the company.
● Make a good impression. You only have a few seconds to create a
positive first impression which can influence the rest of the interview
and even determine whether you get the job. The interviewer's first
impression of you is based mainly on non-verbal clues. The interviewer
is assessing your over-all appearance and demeanor. When greeting the
interviewer, be certain your handshake is firm and that you make eye
contact. Wait for the interviewer to signal you before you sit down. Once
seated, your body language is very important in conveying a positive
impression. Find a comfortable position so that you don't appear tense.
Lean forward slightly and maintain eye contact with the interviewer.
This posture shows that you are interested in what is being said. Smile
naturally at appropriate times. Show that you are open and receptive by
keeping your arms and legs uncrossed. Avoid keeping your briefcase or
your handbag on your lap. Pace your movements so that they are not
too fast or too slow. Try to appear relaxed and confident.
● Get the information you need. If you weren't able to get complete
information about the job and the company in advance, you should try to
get it as early as possible in the interview. Be sure to prepare your
questions in advance.

Knowing the following things will allow you to present those strengths
and abilities that the employer wants:
o Why does the company need someone in this position?
o Exactly what would they expect of you?
o Are they looking for traditional or innovative solutions to
problems?
● When to ask questions. The problem with a traditional interview
structure is that your chance to ask questions occurs late in the
interview. How can you get the information you need early in the
process without making the interviewer feel that you are taking control?
Deciding exactly when to ask your questions is the tricky part. Timing is

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 everything. You may have to make a decision based on intuition and your
first impressions of the interviewer. Does the interviewer seem
comfortable or nervous, soft spoken or forceful, formal or casual? These
signals will help you to judge the best time to ask your questions. The
sooner you ask the questions, the less likely you are to disrupt the
interviewer's agenda. However, if you ask questions too early, the
interviewer may feel you are trying to control the interview. Try asking
questions right after the greeting and small talk. Since most
interviewers like to set the tone of the interview and maintain initial
control, always phrase your questions in a way that leaves control with
the interviewer. Perhaps say, "Would you mind telling me a little more
about the job so that I can focus on the information that would be most
important to the company?" If there is no job opening but you are trying
to develop one or you need more information about the company, try
saying, "Could you tell me a little more about where the company is
going so I can focus on those areas of my background that are most
relevant?" You may want to wait until the interviewer has given an
overview of what will be discussed. This overview may answer some of
your questions or may provide some details that you can use to ask
additional questions. Once the middle phase of the interview has begun,
you may find it more difficult to ask questions.
Middle Phase
During this phase of the interview, you will be asked many questions about
your work experience, skills, education, activities, and interests. You are being
assessed on how you will perform the job in relation to the company
objectives.
All your responses should be concise. Use specific examples to illustrate your
point whenever possible. Although your responses should be prepared in
advance so that they are well phrased and effective, be sure they do not
sound rehearsed. Remember that your responses must always be adapted to
the present interview. Incorporate any information you obtained earlier in the
interview with the responses you had prepared in advance and then answer in
a way that is appropriate to the question.
Below are frequently asked questions and some suggested responses:
● "Tell me about yourself." Briefly describe your experience and
background. If you are unsure what information the interviewer is
seeking, say, "Are there any areas in particular you'd like to know about?"

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 ● "What is your weakest point?" (A stress question) Mention something
that is actually a strength. Some examples are:
o"I'm something of a perfectionist."
o"I'm a stickler for punctuality."
o"I'm tenacious."
Give a specific situation from your previous job to illustrate your point.

● "What is your strongest point?"

o"I work well under pressure."
o"I am organized and manage my time well."
oIf you have just graduated from college you might say,
o"I am eager to learn, and I don't have to unlearn old techniques."
Give a specific example to illustrate your point.
● "What do you hope to be doing five years from now?"
o"I hope I will still be working here and have increased my level of
responsibility based on my performance and abilities."
● "Why have you been out of work for so long?" (A stress question)
o"I spent some time re-evaluating my past experience and the
current job market to see what direction I wanted to take".
o"I had some offers but I'm not just looking for another job; I'm
looking for a career."
● "What do you know about our company? Why do you want to work
here?" This is where your research on the company will come in handy.
o"You are a small/large firm and a leading force in the local/national
economy"
o"Your company is a leader in your field and growing."
o"Your company has a superior product/service."
You might try to get the interviewer to give you additional information about
the company by saying that you are very interested in learning more about the
company objectives. This will help you to focus your response on relevant
areas.
● "What is your greatest accomplishment?" Give a specific illustration
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 from your previous or current job where you saved the company money or
helped increase their profits. If you have just graduated from college, try
to find some accomplishment from your school work, part-time jobs, or
extra-curricular activities.
● "Why should we hire you?" (A stress question) Highlight your
background based on the company's current needs. Recap your
qualifications keeping the interviewer's job description in mind. If you
don't have much experience, talk about how your education and training
prepared you for this job.
● "Why do you want to make a change now?"
o"I want to develop my potential."
o"The opportunities in my present company are limited."
● "Tell me about a problem you had in your last job and how you resolved
it." The employer wants to assess your analytical skills and see if you
are a team player. Select a problem from your last job and explain how
you solved it.
Some Questions You Should Ask
● "What are the company's current challenges?"
● "Could you give me a more detailed job description?"
● "Why is this position open?"
● "Are there opportunities for advancement?"
● "To whom would I report?"
Closing Phase
During the closing phase of an interview, you will be asked whether you have
any other questions. Ask any relevant question that has not yet been
answered. Highlight any of your strengths that have not been discussed. If
another interview is to be scheduled, get the necessary information. If this is
the final interview, find out when the decision is to be made and when you can
call. Thank the interviewer by name and say good-bye.
DO:
● Be sincere and direct
● Be attentive and polite
● Ask relevant questions

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 ● Answer questions concisely
● Use specific examples to illustrate points

DON'T:
● Smoke
● Try to control the entire interview
● Bring up salary, benefits or working hours
● Be too serious
● Let your depression or discouragement show
● Make negative comments about anyone or anything, including former
employers
● Look at your watch
● Take extensive notes
After the Interview

You are not finished yet. It is important to assess the interview shortly after it
is concluded. Following your interview you should:
● Write down the name and title (be sure the spelling is correct) of the
interviewer
● Review what the job entails and record what the next step will be
● Note your reactions to the interview; include what went well and what
went poorly
● Assess what you learned from the experience and how you can
improve your performance in future interviews
● Make sure you send a thank you note within 24 hours; your thank you
note should:
● Be hand-written only if you have a very good handwriting; most people
type thank you notes
● Be on good quality paper
● Be simple and brief
● Express your appreciation for the interviewer's time
● Show enthusiasm for the job
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 ● Get across that you want the job and can do it
Everyone knows that a thank you letter should be sent after an interview, but
very few people actually send one. Make sure you are one of those few. It
could give you the edge.
Phone follow-up. If you were not told during the interview when a hiring
decision will be made, call after one week. At that time, if you learn that
the decision has not been made, find out whether you are still under
consideration for the job. Ask if there are any other questions the
interviewer might have about your qualifications and offer to come in for
another interview if necessary. Reiterate that you are very interested in
the job. If you learn that you did not get the job, try to find out why.
You might also inquire whether the interviewer can think of anyone else
who might be able to use someone with your abilities, either in another
department or at another company. If you are offered the job, you have
to decide whether you want it. If you are not sure, thank the employer
and ask for several days to think about it. Ask any other questions you
might need answered to help you with the decision. If you know you
want the job and have all the information you need, accept the job with
thanks and get the details on when you start. Ask whether the employer
will be sending a letter of confirmation, as it is best to have the offer in
writing.
ILLEGAL QUESTIONS
During an interview, you may be asked some questions that are considered
illegal. It is illegal for an interviewer to ask you questions related to sex, age,
race, religion, national origin, or marital status, or to delve into your personal
life for information that is not job-related. What can you do if you are asked an
illegal question? Take a moment to evaluate the situation. Ask yourself
questions like:
● How uncomfortable has this question made me feel?
● Does the interviewer seem unaware that the question is illegal?
● Is this interviewer going to be my boss?
Then respond in a way that is comfortable for you. If you decide to answer the
question, be succinct and try to move the conversation back to an
examination of your skills and abilities as quickly as possible. For example, if
asked about your age, you might reply, "I'm in my forties, and I have a wealth
of experience that would be an asset to your company." If you are not sure

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whether you want to answer the question, first ask for a clarification of how
this question relates to your qualifications for the job. You may decide to
answer if there is a reasonable explanation.
If you feel there is no justification for the question, you might say that you do
not see the relationship between the question and your qualifications for the
job and you prefer not to answer it.
Deadly Mistakes of Job Hunters
You’ve been looking for a job for several months without much success. You
started out feeling positive about getting a job and as time passes without any
offers coming in, your confidence is slowly eroding. Now you’re worried if you’ll
ever get another job. Every little thing is starting to feel really hard and you’re
just fed up.
If you keep doing what you’ve always done, you’ll get what you’ve always got.
It’s time to regroup, rethink and reassess your strategy. Let’s take an objective
look at what you might be doing wrong. There are 7 deadly mistakes you must
not make.
MISTAKE NO. 1 – You are not ready
Perhaps you’re looking for a new role due to a redundancy, or perhaps you quit
because you couldn’t stand it anymore or perhaps you were let go for a
multitude of reasons. You’re still hurting from being in a difficult situation. A
big mistake is to market yourself when you are still feeling emotional and your
confidence is at low ebb. It’s best to market yourself after you have
acknowledged the change, acknowledged that there are some things you
cannot change and identified the things you can. The key is to remember you
are still the same competent professional you’ve always been and you have a
mountain of value to offer the right employer in the right environment. If you
don't believe in yourself, who will? Employers are looking for professionals who
believe in their abilities and know that they can hit the ground running without
any emotional baggage. Take time to rebuild your self-confidence and get into
the right frame of mind for the job search.
MISTAKE NO. 2 – You don’t know what you want and what’s important to you
You haven’t assessed what drives you in your career or what your specific
skills, knowledge and key motivators are. You may be applying for roles that
are not suited to you. To make successful applications you must know what
makes you tick and the reasons why a role appeals to you. As you go through
to the interview process, employers will want to know how close a ‘fit’ you are

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to their needs, their corporate culture and team environment. You need to
prepare well so that you can eloquently communicate your value, key drivers
and be authentic in your responses.
MISTAKE NO. 3 – Your resume and communication strategies are haphazard
You’re sending out the same generic resume and cover letter for every
application. You’re sending out dozens of applications online and not getting
much positive response. Your resume and cover letter often are the first point
of contact with the screener. If it is generic and the reader has to search too
hard for what they are looking for, or they can’t find what they require in your
resume, it will probably end up in the ‘no’ bin. Take time to tailor your resume
and cover letter effectively for each and every role. When people ask you how
they can help you, you communicate ineffectively because you haven’t
thought about how you are going to position yourself. Create a strong
positioning statement and know what you will say when you are asked, ‘So
why are you looking for a job?’
MISTAKE No. 4 – You don’t look the part in person or online
You haven’t thought enough about the image you are projecting to others.
Before they even meet you they may be able to view your LinkedIn profile and
other social media sites and they will form an opinion of you before that first
handshake. Have you positioned yourself honestly and professionally? You
haven’t done your research to find out what will be appropriate attire for the
interview and on the job. As first impressions are so important and you only
get a few seconds to make a first impression, think about what others see
when you walk into a room.
MISTAKE No. 5 – You don’t know how to use all the job search methods
effectively
You have been focusing mainly on advertised roles and missing out on
expanding your network to uncover the hidden jobs. You don’t know how to
network effectively, what to say and what to ask for. You are getting frustrated
with recruitment consultants, as you don’t know what they are really looking
for. You are on LinkedIn but you’re not using it to your advantage.

MISTAKE No. 6 – You are not able to convey your value in interviews
You have not been preparing for your interviews effectively. Or you’ve
prepared and when you start talking you oversell and come across as overly
confident. The key to successful interviews is to prepare, prepare, prepare!

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Employers are looking for someone to provide the functional skills they need,
with the soft skills required for the role, who is willing to work they way that fits
with the organisation’s requirements and gets along with and fits the culture of
the team. In order to convey your suitability you need to research, practice
your interview techniques, listen carefully to the questions, answer with
examples of your successes and follow up with a ‘thank you’ email after the
interview.
MISTAKE No. 7 – You don’t know your worth or how to settle into a new role
When the offers come in, you haven’t researched what the market rate is for
the role and you don’t know how to negotiate for the best outcome for you and
the company. You lack the confidence to ask for what you know could be a
good outcome for both of you. If you accept a new role, when you begin you
are not aware of how to settle in, develop good working relationships and get
some wins on the board without looking like the ‘eager new employee’ during
the crucial first 90 days in the role.
If any of these 7 deadly mistakes resonate with you, it’s now time to take
action to fix things. Take all measures to build your confidence, do your
research, prepare well for each step in the process so you can ace that
interview and transition smoothly into your new role!
Career and Skill Development

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