(Industrial Automation & Control – PE-EC802B)
MODULE -1 NOTES
Sensors: Displacement sensors, Force sensors, Ultrasonic sensors, Temperature sensors, Pressure
sensors etc Actuators: Dc motors, Servo motors, Stepper motors, Piezo electric actuators, Pneumatic
actuators etc. Signal Conditioning: Filtering, Amplifying, Isolation, ADC, DAC, Sensor protection
circuits, Signal transmission and noise suppression, Estimation of errors and calibration.
Sensors: Displacement sensors, Force sensors, Ultrasonic sensors, Temperature sensors, Pressure
sensors
1. Introduction to Sensors
A sensor is a device that detects a physical quantity (measurand) such as displacement, force,
temperature, pressure, etc., and converts it into a usable electrical signal.
Role of Sensors in Industrial Automation
Process monitoring
Feedback control
Safety and protection
Quality assurance
Data acquisition for PLC/DCS/SCADA
2. Displacement Sensors
Displacement sensors measure linear or angular movement.
2.1 Types of Displacement Sensors
(a) Potentiometric Displacement Sensor
Working Principle: Change in resistance due to movement of wiper
Output: Analog voltage
Advantages: Simple, low cost
Disadvantages: Wear and tear, limited life
Applications: Position feedback in servo systems
(b) LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
Working Principle: Electromagnetic induction
Construction: One primary coil and two secondary coils
Output: Differential AC voltage proportional to displacement
Advantages:
o High accuracy
o No mechanical contact
Applications: Precision position measurement in machine tools
(c) Capacitive Displacement Sensor
Working Principle: Change in capacitance with distance
Advantages: Very high resolution
Disadvantages: Sensitive to humidity and dust
Applications: Micro-displacement measurement
3. Force Sensors
Force sensors measure load, weight, or mechanical force.
3.1 Load Cell
Working Principle: Strain gauge principle
Output: Small change in resistance converted to voltage using Wheatstone bridge
Types:
o Compression load cell
o Tension load cell
Applications:
o Weighing systems
o Material testing machines
3.2 Piezoelectric Force Sensor
Working Principle: Electric charge generated due to applied force
Advantages: Fast response
Disadvantages: Not suitable for static force
Applications: Impact force measurement, vibration analysis
4. Ultrasonic Sensors
Ultrasonic sensors measure distance, level, or presence using sound waves.
Working Principle
Based on Time of Flight (TOF) of ultrasonic waves
Distance = (Velocity × Time) / 2
Characteristics
Frequency: 20 kHz – 40 kHz
Non-contact measurement
Works in dusty environments
Applications
Liquid level measurement
Obstacle detection
Automated material handling
5. Temperature Sensors
Temperature sensors convert temperature into an electrical signal.
5.1 RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)
Material: Platinum (Pt100)
Working Principle: Resistance increases with temperature
Advantages:
o High accuracy
o Good stability
Applications: Industrial process control
5.2 Thermistor
Types: NTC and PTC
Advantages: High sensitivity
Disadvantages: Non-linear
Applications: Temperature compensation circuits
5.3 Thermocouple
Working Principle: Seebeck effect
Advantages:
o Wide temperature range
o Rugged
Types: J, K, T, R, S
Applications: Furnaces, boilers, turbines
6. Pressure Sensors
Pressure sensors measure gas or liquid pressure.
6.1 Strain Gauge Pressure Sensor
Working Principle: Diaphragm deformation changes resistance
Applications: Hydraulic and pneumatic systems
6.2 Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor
Advantages: Suitable for dynamic pressure
Disadvantages: Cannot measure static pressure
Applications: Engine combustion pressure measurement
6.3 Capacitive Pressure Sensor
Working Principle: Change in capacitance due to diaphragm movement
Applications: Low pressure measurement
Actuators: Dc motors, Servo motors, Stepper motors, Piezo electric
actuators, Pneumatic actuators
1. Introduction to Actuators
An actuator is a device that converts an electrical, pneumatic, or hydraulic signal into physical motion
(linear or rotary).
Role of Actuators in Automation
Execute control actions
Drive mechanical systems
Control position, speed, and force
Interface between controller and plant
2. DC Motors
DC motors are widely used actuators for speed and position control.
2.1 Principle of Operation
Based on Lorentz force:
A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force.
2.2 Types of DC Motors
Series DC motor
Shunt DC motor
Compound DC motor
Separately excited DC motor
2.3 Speed Control Methods
Armature voltage control
Field flux control
Advantages
High starting torque
Simple control
Wide speed range
Applications
Conveyors
Rolling mills
Electric vehicles
3. Servo Motors
Servo motors provide precise control of position, speed, and torque.
3.1 Construction
DC/AC motor
Gear system
Position sensor (encoder or potentiometer)
Control circuit
3.2 Working Principle
Error signal = Reference position − Actual position
Motor rotates until error becomes zero
3.3 Types of Servo Motors
DC servo motor
AC servo motor
Advantages
High accuracy
Fast response
Closed-loop operation
Applications
Robotics
CNC machines
Antenna positioning systems
4. Stepper Motors
Stepper motors convert digital pulses into discrete angular movement.
4.1 Working Principle
Each input pulse causes a fixed angular step
Rotation angle is proportional to the number of pulses
4.2 Types of Stepper Motors
Variable reluctance stepper motor
Permanent magnet stepper motor
Hybrid stepper motor
Characteristics
Step angle
Holding torque
Accuracy
Advantages
Precise position control
Open-loop operation
Simple control
Applications
Printers
3D printers
X–Y plotters
5. Piezoelectric Actuators
Piezoelectric actuators convert electrical energy into mechanical displacement.
5.1 Working Principle
Based on piezoelectric effect:
Certain materials deform when an electric voltage is applied.
Characteristics
Very small displacement (micron range)
High resolution
Fast response
Advantages
No electromagnetic interference
High precision
Disadvantages
Small displacement
High voltage requirement
Applications
Micro-positioning systems
Optical alignment
Medical instruments
6. Pneumatic Actuators
Pneumatic actuators use compressed air to produce motion.
6.1 Types of Pneumatic Actuators
(a) Pneumatic Cylinders
Single-acting cylinder
Double-acting cylinder
(b) Rotary Pneumatic Actuators
Rack and pinion type
Vane type
Advantages
Clean and safe operation
Low cost
High speed
Disadvantages
Limited force
Less precision compared to electric actuators
Applications
Assembly lines
Packaging machines
Pick-and-place systems
Comparison of Actuators
Actuator Type Motion Control Application
DC Motor Rotary Analog Speed control
Actuator Type Motion Control Application
Servo Motor Rotary Closed-loop Precision control
Stepper Motor Rotary Digital Position control
Piezo Actuator Linear Voltage Micro motion
Pneumatic Actuator Linear/Rotary Air pressure Industrial automation
8. Selection Criteria for Actuators
Load requirement
Speed and torque
Accuracy and resolution
Environment conditions
Cost and maintenance
9. Applications in Industrial Automation
PLC-based motion control
Robotic manipulators
CNC machines
Process control systems
SCADA-controlled plants
Signal Conditioning: Filtering, Amplifying, Isolation, ADC, DAC, Sensor protection
circuits, Signal transmission and noise suppression, Estimation of errors and
calibration
1. Introduction to Signal Conditioning
Signal conditioning is the process of converting a sensor output into a usable, accurate, and safe signal
suitable for controllers like PLC, DCS, or microcontrollers.
Need for Signal Conditioning
Sensor outputs are often weak and noisy
To improve accuracy and reliability
To protect control and processing units
2. Filtering
Filtering removes unwanted noise from sensor signals.
Types of Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF): Removes high-frequency noise
High Pass Filter (HPF): Removes low-frequency drift
Band Pass Filter (BPF): Passes selected frequency range
Applications
Noise reduction in temperature and pressure sensors
Signal smoothing in industrial environments
3. Amplifying
Amplification increases low-level sensor signals to required levels.
Types of Amplifiers
Operational amplifier (Op-amp)
Instrumentation amplifier
Advantages
High input impedance
Low noise
High gain accuracy
Applications
Strain gauge and thermocouple signal conditioning
4. Isolation
Isolation protects circuits by electrically separating input and output.
Methods of Isolation
Opto-isolators
Transformer isolation
Capacitive isolation
Benefits
Protects equipment from high voltage
Eliminates ground loops
5. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
ADC converts analog sensor signals into digital form.
Key Parameters
Resolution
Conversion speed
Accuracy
Common Types
Successive approximation ADC
Flash ADC
Applications
Interfacing sensors with PLC and microcontrollers
6. Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)
DAC converts digital signals into analog outputs.
Applications
Motor speed control
Control valve positioning
7. Sensor Protection Circuits
Protection circuits safeguard sensors and electronics from damage.
Common Protection Methods
Over-voltage protection (Zener diode)
Current limiting resistors
Fuses and surge suppressors
8. Signal Transmission and Noise Suppression
Ensures accurate signal transfer over long distances.
Techniques
Shielded cables
Twisted pair cables
Differential signaling (4–20 mA current loop)
Advantages of 4–20 mA
Noise immunity
Long-distance transmission
9. Estimation of Errors
Errors affect measurement accuracy.
Types of Errors
Systematic errors
Random errors
Gross errors
Error Sources
Sensor non-linearity
Environmental effects
Aging of components
10. Calibration
Calibration compares sensor output with a standard reference.
Purpose of Calibration
Reduce measurement errors
Ensure accuracy and repeatability
Types of Calibration
Static calibration
Dynamic calibration
11. Summary
Function Purpose
Filtering Noise removal
Amplifying Signal level increase
Isolation Protection
Function Purpose
ADC Analog to digital conversion
DAC Digital to analog conversion
Calibration Accuracy improvement