Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: [Link]/locate/enconman

Review Article

Absorption heat pumps for low-grade heat utilization: A comprehensive

review on working pairs, classification, system advances and applications
Wei Su a, * , Yuhao Han a , Zhaoyang Liu a , Xu Jin a , Zhongyan Liu a , Di Yang a , Xiaosong Zhang b, c
a
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Northeast Electric Power University, Jilin 132012, China
b
School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
c
Engineering Research Center of Building Equipment, Energy, and Environment, Ministry of Education, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The utilization of waste heat and renewable energy sources has attracted extensive attention due to pursuit of
Absorption heat pump sustainable energy solutions. Absorption heat pump (AHP) system is considered one of the most promising
Waste heat recovery methods for efficiently utilizing low-grade energy, reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.
Renewable energy
In the past decades, extensive research has been conducted to achieve waste heat recovery and renewable energy
Advanced cycles
updating in various sectors. However, a deep level of comprehension and summary is required to harness its full
potentials. Therefore, this study provides an exhaustive state of the art review on absorption heat pump tech­
nologies based in low-grade heat recovery and renewable energy updating for different applications at different
temperatures. Specifically, the basic working principle and the selection of novel working pairs in AHP systems
are firstly presented. Then, attention has been paid to various developments in the model improvement and
application of single-stage absorption cycles, as well as the practical application of advanced AHP systems in
various fields during the last decades. Furthermore, research progress on the synergy of the integration of low-
grade energy sources (solar energy, industrial waste heat, geothermal energy, and biomass energy) and ab­
sorption cycles are summarized and reviewed. Finally, future needs and recommendations for renewable energy
and waste heat recovery with absorption heat pump are discussed. This review may help to identify the research
gaps and give valuable insights to researchers, users, government and manufacturers for the promotion of AHP
systems towards low-carbon energy-supply technologies.

ecosystems and human health. Therefore, developing efficient energy

recovery and reuse technologies is of crucial importance in today’s so­
1. Introduction
cietal development.
To address the depletion of fossil fuel supplies and improve energy
1.1. Background
efficiency, renewable energy sources (e.g. solar energy, geothermal
energy, and biomass energy [6]) begun to be applied to replace tradi­
The consumption of primary energy has increased sharply due to the
tional fossil fuels (e.g. oil, gas, coal [7]) due to their renewability and
rapid development of the global economy, which leads to the depletion
ecological friendliness. In addition, effective and maximum exploitation
of fossil fuel reserves and negative environmental impacts, such as
of waste heat from industrial branches and power plants can improve the
greenhouse gas emissions and acidification of water sources [1]. How­
energy efficiency performance and reduce the environmental impacts of
ever, over 70 % of the global energy consumption are supplied through
waste heat discharge to the environment. Therefore, utilization of low-
fossil energy-burned power plants, generating a huge amount of
grade renewable energy or waste heat recovery and upgrading is
greenhouse gases being released into the atmosphere [2,3]. In 2023,
becoming an effective measure for facing the energy problems in the
about 65 % of the carbon emissions released into the environment were
field of sustainable and secure energy supply, achieving the purpose of
related to the burning of fossil energy [4]. Furthermore, approximately
energy saving and carbon emission reduction [8,9].
72 % of global total energy consumption is discharged in the form of
waste heat [5], which not only leads to low energy utilization efficiency
but also causes thermal pollution, posing a threat to the balance of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: weisu@[Link] (W. Su).

[Link]
Received 7 May 2024; Received in revised form 18 June 2024; Accepted 1 July 2024
Available online 6 July 2024
0196-8904/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Nomenclature PC pre-cooler
PCO partial condenser
AHP absorption heat pump PER primary energy ratio
ARC absorption refrigeration cycle REC rectifier
ATES absorption thermal energy storage RW reinjection well
AHT absorption heat transformer RHX refrigerant heat exchanger
ABS absorber S flow spliter
ACS air cooling system SC special condenser
AH auxiliary heater SCA solution-cooled absorber
APF annual performance factor SD special desorber
COP coefficient of performance SHX solution heat exchanger
COM compressor SMST solution mixing/separation tank
CON condenser SMT solution mixing tank
CPC compound parabolic collector SST solution separation tank
CAHP compression-assisted absorption heat pump ST steam turbine
CACHP cascade absorption-compressor heat pump TV three-way valve
DES deep eutectic solvent V throttle valve
ECA external cooled absorber VCHP vapor compression heat pump
ECOP exergy coefficient of performance VSHX vapor-solution heat exchanger
EHG external heated generator WCA water-cooled absorber
ESD energy storage density
ESE energy storage efficiency Symbols
EVA evaporator chw chilled water
ETC evacuated tube collector Ė exergy flow rate (kW)
GAX generator-absorber heat exchange e specific exergy (kJ/kg)
GAX-G generator absorber exchanger-generator ṁ mass flow rate (kg/s)
GAX-A generator absorber exchanger-absorber T temperature (oC)
GEN generator P pressure (kPa)
GW geothermal well Q̇ heat output/input (kW)
GSCCCS gas-steam combined cycle cogeneration system PEMFC proton exchange membrane fuel cell
GT gas turbine sw saline water
GHX generator heat exchanger Ẇ power (kW)
HC heat consumer x Solution concentration
HCT high-temperature cool tank Y ratio of exergy destruction to total exergy supplied to the
HDH humidification dehumidification system
HEHN heat exchanger for heating networks Y* ratio of exergy destruction to total exergy destruction of
HHT high-temperature hot tank the system
HPA high-pressure absorber Σ sum of
HPSHX high-pressure solution heat exchanger ε exergy efficiency (%)
HPG high-pressure generator
HTS high temperature stage Subscripts
HWP hot water pump in inlet
HRSG heat recovery steam generator out outlet
ILs ionic liquids pump solution pump
LCT low-temperature cool tank D exergy destruction
LPG low-pressure generator F fuel
LHT low-temperature hot tank P product
LPG low-pressure generator L loss
LPA low-pressure absorber k the kth component of the system
LPSHX low-pressure solution heat exchanger 0 reference environment state
LTS low temperature stage tot total
M Flow mixer gen generator
MPG medium-pressure generator eva evaporator
MPA medium-pressure absorber con condenser
OA open absorber abs absorber
ORC organic rankine cycle c cooling
P solution pump h heat source
PHE plate heat exchanger he heating water
PTES pumped thermal energy storage w chilled water
PTC parabolic trough collector

2
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

1.2. Absorption cycle systems for renewable energy and waste heat temperatures more extensively, increasing its applicability. Therefore,
recovery AHP targeting low-grade heat recovery has raised considerable interest
as it is one of the soundest methods that can maximize the utilization of
Low-grade energy recovery systems can be implemented in accor­ low-grade heat to useful energy supply for accelerating towards the
dance with Organic Rankine cycle (ORC)[10], thermoelectric systems carbon neutrality. Fig. 3 summarizes the application scope of various
[11], heat exchange technologies [12], and heat pump cycles [13,14], absorption cycles and the low-grade energy recovery schemes under
etc. (Fig. 1), which converts low-grade energy or waste heat into useful different temperature.
energy (e.g., electricity, heating load, cooling load, hydrogen fuel, etc.).
Among them, organic Rankine cycle and thermoelectric systems are 1.3. Literature gap and contributions
thermodynamic conversion approaches that convert low-grade waste
heat into electricity, typically operating in the range of 100–300 ◦ C, with Up to now, many reviews researchers have been conducted to sum­
an energy efficiency typically varying from 5 to 15 %. Although ORC and marize the AHP research status from various perspectives, including
thermoelectric systems have proved to be exceptionally attractive so­ advances in working pairs, configuration processes of different cycles,
lutions to be applied in the use of low-grade waste heat and renewable improvements in individual, and core components. Rasoul et al. [15]
energy, their development and application fall largely behind due to the conducted a literature review on various improvement techniques for
inherently low system performance, which is in the range of 5–10 %, and enhancing the performance of absorption refrigeration cycles (ARC).
even below 5 % under low temperature. They primarily focused on improving system design, novel heat recovery
Among the waste heat utilization approaches, thermally driven ab­ methods, adding sub-components, and improvement of operating con­
sorption heat pump (AHP) and absorption refrigeration, converting low- ditions. Mehari et al. [16] summarized practical applications of ab­
grade waste heat or renewable energy in the range of 0–80 ◦ C into high- sorption thermal energy storage (ATES). Firstly, they introduced three
grade thermal and cooling energy with the help of a small quantity of different configurations of ATES. Then, an integrated system of ATES
high-temperature energy source as the driving forces, have been widely combined with a conventional absorption refrigeration/heat pump,
utilized in low-grade heat recovery due to its attractive thermodynamic which can be driven by solar energy or a compressor (COM), is proposed
performance, compact system structure, and flexibility. Fig. 2 summa­ to increase the application potential of absorption systems. Finally,
rizes the number and classification of publications on absorption heat future prospects for ATES in practical applications are envisaged,
pumps over the past 20 years, which shows an overall upward trend in including the development of new absorption cycles and system con­
the number of publications each year, with a significant increase since figurations, new reactor and heat exchanger designs. Altamirano et al.
2012. Generally, the coefficient of performance (COP) of traditional [17] conducted a review of absorption cycles using binary working pairs
absorption heat pump reaches approximately 1.5 or more. Besides, ab­ worldwide, focusing on improving system performance and reducing
sorption heat transformer (AHT) is specialized heat-upgrading tech­ initial investment costs. They particularly compared the performance of
nology, which can increase the medium-temperature heat energy to a different types of refrigerants and absorbents in the cycle. In summari­
high temperature without relying on high-grade vapor or electrical zing the advantages and disadvantages of different working pairs, they
power as the driving sources. Compared to vapor-compression refrig­ also provided a deeper understanding of the evolution of this technology
eration and heat pump, the power consumption can be saved and the over the past 40 years.
low-grade heat energy could be made fully and efficient use. Further­ The representative review researches in the absorption cycles field
more, absorption cycles can utilize low-grade heat sources at varying are summarized in Table 1. It can be observed that most of the reviews in

Fig. 1. Low-grade energy recovery and upgrading technologies.

3
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 2. (a) The number of publications on “absorption heat pumps for low-grade heat utilization”, up to December 2023. (b) Classification of publications on
“absorption heat pumps for low-grade heat utilization”. Database: Web of Science Core Collection, KCI, Preprint Citation Index, ProQuest and SciELO.

the field of absorption heat pumps in the past have focused on the se­ evaluation criteria. Secondly, Section 3 examines in detail the impact of
lection of different working pairs, improvements of various systems, and using different types of working pairs on system performance. It also
the application of absorption cycle systems with single configuration in compares their characteristics and differences in applicable conditions.
practice. Thus, this paper will not delve into detailed discussions on Next, Section 4 provides a detailed summary of the research and
these aspects. However, there is still a limited amount of literature application status of basic absorption cycles. Section 5 reviews the
specifically addressing the advantages and disadvantages of different principles, advantages, and disadvantages of various advanced absorp­
configurations of absorption cycles in recovering low-grade energy, as tion cycles systems, as well as their operational performance in recov­
well as the specific types of low-grade energy that can be effectively ering low-grade energy sources during practical applications. Then,
recovered by absorption heat pumps. Therefore, based on the above Section 6 presents the application scenarios of the four most common
conclusions, this paper not only summarizes the research progress of low-grade energy sources in absorption cycles, elucidating the advanced
binary and ternary working pairs but also provides a detailed review of and innovative aspects of this technology in low-grade energy recovery.
the research on basic and advanced absorption cycles with different Section 7 delves into the challenges that absorption cycles need to
configurations for recovering low-grade energy in recent years. Addi­ address and explores future development directions. Finally, Section 8
tionally, we have summarized the research progress over the past 20 provides an overview of the advantages and development potential of
years on the four most commonly used low-grade energy in the appli­ absorption cycles in recovering low-grade energy sources.
cation of absorption heat pumps, which include solar energy, industrial
waste heat, geothermal energy, and biomass energy. These works are 2. Principles of absorption heat pumps
mainly used to fill research gaps and pave promising paths for future
studies. The purpose of this review is to deepen understanding of the The traditional absorption cycles are divided into two types,
research challenges and future development directions in recovering involved the first type and the second type heat pump. The first type is
low-grade energy using absorption heat pumps. named as AHP, which mainly utilizes a small amount of high-
In order to achieve the above objectives, the structure of this paper is temperature heat as the driving heat source to extract heat from low-
organized as shown in Fig. 4. Firstly, Section 2 introduces the working temperature waste heat or the environment and outputs a large
principle of traditional absorption cycles and the corresponding amount of medium-temperature heat. The output heat is greater than

4
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 3. Summary of absorption cycles application scope and low-grade energy recovery schemes.

the heat input from the high-temperature heat source, thus achieving can not only use the released condensing heat and absorption heat for
heat increase, which can be used for heating and cooling purposes for user heating and domestic hot water, but also provide the users with
users [23]. The second type is the AHT, which primarily utilizes a sig­ cold capacity in the evaporator to achieve the cooling effect.
nificant amount of medium-temperature heat as the driving heat source
to generate a small amount of high-temperature heat output, while 2.1.2. Absorption heat transformers
releasing low-temperature heat to the environment. The temperature of The working principle of AHT system is essentially a reverse opera­
the output heat is higher than that of the input heat, thus achieving tion of AHP, as shown in Fig. 6(a), and the P-T diagram of the system is
temperature upgrade. The generated high-temperature heat can be used illustrated in Fig. 6(b). With generator and condenser operating in the
for industrial production, so the AHT system can harness approximately low-pressure section and absorber and evaporator in the high-pressure
50 % of waste heat, achieving a temperature lift of approximately 50 ◦ C section, the system operates in a similar flow to the AHP. The process
[21]. In this section, the working principles and evaluation criteria of starts with the generator absorbing low-grade thermal energy to
these two types of traditional cycles are carried out. generate refrigerant vapor and a low-concentration refrigerant solution.
The vapor then flows into the condenser where it releases heat through
condensation, turning into cooled saturated liquid refrigerant. The
2.1. Fundamentals and components of the absorption cycles liquid refrigerant is pressurized and directed into the evaporator, where
it absorbs heat to produce high-pressure vapor. The vapor is subse­
2.1.1. Absorption heat pumps quently transferred into the absorber. Meanwhile, the solution exiting
The primary components of the AHP include the generator (GEN), the generator is pressurized, preheated, and introduced into the
absorber (ABS), condenser (CON), evaporator (EVA), solution heat absorber to mix with the refrigerant vapor, releasing absorption heat.
exchanger (SHX), solution pump (P), and expansion valve (V), as shown The resulting mixed solution is heat exchanged and throttled and then
in Fig. 4(a). Within the system, the generator and condenser function in re-fed into the generator for the generation process. The system recovers
the high-pressure section, while the absorber and evaporator operate in a large amount of medium-temperature heat in generator and evapo­
the low-pressure section. The operating principle of the system and the rator, and then utilizes the absorption heat released in absorber to
P-T diagram are illustrated in Fig. 5(a) and Fig. 5(b), respectively. The generate high-temperature steam for industrial production.
operation begins with the generator absorbing heat from a high-
temperature heat source to separate the refrigerant and absorbent,
generating high-temperature and high-pressure refrigerant vapor. Then, 2.2. System performance criteria
the generated vapor enters the condenser, where it undergoes conden­
sation, releasing heat and forming saturated liquid refrigerant. The In order to better study and compare different absorption cycles,
liquid refrigerant passes through a throttling process, reducing pressure some evaluation metrics are therefore needed to analyze the strengths
and transitioning into a two-phase gas–liquid state before entering the and weaknesses of the systems. Among these, parameters such as tem­
evaporator. In the evaporator, the refrigerant absorbs heat, transforming perature, pressure, and solution concentration of the system can serve as
into low-temperature and low-pressure vapor, which is directed to the evaluation indicators. However, these parameters cannot clearly reflect
absorber, where it mixes with a low-concentration refrigerant solution the of performance system. Therefore, more precise and complex in­
produced by the generator. During this process, absorption heat is dicators are needed to demonstrate the advantages and disadvantages of
released, resulting in a high-concentration refrigerant solution. The so­ the system. Starting from the first law of thermodynamics, the perfor­
lution is pressurized by the P and then routed to the SHX, where it is mance of absorption cycles is usually evaluated by the COP. Generally,
preheated by the outlet solution from the generator before being COP is considered as the most important parameter to quantify the
returned to the generator to continue the generation process. The system operation of the system, with the objective of achieving the largest

5
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Table 1 possible value, which can be calculated by the following equation [24]:
Review on absorption cycles in the past decade.
Q̇out
Reference Year Focus Major finding COP = ∑ (1)
Q̇in + Ẇpump
Nazari et al. 2024 The application of ARC ARC can be integrated with
[18] for recovering other geothermal systems to
geothermal energy. form hybrid cogeneration where Q̇in represents the thermal energy of the high-temperature driving
systems, reducing heat source absorbed by the system, kW; Q̇out represents the useful en­
greenhouse gas emissions ergy output (including cold energy or heat energy) after the system
while replacing traditional ∑
cooling technologies.
absorbs the driving heat source, kW; Ẇpump represents the power
Ji et al. [19] 2023 Research progress on Compared to traditional consumption required for the operation of the solution pump.
novel working pairs. working pairs, H2O–[EMIM] Although COP reflects the performance of a system, practical appli­
[DMP] exhibits higher cations require consideration of different energy grades for heat and
performance and a lower
crystallization temperature,
electricity sources. Therefore, in addition to COP, the research in­
making it the most promising troduces the primary energy ratio (PER) to accurately evaluate system
working pair currently. performance by converting different energy sources into primary en­
Cudok et al. 2021 The industrial Between 1981 and 2019, 42 ergy. When using fossil fuels as the heat source for the absorption cycle,
[20] applications of AHT factories installed 48 AHT
the use of PER provides a better representation of the system perfor­
systems. units with a total capacity of
134 MW, and most of these mance, as calculated in the following formula:
heat transformers were
applied in the chemical Q̇out
PER = ⎛ ⎞ (2)
industry. ∑
Mehari et al. 2020 The current research Compared to a single-phase ⎜Q̇in Ẇpump ⎟
⎝ ηg + ⎠
[16] status of ATES. ATES cycle, a three-phase ηe

ATES cycle not only

improves performance but
also offers greater flexibility. where ηe is the power generation efficiency, with the average value of
Nikbakhti 2020 The application of ARC The application scope of ARC 0.33 for coal-fired power plants [25]. ηg is the efficiency of the gas boiler
et al. [15] in energy-saving has been expanded through
which can be valued at 0.80[26].
technologies. methods such as cycle design
improvement, heat recovery The first law of thermodynamics may not be sufficient to scrutiny the
techniques, addition of sub- performance of the system while the second law analysis evaluates the
components, and exergy-based performance of the system. Exergy is defined as the
enhancement of operating
maximum mechanical work which may be extracted from a heat source
conditions.
Altamirano 2019 Research progress on In the case of ammonia-
at its current temperature and pressure [21]. Exergy always decreases
et al. [17] binary working pairs. based working pairs, NH3- due to the presence of thermodynamic irreversibility. In the absence of
LiNO3 and NH3-NaSCN are kinetic and potential exergies, total exergy of a system becomes the sum
good alternatives to NH3- of physical exergy and chemical exergy. The exergy destruction for each
H2O. In the case of water-
component is calculated using the following equation [27–29]:
based systems, H2O-LiBr
remains a better working
ĖD,k = ĖF,k − ĖP,k − ĖL,k
pair. [∑( )
∑ ∑
Donnellan 2015 Recycling waste heat The optimal operating = ṁin ein − ṁ0 e0 + Q̇(1 − T0 /T)
et al. [21] energy using AHT. conditions of the system in
have been identified, and
∑( ) ] ∑
− Q̇(1 − T0 /T) − Ẇ (3)
future research needs have 0
been defined, particularly
focusing on the where Ė is the exergy flow rate, kW; ṁ is the mass flow rate, kg/s; e is the
implementation of heat
unit specific exergy, kJ/kg; T0 is the temperature at the current air
transformers.
Siddiqui et al. 2015 Recycling solar energy Many improved systems conditions, K.
[2] using absorption cycles. have not yet undergone Non-dimensional exergy destruction ratios (YD,k) and exergy loss
experimental testing, and ratios (Y*D,k ) of kth component expressed as:
continuous operation
systems demonstrate better
ĖD,k
performance compared to YD,k = (4)
intermittent systems. ĖF,tot
Wu et al. 2014 The classification and Gas-driven absorption
[14] operating principles of heating devices exhibit ĖD,k
different absorption better performance and easy YD,k
*
= (5)
heating cycles. integration with the gas ĖD,tot
supply in civil applications. ∑
Wu et al. [6] 2014 The application of In the field of low- ĖD,tot = ĖD,k (6)
ammonia-based temperature refrigeration,
absorption cycles. ammonia-based absorption Total exergy destruction rate is obtained by summation of the exergy
cycles are more prevalent
destruction rates in all components of the system taken together. The
than typical air-conditioning
applications. exergy efficiency (ε) reveals some valuable information on the irre­
Zheng et al. 2014 Research progress on Evaluation methods for versibility distribution in the components and is evaluated by [30]:
[22] ionic liquids working combining the UNIFAC
pairs. model with the extreme GE ĖP,k
εk = (7)
criterion were proposed, and ĖF,k
the actual research
achievements of this method The exergy coefficient of performance (ECOP) of the system indicates
were also presented. the efficiency of the system in retaining exergy, which is similar to the

6
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 4. The structure of present review.

Fig. 5. The flow diagram of the AHP. (a) System schematic diagram. (b) P-T diagram.

process of analyzing COP, both should be maximized as much as 3.1. Series of refrigerant using NH3
possible, and is calculated as follows [31]:
∑( ) Since the invention of absorption cycles, there has been significant
Q̇(1 − T0 /T) interest in ammonia-based working pairs due to their absence of crys­
ECOP = ∑ ( ) 0
∑ (8) tallization and vacuum-related issues, and it exhibits stable chemical
Q̇(1 − T0 /T) + Ẇ
in properties under various working temperatures and pressures. Due to its
high latent heat of vaporization and low boiling point of as low as
3. Working pairs of absorption cycles − 77.7 ◦ C, NH3 is considered an ideal refrigerant, which is beneficial for
efficient utilization in cold regions [6]. In the ammonia-based working
The performance of absorption cycles not only depends on the pro­ pair, NH3-H2O is the most widely used in practical applications due to its
cess configuration but also on the chemical and thermodynamic prop­ low cost and stable properties. Since the boiling point of H2O is 100 ◦ C,
erties of the working fluids employed in the system. Choosing the which is close to that of NH3, a rectifier (REC) is required at the outlet of
appropriate working pairs for different application scenarios can pro­ the generator vapor to ensure the purity of the refrigerant vapor (nor­
mote better performance and economic benefits for the system. mally a concentration of not less than 99.8 %). If the purity of the
Currently, the most commonly used working pairs are ammonia-based refrigerant vapor is low, the performance of the system decreases
and water-based. However, novel working pairs based on ionic liquids dramatically [32].
(ILs) are now being extensively researched. This section summarizes the Due to the complexity of traditional ammonia-based absorption cy­
classification of working pairs in absorption cycles, comparing their cles with many components, finding solutions to simplify operation has
characteristics and differences in application conditions, as shown in become increasingly urgent. To eliminate the REC and simplify the
Fig. 7. system structure, researchers have conducted extensive studies on the

7
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 6. The process flow diagram of the AHT. (a) System schematic diagram. (b) P-T diagram.

concentrations of solutions within the temperature range of − 14 to

35 ◦ C to select a more suitable absorbent for ammonia. The results
showed that LiNO3 had better solubility in ammonia. Chinnappa et al.
[35] conducted theoretical and experimental studies on both NH3-H2O
and NH3-LiNO3, proposing a simplified approximate expression for the
COP of these two working pairs. The results indicated that absorption
cycles using NH3-LiNO3 had a higher COP, while those using NH3-H2O as
the working pair had higher cooling capacity. Therefore, the selection of
the appropriate working pair should be based on the specific application
requirements. Heard et al. [36] demonstrated in their study on NH3-
LiNO3 that this working pair can achieve higher thermal efficiency
during both heat absorption and heat rejection processes, even under
relatively small temperature differences. Additionally, systems using
NH3-LiNO3 offer greater flexibility in terms of control. Sun et al. [37]
simulated the performance of a single-stage ARC using NH3-H2O, NH3-
LiNO3, and NH3-NaSCN as working pairs. The results indicate that when
the generation temperature (Tgen) exceeds 80 ◦ C, the performance with
NH3-NaSCN is the best. When the evaporation temperature (Teva) is
below 0 ◦ C, NH3-NaSCN demonstrates the best refrigeration perfor­
mance. Within the condensation temperature (Tcon) range of 20–40 ◦ C,
both NH3-NaSCN and NH3-LiNO3 exhibit better performance compared
to NH3-H2O. The influences of Tcon and absorption temperature (Tabs) on
COP exhibit similar trends. Overall, LiNO3 and NaSCN may serve as
suitable alternatives to H2O, with systems using NaSCN as the absorbent
slightly outperforming those using LiNO3.
Fig. 7. Classification of working pairs in absorption cycles. Although the above-mentioned novel working pairs can enhance the
system performance, the alternative absorbents are relatively expensive,
selection of absorbents. Currently, the most popular alternatives are increasing the operational costs of the system and reducing its economic
binary ammonia-salt solutions such as NH3-NaSCN and NH3-LiNO3. viability. Therefore, researchers have also investigated ternary mixed
These absorbents have higher solubility in ammonia and the advantage working pairs, which not only accelerate the separation of refrigerants
of not corroding steel, which makes them attractive for use in ammonia- in the generator, leading to higher concentrations of ammonia vapor,
based absorption cycles. Additionally, the significant boiling point dif­ but also enable operation at lower costs compared to NH3-LiNO3 and
ference between the refrigerant and absorbent ensures that the ammonia NH3-NaSCN working pairs. Currently, ternary working pairs mainly
vapor produced by the system is concentrated at 100 %, negating the include NH3-H2O-LiBr, NH3-H2O-LiNO3, and NH3-H2O-hydroxide as
need for a rectifier and thereby simplifying system operation [33]. typical representatives.
In recent years, researchers have conducted extensive studies on Compared to traditional NH3-H2O systems, NH3-H2O-salt mixtures
binary ammonia-based working pairs. Davis et al. [34] tested various can significantly reduce the water content in the vapor, which means the

8
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

distillation process can be reduced or eliminated. Additionally, the without the need for a distillation process. In terms of performance and
working pressure of this system is much lower than that of traditional suitability, NH3-NaSCN appears to be a good alternative to NH3-H2O.
systems, and the internal vapor pressure is non-negative. Mclinden et al. However, when considering economic costs, the widespread availability
[38] compared the performance of AHPs with NH3-H2O and NH3-H2O- and lower cost of water make NH3-H2O more common in practical ap­
LiBr as working pairs, respectively. The results indicated that the plications. Therefore, in practical applications, selecting the appropriate
refrigerant vapor entering the REC had lower water content in the NH3- fluid should be based on specific requirements.
H2O-LiBr system. Additionally, systems using these two working pairs
exhibited only minor differences in pump power requirements and
temperature suitability ranges. These enhancements significantly 3.2. Series of refrigerant using H2O
improved energy efficiency and overall system performance. Yuan et al.
[39] conducted a more detailed experimental study on NH3-H2O and Based on the conclusions mentioned above, it is evident that ab­
NH3-H2O-LiBr. The final results showed that with the ternary working sorption cycles using ammonia-based working pairs exhibit high per­
pair, the heat exchange area of the REC could be reduced by approxi­ formance and can operate efficiently at lower Tgen and Teva. However,
mately 16 %. Additionally, while operating at lower pressures, the due to the toxic and combustible nature of ammonia, the safety of such
minimum refrigeration temperature was − 15 ◦ C, which was 8.6 ◦ C systems cannot be guaranteed, severely limiting their widespread
higher than that of the binary system. However, the ternary system had application. Consequently, working pairs using water as the refrigerant
higher refrigeration capacity and reduced system thermal losses, leading have been extensively studied. Due to the high latent heat of vapor­
to an improvement in system COP. Steiu et al. [40] compared the per­ ization of H2O and the significant difference in boiling points between
formance of NH3-H2O-NaOH and NH3-H2O systems. The results showed H2O and LiBr, the rapid development of such working pairs has been
that adding NaOH to the solution can expedite the separation of ensured. Consequently, H2O-LiBr has seen widespread applications in
refrigerant in the generator, thereby reducing the system driving heat recent years. Unlike ammonia-based working pairs, the significant dif­
source temperature and the heat losses caused by distillation. Moreover, ference in boiling points between H2O and LiBr eliminates the need for
under the same conditions, the COP with NaOH is approximately 20 % the REC when operating such working pairs, which not only greatly
higher than that with the traditional NH3-H2O system, and the hydroxyl reduces the cost of the system but also simplifies the operational process.
separation efficiency with NaOH can reach 99 %. Furthermore, the absorption cycle utilizing H2O-LiBr operates with
Based on past research, it is evident that the overall performance of higher efficiency, requires lower operating pressures, and exhibits
ternary systems is indeed better than that of binary systems. However, greater chemical stability in the working pair. However, due to the high
precise control of the proportions of these three substances is required, freezing point of water, it cannot effectively provide heating and cooling
as even slight differences may significantly impact system performance, at lower Teva, and there is also a risk of crystallization. In addition, LiBr
making the control aspect more complex compared to traditional sys­ solution is highly corrosive, significantly increasing maintenance costs
tems. Fig. 8 summarizes the temperature ranges of commonly used for the system [41]. At the same time, it is necessary to maintain a
ammonia-based working pairs for absorption cycles. From the figure, it vacuum condition within the system, otherwise the performance of the
can be seen that NH3-NaSCN has a wider temperature range compared to absorption cycle will be significantly reduced.
other working pairs, operating normally between − 20 ◦ C and 120 ◦ C The various limitations mentioned above have spurred a strong
desire to find alternatives to absorbents, thereby expanding the

Fig. 8. Temperature range of common ammonia-based and water-based working pairs.

9
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

application range of the systems. For new binary working pairs, the first research has been conducted on a new type of working fluid that utilizes
step is to mathematically model the physical and chemical properties of ILs as absorbents. ILs demonstrate exceptional stability at high tem­
the fluids. Reyes et al. [42] utilized Fortran programming to detailed peratures, nonflammable, and environmentally friendlily [16]. This
model the application of H2O-CaCl2 and H2O-LiCl in AHT systems. These fluid is synthesized from organic cations and inorganic/organic anions.
two working pairs are considered superior alternatives to H2O-LiBr as It can prevent crystallization, reduce system cycle ratio and heat source
they are more readily available and environmentally friendly. Ulti­ temperature, and effectively improve system performance [48].
mately, it was found that compared to H2O-CaCl2, the use of H2O-LiCl Boman et al. [49] developed a novel comparative algorithm to
systems exhibits better performance, with a maximum cooling COP evaluate the system performance of 83 different ionic liquids under
reaching 0.68. For specific applications and relatively lower output various operating conditions. Fig. 9(a) shows the comparison results of
temperatures (80–100 ◦ C), both of these working pairs are feasible. In the maximum cooling COP for different types of working pairs. The top
the absorption cycles, there are also studies related to the use of NaOH, five working pairs with the highest COP all use water as the refrigerant.
KOH, and CsOH as absorbents [43]. The research indicates that the Part of the reason is that water has the highest heat of vaporization
temperature range of the solution using H2O-hydroxide is much wider among all considered refrigerants, and another part is due to the ther­
compared to that of H2O-LiBr. The results indicate that under conditions modynamics of the mixture composition. In addition to H2O–(LiBr +
where the temperature lift is 25 ◦ C, the heating COP can reach 2.1 with 1,3-Propanediol) and H2O–(LiBr + MEA), the working pairs with a
heating capacity of 45 kW. Although NaOH and KOH show considerable cooling COP greater than 0.52 all use salts or ILs as absorbents. Fig. 9(b)
improvement in system performance, their toxicity and corrosiveness illustrates the comparison of the maximum heating COP for different
impose significant limitations on practical applications. types of working pairs. Compared to working pairs using molecular
According to the aforementioned research, although there are many liquids as absorbents, the use of ILs as absorbents is more advantageous
new binary mixtures as alternatives to H2O-LiBr, the degree of for improving system performance in the heating mode. Working pairs
improvement in system performance is limited and some even toxicity. with methanol as the refrigerant exhibit the best performance. Based on
Furthermore, the performance of some binary systems is not as good as the comparison results from Fig. 9(a) and Fig. 9(b), a single working pair
that of conventional H2O-LiBr systems. Therefore, research on ternary that performs well in both heating and cooling modes can be selected,
mixtures is gradually gaining momentum. In the application of ternary which would allow the construction of a single heat pump that operates
mixtures, it is necessary to conduct relevant studies on their physical and in both modes, providing year-round climate control. From a thermo­
chemical properties [44]. Best et al. [45] proposed a novel absorbent dynamic perspective, the optimal working pair is MeOH-[emim][DEP],
called Carrol, which is a mixture of lithium bromide and ethylene glycol with a cooling COP of 0.79 and a heating COP of 1.63.
[(CH2OH)2] in a ratio of 1:4.5. Additionally, they conducted perfor­ Although MeOH-[emim][DEP] exhibits high performance, from a
mance analyses of single-stage, double-stage, and double-effect ab­ heat transfer perspective, using this working pair requires a larger heat
sorption cycles using this working pair. The results indicate that using exchange area, significantly increasing the economic burden of the
H2O-Carrol can effectively enhance system performance while reducing system. Therefore, considering both heat transfer and thermodynamic
the risk of solution corrosion. Kim et al. [46] compared three working factors, H2O-ILs are more suitable for cooling, while NH3-ILs are more
pairs, H2O-LiBr-H2N(CH2)2OH, H2O-LiBr-HO(CH2)3OH, and H2O-LiBr- suitable for heating, and some of the losses in thermodynamic perfor­
(HOCH2CH2)2NH, to assess the performance impact of these novel mance are mitigated to some extent by the advantages of heat transfer
working pairs on double-effect ARC. The results indicate that at higher performance [49]. For the H2O-ILs working pair, Zhai et al. [50]
Tgen, these three working pairs can significantly improve system per­ compared the system COPs of AHP using [BMIM][BF4], [DMIM][DMP],
formance compared to H2O-LiBr. Among them, H2O-LiBr- [EMIM][DMP], [EMIM][OAc] and [EMIM][OMs] as absorbents. The
(HOCH2CH2)2NH exhibits the highest performance, with a maximum study found that due to the unique geometric shapes of H2O–[EMIM]
cooling COP reaching 1.45. Additionally, these three novel working [AC] and H2O–[EMIM][OMS], efficiency and compactness can be
pairs have broader temperature ranges of operation and lower crystal­ maximized, resulting in a 40.9 % increase in efficiency compared to
lization risks. Yoon et al. [47] carried out a more detailed study of other ILs working pairs. For the NH3-ILs working pair, Wu et al. [51]
ternary worker pairs based on the study of Kim et al. The results showed developed property models for a novel NH3-ILs mixture and applied a
that the crystallization limit of the ternary system was 8 % higher than thermodynamic model to absorption cycles. A comparative study was
that of the conventional H2O-LiBr. conducted on four types of ILs: [DMIM][DMP], [DMEA][AC], [BMIM]
The research findings on ternary working pairs suggest that, with [BF4] and [OMIM][BF4]. Parameter studies indicated that the use of ILs
changes in circulating flow rate, the solution concentration difference in eliminated the REC, reducing system costs. Additionally, employing
ternary systems is larger than in conventional binary systems, resulting NH3–[OMIM][BF4] as the working pair for absorption cycles resulted in
in an increase in system COP by about 3 % compared to the conventional the lowest pressure ratio required, thus achieving the highest perfor­
H2O-LiBr system. Additionally, some of these working pairs not only mance limit. Compared to traditional working fluids, the use of ILs
significantly reduce the risk of crystallization but also enhance system working pairs shows competitive COPs, particularly suitable for heat
performance and safety. In order to further clarify the advantages of the pumps with large temperature lifts.
new working pairs, Fig. 8 illustrates the operating temperature ranges of However, as a novel working fluid, working pairs based on ILs are
commonly used water-based working pairs. Compared to H2O-LiBr, the currently not widely used on a large scale, and they are much more
proposed new working pairs are capable of operating efficiently at lower expensive compared to traditional working pairs. Until their prices are
temperatures. Among them, H2O-LiBr-H2N(CH2)2OH has a wider tem­ reduced to acceptable levels, one approach to alleviate the economic
perature range, operating normally between 30 ◦ C and 200 ◦ C without constraints of ILs at this stage is to use salts to partially replace ILs and
the risk of crystallization. However, ternary working pairs have complex serve as a common absorbent, forming ternary ILs working pairs
chemical compositions and require meticulous control. Therefore, (Refrigerant-Salt-ILs) together with the refrigerant [52]. Due to the
further extensive research is needed for both binary and ternary working lower ILs content in ternary working pairs compared to binary ones, the
pairs. required costs can be reduced, and the negative impacts resulting from
the high viscosity of ILs can be minimized. Considering the energy ef­
3.3. Series of refrigerant using other mediums ficiency of the system and the safety of the refrigerant, ternary working
pairs based on ILs with water as the refrigerant should be prioritized.
Based on the preceding two sections, it is evident that traditional Luo et al. [53] compared the performance of AHP cycles using H2O-
working fluids have various drawbacks, leading to significant environ­ LiNO3-[MMIM][DMP], H2O-LiNO3 and H2O-LiBr as working pairs. The
mental and safety concerns. Consequently, in recent years, significant results indicated that compared to H2O-LiNO3, the ternary system

10
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 9. Maximum COP of evaluated working pairs [49]. (a) Cooling COP. (b) Heating COP.

exhibited a broader temperature range, and compared to H2O-LiBr, the temperatures of these two ternary working pairs were at least 20 ◦ C
ternary system had a lower Tgen. Zhang et al. [54] proposed a novel H2O- lower than that of H2O-LiNO3. The corrosiveness of H2O-LiNO3-[BMIM]
LiNO3-[BMIM]NO3 working pair for the absorption cycle. The system Br is much lower than that of H2O-LiBr and H2O-LiNO3-[EMIM]Cl.
can operate over a wider concentration range, which improves thermal Overall, the addition of salt does not affect the performance of ILs
performance and prevents crystallization from occurring. Compared working pairs for absorption cycles, and it also helps to improve the
with H2O-LiBr, the temperature of the driving heat source required for operational efficiency and cooling capacity of the system, greatly
the ternary system is reduced by 50 ◦ C, which allows the system to use reducing the risks of crystallization and corrosion [56].
low-grade thermal energy more efficiently. Luo et al. [55] compared
H2O-LiNO3-[EMIM]Cl, H2O-LiNO3-[BMIM]Br, and binary working pairs
in their study. The research results indicated that the crystallization

11
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

3.4. Summary kW. Additionally, a multi-objective optimization approach has been

employed to resolve the conflict between capital payback period and
In the past decade, although a variety of novel working fluids in exergy destruction.
absorption heat pump have been studied, the vast majority of working In terms of system component composition, Lu et al. [82,83] added
pairs use ammonia and water as the refrigerant for absorption cycles due intermediate evaporator and intermediate absorber to a conventional
to their lower price and high evaporation latent. For the convenience of system in order to produce hot water above 90 ◦ C as well as to improve
selecting working fluids according to practical situations, Table 2 pro­ the PER for better recovery of high sensible and low latent heat in the
vides the comparison results of various working pairs. The selection of flue gas waste heat in order to generate more absorbed heat. The
the working pair should be based on the operational conditions and research indicates that under an ambient temperature of 20 ◦ C, the
potential issues that may arise during operation (such as crystallization, system can generate hot water exceeding 95 ◦ C, resulting in a temper­
environmental constraints, and material requirements) in practical ap­ ature lift of 75 ◦ C and the PER of up to 1.38. Additionally, compared to
plications. Current research indicates that adding different substances to conventional gas boilers, the energy-saving potential of the system has
NH3-H2O and H2O-LiBr can improve the performance of absorption increased by 36.7 % to 43.5 %. Sui et al. [84] replaced the traditional
cycles. Additionally, using ILs shows promising prospects, especially in expansion valve in the AHP system with an expansion machine. On one
cases where the driving heat source is low. hand, this was to compensate for the high energy consumption of the
solution pump due to the large pressure difference between the high-
4. Basic absorption cycles systems pressure side and the low-pressure side. On the other hand, the expan­
sion machine can lower the enthalpy of the refrigerant at the entrance of
In recent years, extensive studies have been conducted on the per­ the evaporator, resulting in more cooling capacity than traditional AHP
formance analyses of single-stage AHP and AHT. By varying the initial systems. These improvements led to a 11.9 % increase in the system
operating conditions, device structures, and connection methods, re­ COP.
searchers have studied the performance impacts of these systems and In terms of system configuration, Jia et al. [85] proposed an unbal­
analyzed their pros and cons. anced absorption-resorption system, where the conventional condenser
and evaporator in the AHP cycle were replaced by a high-pressure
4.1. Overview of single-stage absorption heat pump absorber (HPA) and a low-pressure generator (LPG), thus forming two
solution cycles. The system principle is depicted in Fig. 10(a). where the
A large body of research indicates that various parameters such as cycle operates based on the concentration difference of the solution at
temperature, pressure, and mass flow rate have a significant impact on different pressure levels. Due to the lower working pressure of this
the performance of single-stage AHPs. Bakhtiari et al. [71] carried out a system compared to traditional AHPs, it can operate at hot source
detailed experimental study of a single stage H2O-LiBr AHP with 14 kW temperatures as low as 85 ◦ C, effectively expanding the applicability
cooling capacity. The results indicate that the AHP maintains nearly range of the driving heat source. Based on the aforementioned systems,
constant COP at higher driving heat source temperatures, fluctuating Jia et al. [86] proposed a balanced absorption-resorption cycle featuring
within the range of 0.7 to 0.78. The COP is primarily influenced by the overlapping solution concentrations and temperatures, as shown in
cooling stream temperature and flow rate. Sun et al. [72] conducted a Fig. 10(b). Through a diversion process between the two sub-cycles,
more precise modeling of the single-stage AHP. The results indicate that mass and energy conservation are achieved, thereby eliminating the
the vapor mass flux increases almost linearly with increasing absorption need for the REC and simplifying the configuration. Although both
pressure. Additionally, higher solution mass flow rates can ensure a systems increase the applicable range of heat source temperatures and
more uniform coverage of the majority of the absorber’s surface with the reduce the required operating pressure, their application is still limited
film, thereby enhancing vapor absorption and improving the efficiency by the lower COP. Therefore, Feng et al. [87] proposed a cross-type
of system operation. Zhou et al. [73] conducted dynamic simulations of absorption-resorption heat pump, and the operational principle along
single-stage ARC, enabling real-time tracking of changes in the me­ with the h-x diagram are respectively shown in Fig. 10(c) and Fig. 10(d).
dium’s state. Simulation results indicate that lower cold-water temper­ By utilizing a cross-type cycle to enhance the concentration difference
atures and higher cold water flow rates are beneficial for improving the between the generator and absorber, the system COP can be effectively
system energy and exergy efficiency. When the temperatures of hot and increased at lower operating pressures. Specifically, this system COP is
cold water are 90 ◦ C and 30 ◦ C respectively, with flow rates of 0.9 m3/h 8.1 % higher than that of traditional absorption-resorption heat pumps
and 3 m3/h respectively, the system can achieve an optimal cooling COP and 6.4 % higher than that of balanced-type absorption-resorption heat
of 0.793. Most studies indicate that the COP of a single-stage AHP in­ pump.
creases with increasing Tgen and Teva, and decreases with increasing Tcon Many studies have made significant improvements to the design,
[74–76]. These parametric studies lay a solid foundation for future components, and connections of single-stage AHPs. These enhancements
practical applications. not only enable the utilization of low-grade thermal energy but also
To maximize the advantages and minimize the drawbacks of the effectively enhance the system performance and applicability. However,
systems, many researchers have conducted extensive studies on single- the magnitudes of these improvements are relatively modest, and their
stage AHPs. In terms of structural design, based on experimental practical applications still require further investigation and validation.
research, Mirl and Schmid et al. [77,78] designed the structures of The limited internal heat recovery capability, narrow temperature range
absorber and SHX and developed a novel generator assembly consisting applicability, and modest COP improvements in single-stage AHPs
of plate heat exchangers (PHE), liquid reservoirs, and separators, continue to constrain their application.
reducing the weight of the heat pump from the usual 300 kg to 180 kg,
the working fluid required is greatly reduced and the system still ach­ 4.2. Overview of absorption heat transformer
ieves a maximum COP of 1.42. The system operates even under chal­
lenging conditions such as evaporator inlet temperatures as low as In addition to corresponding research and analysis on single-stage
− 10 ◦ C or external condenser outlet temperatures as high as 63 ◦ C. Wu AHPs, single-stage AHTs have also been gradually valued, which dem­
and You [79–81] have designed a falling film generator-absorber onstrates good performance for thermal energy upgrading when the
component primarily to address the issue of poor performance of con­ driving heat source temperature ranges from 60 to 95 ◦ C [88]. AHT has
ventional heat pumps at low ambient temperatures. The results indicate the capability to recover substantial amounts of low-grade energy and
that even at ambient temperatures as low as − 10 ◦ C, the system can still release high-temperature heat in the absorber, making it widely appli­
achieve a maximum COP of 1.48, providing a heating capacity of 45.05 cable in industrial production. Therefore, AHT has become an extremely

12
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Table 2
Comparison of different working pairs in absorption cycles.
Type Working pairs Reference Absorption Advantage Disadvantage
cycle

Ammonia- NH3-H2O [6,32,57,58] AHP; ARC; Low cost, no risk of crystallization, efficient operation at Requires REC and has lower safety.
based AHT low Teva.
working
pairs
NH3-LiNO3 [33,59,60] AHP; ARC Does not require REC, high solubility in ammonia, non- Performance improvement is limited
corrosive to steel. Has lower driving temperature, superior due to higher viscosity.
performance to NH3-H2O.
NH3-NaSCN [33,61] AHP; ARC Simplifies system, non-corrosive to metals, performance There may be a risk of crystallization at
superior to NH3-H2O. low Teva.
NH3-H2O-LiBr [62,63] AHP; ARC Higher heat transfer coefficients and lower vapor pressures, Boiling temperature is higher than
superior performance compared to binary mixtures. binary mixtures.
NH3-H2O-LiNO3 [59,60] AHP; ARC High heat transfer coefficients, low viscosity. Lower Boiling temperature is higher than
moisture content in the refrigerant vapor. Facilitates binary mixtures.
performance improvement.
NH3-H2O-NaOH [40,64] ARC Improves COP, promotes refrigerant separation, and During the cycle, salt can desorb
reduces the driving temperature. ammonia from the absorber, weakening
the absorption process.
Water-based H2O-LiBr [17,41] AHP; ARC; Low cost, environmentally friendly, high concentration of There are risks of corrosion and
working AHT refrigerant vapor. Compared to ammonia-based working crystallization, and it has higher
pairs pairs, it has a higher COP. viscosity.
H2O-CaCl2 [42] AHT Easily obtainable and environmentally friendly. It has The risk of crystallization is higher
lower corrosiveness compared to H2O-LiBr. compared to H2O-LiBr.
H2O-LiCl [17,42] AHT The COP is higher than that of H2O-CaCl2, operates under The risk of crystallization is higher
vacuum, and has better stability. compared to H2O-LiBr.
H2O-NaOH [43] ARC The cooling capacity is higher than that of H2O-LiBr and Has higher corrosiveness.
has a wider operating range.
H2O-KOH [16] AHP It has higher COP and flow rate, while also having higher The temperature range of application is
efficiency during the storage process. limited.
H2O-LiBr-(CH2OH)2 [45] AHT Its thermal performance is similar to H2O-LiBr, with a The viscosity and corrosion levels are
higher solubility, approximately 80 %. high.
H2O-LiBr-H2N [46] ARC The risk of crystallization is lower compared to H2O-LiBr. The viscosity and corrosion levels are
(CH2)2OH high.
H2O-LiBr-HO [46] ARC At high driving heat source temperatures, the COP is higher The temperature range of applicability is
(CH2)3OH compared to H2N(CH2)2OH. There is a lower risk of relatively narrow.
crystallization.
H2O-LiBr- [46] ARC When the heat source temperature is higher, the COP is When the heat source temperature is
(HOCH2CH2)2NH higher compared to H2O-LiBr, and it has a wider range of lower, the COP is lower compared to
applicability. H2O-LiBr.
H2O-LiBr-CH3COOK [65] AHP More readily available and environmentally friendly, The temperature range of application is
reducing the risk of crystallization. limited.
H2O-LiBr-CH3CH [65] AHP The temperature range of applicability is superior to that of Higher corrosion and higher operating
(OH)COONa H2O-LiBr. costs.
H2O-LiBr-CHO2Na [66] ARC Better thermal properties, lower toxicity, non-flammable. Higher corrosion and higher operating
costs.
H2O-LiBr-LiNO3 [67] AHP It can replace most applications of H2O-LiBr, offering The viscosity is higher.
higher COP and lower corrosiveness.
H2O-NaOH-KOH [43] AHP It has a greater concentration difference and a wider The viscosity and corrosion levels are
temperature range applicability, demonstrating better high.
performance compared to H2O-LiBr.
Other working H2O–[bmim][BF4] [49] ARC It exhibits a larger COP than H2O-LiBr at higher heat source Depending on the chemical structure,
pairs temperatures and lower risk of crystallization. long-term thermal and toxicity
problems.
H2O–[mmim] [49] ARC It can operate at lower heat source temperatures and Depending on the chemical structure,
[DMP] achieve higher COP at lower temperatures. long-term thermal and toxicity
problems.
H2O–[BMIM]N [22] AHP; ARC It can utilize lower temperature heat sources, Depending on the chemical structure,
(CN)2 outperforming NH3-H2O and H2O-LiBr, and it also has long-term thermal and toxicity
higher solubility. problems.
MeOH-[emim] [49] AHP; ARC The heating COP of this working pair reaches 1.52, which is Higher operating costs.
[DMP] 16 % higher than the traditional NH3-H2O.
MeOH-[emim] [49] AHP; ARC The heating COP reaches 1.78, which is 36 % higher than Requires a larger heat exchange area.
[EtSO4] the traditional NH3-H2O.
MeOH-[emim] [49] AHP; ARC Considering both heating and cooling aspects Depending on the chemical structure,
[DEP] simultaneously, this working pair is the best option. Its long-term thermal and toxicity
cooling COP is 0.79, and the heating COP is 1.63. problems.
Additionally, the heat exchange area required by the
system is relatively low compared to other working pairs.
MeOH-[mmim] [49] AHP; ARC In the case of heating, it has smaller heat exchanger sizes, Depending on the chemical structure,
[DMP] reducing system costs. long-term thermal and toxicity
problems.
H2O-LiBr-1,3- [49] ARC Compared to H2O-LiBr, it has a similar range of heat source Higher cost and heat loss.
Propanediol temperatures, but the COP is increased by 20 %.
(continued on next page)

13
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Table 2 (continued )
Type Working pairs Reference Absorption Advantage Disadvantage
cycle

H2O-LiBr-MEA [49] ARC The cooling COP reaches 0.9, making it the most ideal Higher cost and poor thermal stability.
working pair for the refrigeration process.
H2O-LiNO3-[DMIM] [53] AHP It can operate at lower driving temperatures compared to At high temperatures, the thermal
[DMP] H2O-LiNO3 and H2O-LiBr, and can also reduce the risk of stability is poor, and the COP is slightly
crystallization. lower than the traditional working pair.
H2O-LiNO3-[BMIM] [55] AHP Compared to H2O-LiNO3, the crystallization temperature of Depending on the chemical structure,
Br the ternary working pair is lowered by at least 20 ◦ C. long-term thermal and toxicity
problems.
H2O-LiNO3-[EMIM] [55] AHP This working pair exhibits the lowest corrosive for AHP. Higher costs, and there are safety risks at
Cl high temperatures.
H2O-LiBr-[EMIM]Cl [68] AHP The crystallization temperature of this work pair was Depending on the chemical structure,
reduced by 30 ◦ C compared to H2O-LiBr. long-term thermal and toxicity
problems.
H2O-LiBr-[BMIM]Cl [69] AHP Corrosivity is much lower than H2O-LiBr, and it can also Higher costs, and there are safety risks at
significantly improve the problem of high viscosity. high temperatures.
H2O-LiBr-[BMIM]Br [70] AHP Compared to H2O-LiBr, it has a lower crystallization Higher costs, and there are safety risks at
temperature and an increased absorption capacity of 8–9 high temperatures.
%.

Fig. 10. (a) Schematic diagram of the unbalanced absorption-resorption heat pump [85]. (b) Schematic diagram of the balanced absorption-resorption heat pump
[86]. (c) Schematic diagram of the cross-type absorption-resorption heat pump [87]. (d) h-x diagram of the cross-type absorption-resorption heat pump [87].

attractive alternative for energy recovery [20]. The parameter varia­ increasing the heat transfer efficiency of the SHX. Siqueiros and Romero
tions in single-stage AHT are similar to single-stage AHP, where the [91] demonstrated that for every 1 ◦ C increase in Teva, the system COP
system COP increases with the rise in Tgen and Teva [89], and decreases can increase by 78 %, while for every 2 ◦ C increase in Tgen, the COP can
with the increase in Tcon [90]. Performance can also be improved by increase by 121 %.

14
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Rosenberg et al. [92] demonstrated that as Tabs increases, the system allowing the refrigerant to be generated at lower pressures, and the
COP slightly decreases, but once it reaches a certain critical temperature, solution at the absorber outlet can be fed into the generator through the
the COP starts to decline rapidly. Increasing Tgen and Teva, or decreasing diffusion gas. Therefore, the use of expansion valve and solution pump is
Tcon, can both raise the critical temperature. The trend of ECOP in AHT is unnecessary, simplifying the equipment. When the heat source tem­
similar to that of COP, both gradually increasing with the rise of Tgen and perature is 90 ◦ C, the system can achieve COP and exergy efficiency of
Teva. However, once reaching a certain value, ECOP starts to decrease 0.401 and 48.9 % respectively. The temperature of the output heat
with the increase in temperature. The system ECOP decreases gradually reaches 120 ◦ C, resulting in an annual reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2)
with the increase in Tcon and Tabs. Furthermore, the flow ratio of the emissions by 20.1 Mt.
system gradually increases with the increase in Tcon, reduction in con­ Table 3 summarizes the improvement studies conducted by re­
centration difference of the solution, decrease in heat transfer efficiency searchers on single-stage absorption cycles, focusing on structural
of the SHX, and decrease in COP [93]. design, system component composition, and connection forms. In recent
In terms of system improvement, Ishida et al. [94] utilized energy years, there has been relatively little research on the improvement of
utilization diagrams to investigate the variation of exergy destruction in single-stage AHT systems, primarily because even with system en­
single-stage AHT. Based on the distribution of exergy destruction in hancements, the potential performance gains are extremely limited.
absorber, a multiple-compartment absorber was proposed. With the Additionally, while single-stage AHT systems can recover a significant
adoption of this device, relatively high output temperatures can be amount of low-grade energy, their lower energy utilization efficiency
achieved even at low flow ratios. Luo et al. [95] proposed a bubble- and limitations in concentration differences result in lower COP, thus
pump-aided diffusion absorption heat transformer using deep eutectic restricting the applicability of these systems to a narrower scope.
solvent (DES). The system introduces diffusion gas into the generator,

Table 3
Improvements in single-stage absorption cycles.
Reference Improvements Working Operating temperature (oC) COP Recovered low- Relevant features
pairs grade heat/ Heating
Tgen Teva Tabs Tcon
capacity/ Cooling
capacity

Mirl et al. AHP based on a novel NH3-H2O 120–150 40 45 45 1.05–1.42 Recovered low- The weight of the heat pump was
[77,78] generator assembly grade heat: reduced from 300 kg to 180 kg, and
5.52–14.01 kW the required amount of solution
Heating capacity: was also reduced from 15 kg to 9.5
5.89–18.81 kW kg.
Cooling capacity:
0.81–5.36 kW
Lu et al. AHP with the NH3-H2O 150–195 − 10–14 59 51 1.66 Recovered low- It can generate hot water exceeding
[82,83] intermediate process grade heat: 29 kW 90 ◦ C, with a PER of 1.38. The
Heating capacity: energy-saving potential is
28 kW increased by 36.7 % to 43.5 %.
Jia et al. Absorption-resorption NH3-H2O 85–115 0 35–42 35–42 1.1–1.55 − Reduces the required heat source
[85] heat pump temperature and expands the range
of applications.
Feng et al. Cross-type absorption- NH3-H2O 87–140 2–10 30–46 30–46 1.2–1.564 Recovered low- Extended range of concentration
[87] resorption heat pump grade heat: difference and temperature
170–190 kW application. The COP was
Heating capacity: increased by 8.1 % compared to
100–140 kW traditional systems.
Liu et al. Improving the NH3-H2O 80–90 30–85 100 20 0.35–0.37 Heating capacity: It has a higher heating capacity,
[96] generator, enlarging the 205.95–400 kW and the maximum exergy
temperature utilization efficiency of the system is 49.7 %.
span of the AHT
Wu et al. AHP based on falling R22- 150–195 − 20–0 43 46 1.1–1.48 Heating capacity: It can operate normally in
[79–81] film generator-absorber DEGDME 34–45 kW extremely cold regions. Even at an
component ambient temperature of − 10 ◦ C,
the system can still achieve a
maximum COP.
Yang et al. Counter flow parallel H2O-LiCl 40 30 35 35 − − Low-temperature waste heat as low
[97] plate membrane-based as 40 ◦ C can be recovered, and the
AHP temperature lift is increased by
99.6 %. It can minimize sensible
heat loss.
Mehrjouiee Double AHT H2O-LiBr 75–90 75–90 120–200 25–35 0.29–0.32 Recovered low- The system components are less
et al. [98] grade heat: 1006 interdependent and have a higher
kW potential for improvement.
Heating capacity:
474.9 kW
Wang et al. Diffusion AHT cycle H2O-LiBr 80–100 80–100 110–130 20–40 0.2–0.34 − The system has a higher heat
[99] with ejection boost recovery efficiency, and the
introduction of ejector is conducive
to improving the cycle
performance.
Luo et al. Diffusion AHT cycle H2O-DES 75–110 60 100–145 30 0.25–0.45 Recovered low- The exergy efficiency can reach
[95] using deep eutectic grade heat: 2.45 kW 48.9 %, achieving a temperature
solvent lift of 50 ◦ C, with a supply water
temperature as high as 120 ◦ C.

15
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

4.3. Coupling other systems for cooling, heating and power generation into a pumped thermal energy storage (PTES) system assisted by waste
heat, primarily aiming to increase electricity generation by utilizing the
Although single-stage AHP and AHT cycles have many drawbacks, ORC at lower operating pressures. The new system combined with ARC
they still have the potential to bring about significant performance im­ can minimize levelized cost of storage at higher Teva and lower cooling
provements if absorption heat pumps can be properly integrated with water temperatures compared to conventional energy storage systems.
other systems. Traditional gas boiler exhaust contains a significant For different parameters, the proposed system increases the electrical
amount of waste heat and water vapor. If released directly into the at­ energy supplied to the grid during the discharge process by 15.3 % to
mosphere at high temperatures, the thermal efficiency would be rela­ 41.5 %. Liu et al. [106] proposed a comprehensive process combining
tively low. Using conventional waste heat recovery methods can only ORC, ARC, and the purification of syngas from coal to efficiently recover
recover a portion of the sensible heat, while the substantial latent heat waste heat from natural gas produced in coal production while also
contained in water vapor cannot be effectively recovered. Therefore, in reducing CO2 capture and storage costs. The operational principle is
recent years, there has been extensive research on using absorption illustrated in Fig. 12. The integrated system can convert industrial waste
cycles for efficient recovery of flue gas waste heat. Hou et al. [100] heat into usable energy such as electricity and cooling energy, achieving
proposed a novel boiler coupled AHP system, which can reduce the energy savings and emission reductions. The exergy analysis results
temperature of boiler flue gas to the dew point, thereby efficiently indicate that the exergy efficiency of the waste heat utilization system is
recovering both sensible and latent heat from the flue gas. In this system, 42.88 %. The CO2 capture and storage costs of the integrated process are
a collector is installed on the evaporator, which allows not only the 81 % lower than those of the basic process, and the annual total cost is
absorption of waste heat from the flue gas but also the collection of reduced by 72 %. Life cycle assessment results indicate that the entire
condensed water from the flue gas. The results indicate that when the process has good environmental benefits, with a total CO2 emission of
installed capacity is 31.5 MW, after operating the system, it is possible to only 2.03 kg CO2-eq/t.
recover 13,793.84 MJ of heat per hour, resulting in a saving of 1.14 In combined cooling, heating, and power systems, absorption cycles
million cubic meters of natural gas throughout the heating season. are analyzed for their performance impact not only when coupled with
In the traditional flue gas purification system of coal-fired power ORCs but also when coupled with Kalina cycles by researchers. ORC and
plants, it is necessary to reduce the temperature of the flue gas through a Kalina cycles have different characteristics. ORC utilizes a single
condensing heat exchanger, and if the heat released by this device can be working fluid for energy conversion through the fluid’s phase change
utilized, the heat recovery efficiency can be greatly improved. Wang process and is primarily suitable for operation under high-temperature
et al. [101] integrated the condensing heat exchanger and AHP into the conditions. On the other hand, the Kalina cycle, which utilizes a
cooling water system to efficiently recover waste heat and wastewater mixture of working fluids to evaporate and condense at different tem­
from the high-moisture flue gas. The integrated system can recover 70 peratures to improve cycle efficiency, is mainly suitable for operation
MW of waste heat and 90 t/h of water from flue gas simultaneously. under medium to low-temperature conditions. Compared to coupling
Importantly, the system can also recover an additional 70 MW of waste with ORC, coupling with the Kalina cycle exhibits better performance in
heat from the condenser cooling water to meet the heating demand terms of energy efficiency, exergy efficiency, and irreversibility [107].
during the heating season. Liu et al. [108] proposed a cascade system integrating the ARC with the
Due to its great adaptability, absorption cycles can not only recover Kalina cycle to more fully recover low-grade energy. At a refrigeration
waste heat from boiler flue gas but also be coupled with other systems temperature of 2 ◦ C, the coupled system can achieve a lower outlet
for waste heat recovery, effectively improving the overall heat recovery pressure, enabling it to generate maximum electrical output. The
efficiency of the system. Xu et al. [102] proposed a novel ARC coupled optimal thermal efficiency can reach 0.1678. After integration with
with a solution dehumidification system, primarily designed for efficient ARC, the net power output of the Kalina cycle increased by nearly 45 %
recovery of low-grade energy ranging from 90 to 150 ◦ C. Due to the compared to a single Kalina cycle, indicating significant performance
cascade configuration of the system, the high-temperature fluid formed enhancement. Akimoto et al. [109] proposed an integrated system with
by preheating and pressurizing the solution at the outlet of the regen­ AHT-assisted double Kalina cycles., which greatly enhances thermal
erator provides heat to the evaporator, aiming for efficient dehumidi­ efficiency and facilitates research on low-temperature difference power
fication in regions with hot summers and cold winters. Zhang et al. generation technologies. The specific operation principle of the system is
[103] proposed a concentrating photovoltaic thermal system integrated illustrated in Fig. 13. The system can operate within a range of
with spectral splitter and AHP to alleviate energy consumption crises 60–120 ◦ C for the driving heat source temperature. The integrated sys­
and environmental pollution issues. The specific operating principle of tem electricity generation can be 29–81 % higher than that of traditional
the system is illustrated in Fig. 11(a). In this case, the low-temperature Kalina cycles, with thermal efficiency varying within the range of 1–3 %.
heat source for the evaporator is provided by geothermal energy, facil­ Although the proposed system is better than the conventional Kalina
itating combined heat and power generation. The complementary cycle in terms of performance, the system requires more devices,
integration of solar energy and geothermal energy can significantly resulting in the conventional system being more economic benefits than
enhance the performance of the proposed system. The COP of the AHP the integrated system at heat source temperatures below 80 ◦ C, and the
can reach a maximum of 1.67. In addition, Zhang et al. [104] proposed integrated system being more economic benefits at temperatures of
an AHP-based air-cooled gas-steam combined cycle cogeneration system 80 ◦ C and above.
(GSCCCS) based on the traditional water-cooled gas-steam combined
cycle cogeneration system to achieve the dual effect of waste heat re­ 4.4. Summary
covery and water saving, and the specific operation principle of the
system is shown in Fig. 11(b). The results indicate that the retrofitted Table 4 summarizes recent research on the application of single-stage
system net power output increased by approximately 11082 kW, and the absorption cycles in various systems, including coupling with gas boilers
equivalent coal consumption decreased by 2.71 g/kWh. The perfor­ for flue gas waste heat recovery, solar collector systems to enhance
mance degradation caused by the air-cooled gas-steam retrofit can be renewable energy recovery efficiency, as well as ORC for combined
compensated for by the performance improvement brought about by cooling, heating, and power generation in hybrid systems. The results
waste heat recovery. Therefore, utilizing AHP for waste heat recovery demonstrate that hybrid systems in most cases have more flexible con­
can effectively save fuel consumption in cogeneration systems. trol strategies due to the integration of the advantages of multiple sys­
In addition to coupling with solar energy or boiler systems, the vast tems, while reducing the risks and limitations of a single system, giving
majority of absorption cycles are combined with ORC for triple gener­ them better performance and the wider range of applications than the
ation of heat, cold and electricity. Korhan et al. [105] integrated the ARC single system.

16
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic diagram of the photovoltaic thermal system [103]. (b) Schematic diagram of the air-cooled GSCCCS with AHP for recovering waste
heat [104].

17
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of a hybrid system coupling ORC, ARC and the purification of syngas from coal [106].

Fig. 13. The schematic diagram of the integrated system with AHT-assisted double Kalina cycles [109].

5. Advanced absorption cycles systems single-stage absorption cycle, using high-pressure refrigerant vapor as
the driving heat source for the LPG. This method generates more
The application technology of traditional single-stage absorption refrigerant, leading to a system COP increase of around 50 %, with the
cycles has become relatively mature, enabling the recovery of a signif­ principle of operation and P-T diagram are shown in Fig. 14(a) and
icant amount of low-grade energy. However, due to the limitations of Fig. 14(b), respectively. The low-grade energy ranging from 160 to
the gas-emission range, some energy in the heat source cannot be 180 ◦ C serves as the driving heat source for the high-pressure generator
effectively utilized, leading to significant heat losses. Additionally, the (HPG), generating high-temperature and high-pressure refrigerant
system cannot effectively utilize heat sources below 100 ◦ C, and the vapor used as the driving heat source for the LPG. The HPG outlet so­
performance improvement is limited when the driving heat source lution is fed into LPG after heat transfer and throttling for a second-
temperature is high. Therefore, to address the various drawbacks of generation process. Therefore, the cycle involves twice generation pro­
single-stage absorption cycles, researchers have proposed several cesses that produce twice refrigerant vapors, expanding the system gas-
improved systems in recent years. emission range. The two refrigerant vapes generated are sent into the
condenser, which becomes saturated liquid refrigerant after releasing
condensation heat, and then becomes gas–liquid two-phase flow after
5.1. Double-effect absorption cycles
throttling and reducing pressure, and then is sent into evaporator. The
fluid forms a low-temperature and low-pressure refrigerant vapor by
To address the issue of low performance of absorption cycles at high
absorbing low-temperature heat in the evaporator, and the vapor is
driving heat source temperatures, researchers have proposed a double-
subsequently fed into the absorber to form a high-concentration
effect absorption cycle. The system adds a generator to the traditional

18
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Table 4
Summary of single-stage absorption cycles coupled with other systems.
System type of Reference Working Boundary condition (oC) COP Recovered low-grade Relevant features
coupling pair heat/ Heating
Tgen Teva Tabs Tcon
capacity

Boiler systems Hou et al. H2O-LiBr 120 50 56.4 59.7 − Recovered low-grade Deeply recovering waste heat and
[100] heat: 3831.7 kW condensation heat from flue gas results
in an efficiency improvement of 11.8 %,
and 227 tons of CO2 emissions can be
reduced annually.
Liu et al. H2O-LiBr 77–83 85 134–152 20–30 0.27–0.47 − Effectively improving the CO2 recovery
[110] rate, the system exergy efficiency can
reach a maximum of 85.28 %.
Wang et al. H2O-LiBr 130 15 40 40 1.65 Recovered low-grade It is possible to simultaneously recover
[101] heat: 77.9–125.8 MW 70 MW of waste heat and 90 t/h of
water from flue gas, with a capital
payback period of less than 4 years.
Qu et al. H2O-LiBr 98–150 26–29 45 46–50 1.6–1.73 Recovered low-grade Increase boiler efficiency by 5–10 %,
[111] heat: 37.175 kW with a capital payback period of only
1.7 years.
Zhu et al. H2O-LiBr 116 15 45 50 − Recovered low-grade Reduce the heat in the flue gas to below
[112] heat: 1825 kW the dew point, achieving a 12 %
increase in heating capacity.
Solar collector Salehi et al. NH3-H2O 97–167 7–42 42 62 1.45–1.75 Recovered low-grade The maximum exergy efficiency is 25 %,
systems [113] heat: 50–52 MW representing an improvement of around
45 % compared to a single system.
Wu et al. NH3-H2O 100–150 − 20–10 40 45 1.45–1.73 − Expanding the applicability range, the
[114] efficiency improvement rate reached
24 %, representing a 9 % increase
compared to a single system.
Dai et al. NH3-H2O 60–100 0–35 45 50 1.15–2.22 Heating capacity: The COP is improved by 3.05–42.30 %
[115] 10–55 kW compared to traditional systems, with a
decrease in operating pressure of 7.86
%, and a maximum APF increase of
14.47 %.
Zhang et al. H2O-LiBr 165–200 27 50 53 1.44–1.83 − The overall energy efficiency and
[103] exergy efficiency can reach 102.14 %
and 37.49 % respectively.
Bellos et al. H2O-LiBr 76.3 90 85–165 35 0.25–0.5 Heating capacity: 80 The maximum COP and exergy
[116] kW efficiency are 0.5 and 74.32 %
respectively, with the capability to
provide a temperature lift of up to
60 ◦ C.
Combined Zhang et al. H2O-LiBr 111.3 51 71.9 80 1.73 Recovered low-grade The net power output increased by
heat and [104] heat: 529–7542 kW approximately 11082 kW, while the
power equivalent coal consumption decreased
generation by 2.71 g/kWh. The thermal efficiency
and exergy efficiency improved by
approximately 0.24–1.05 % and
0.34–1.12 % respectively.
Liu et al. H2O-LiBr 80–110 2–7 31.2 16.9–34.8 0.86 Recovered low-grade At a refrigeration temperature of 2 ◦ C,
[108] heat: 600 kW the optimal thermal efficiency is 16.78
%, representing a net power output
increase of 45 % compared to a single
cycle.
Mei et al. H2O-LiBr 90–120 20 40 45 − Heating capacity: The system heat-to-power ratio can vary
[117] 89.69–483.62 kW between 0.8–2.4 and 4.2–9.5, providing
increased flexibility and adaptability in
operation.
Li et al. H2O-LiBr 90–140 28–48 61–72 70–81 0.45–0.95 − Promotes heat exchange with a large
[118] temperature difference, with a net
power of up to 151.8 kW and an exergy
efficiency of 55.45 %. The waste heat
outlet temperature can be reduced to
25.6 ◦ C.
Li et al. H2O-LiBr 90–100 5 37.8 37.8 − − The exergy efficiency and average
[119] exergy consumption cost respectively
increased by 4.62 % and decreased by
0.9 cents compared to a single power
generation cycle. Compared to waste
heat power-driven systems, the exergy
efficiency improved by 2.89 %.
Okten et al. NH3-H2O 53.3–75.4 7.6 10–20 10–20 − Recovered low-grade The generated electrical energy can
[105] heat: increase by 15.3–41.5 %, with a round-
966.34–1367.33 kW trip efficiency reaching 142 %.
Liu et al. NH3-H2O 91.7 − 60 − 3.3 21.8 0.11 − The exergy efficiency of the waste heat
[106] utilization system is 42.88 %, reducing
(continued on next page)

19
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Table 4 (continued )
System type of Reference Working Boundary condition (oC) COP Recovered low-grade Relevant features
coupling pair heat/ Heating
Tgen Teva Tabs Tcon
capacity

carbon storage costs by 81 % and

decreasing annual total costs by 72 %.
At a refrigeration temperature of
− 60 ◦ C, the COP is 0.1058.
Akimoto NH3-H2O 52–57 52–57 92–102 20 − − The research on low-temperature
et al. [109] difference power generation technology
is advantageous, with electricity
generation increasing by 29–81 %. The
system demonstrates higher economic
viability when the heat source
temperature exceeds 80 ◦ C.
Mubashir NH3-H2O 100 − 6–6 33–45 33–45 0.53–0.55 Recovered low-grade The system achieves an exergy
et al. [120] heat: 873.46 kW efficiency of 59.21 %, with an
optimized cooling COP of 0.55.
Bishal et al. NH3-H2O 117.8 − 4–12 33 33 0.6–0.85 Heating capacity: The energy utilization rate and the
[121] 275 MW maximum COP of the system are 49.09
% and 0.85 respectively.

Fig. 14. The process flow diagram of the double-effect absorption cycle. (a) System schematic diagram. (b) P-T diagram.

refrigerant solution by mixing with the LPG outlet solution to release the condensation and absorption heat generated by the ORC and absorption
absorption heat, and then finally into the HPG for the generation pro­ cycle are able to be used for heating domestic hot water. The results
cess. This type of cycle is suitable for situations where the driving heat show that the maximum equivalent power density of the integrated
source temperature is high and there is a significant temperature dif­ system is 157 kW at a waste heat distribution ratio of 0.43, while the
ference between the high-temperature heat source and the low- equivalent power density of the single system is only 128 kW. Moreover,
temperature heat source. The cooling COP of the system is greater the integrated system’s performance is enhanced by 22.6 % compared to
than 1, and the heating COP is usually above 1.8. Compared with the the conventional single PEMFC system and by 10.4 % compared to a
single-stage absorption cycle, the irreversibility loss of the system is cogeneration system without waste heat recovery. Additionally, the
reduced, and the performance is greatly improved. integrated system minimizes fossil fuel consumption and carbon
In recent years, researchers have conducted a lot of research on the emissions.
practical application of the cycle. In order to improve energy efficiency Elbassoussi et al. [124] use double-effect ARC for seawater desali­
in most applications, double-effect absorption cycles are combined with nation, which can greatly reduce the desalination cost and increase the
other systems into a composite system. Alali et al. [122] conducted water delivery. During the operation of the system, the cooling capacity
performance testing on a hybrid system coupling a Stirling engine with a reached 15 kW, and the water production was increased by 90 %, and
double-effect ARC, as shown in Fig. 15(a). The results indicate that the the COP of the system increased by 60 %. Muhammad et al. [125]
energy utilization rate of the system is increased by 4.73–5.46 % proposed a novel cooling-seawater desalination system that combines
compared to traditional systems. Additionally, the system reduces the single-stage AHP with double-effect AHP, based on Elbassoussi’s
thermal energy consumption of both the power generation and refrig­ research. Fig. 15(c) shows the process flow diagram of the investigated
eration cycles by 11.46 % and 56.45 % respectively. Ma et al. [123] hybrid heat pump system, with the working pair being H2O-LiBr solu­
utilized waste heat generated from proton exchange membrane fuel cells tion. As depicted, the HPG absorbs input heat from natural gas, while
(PEMFC) to simultaneously drive ORC and double-effect absorption heat from waste heat sources is recovered by a special desorber (SD). By
cycle. The specific operation principle is shown in Fig. 15(b), where both utilizing industrial waste heat as the system’s driving heat source, the

20
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 15. (a) Schematic diagram of integrated system coupled with double-effect ARC and Stirling engine [122]. (b) Schematic diagram of the hybrid PEMFC system
[123]. (c) Schematic diagram of single-double-effect AHP system used for seawater desalination [125].

Fig. 16. (a) Schematic diagram of the double-effect direct-fired ARC. (b) The existing generator of absorption chiller. (c) The new designed generator for absorption
chiller [126].

21
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

cost of seawater desalination is significantly reduced. With the adoption HPA and LPA respectively for absorption process, thereby releasing
of this technology, the daily production capacity can reach up to 225L, absorption heat. Finally, the high concentration refrigerant solution
an increase of 8.5L compared to traditional systems. Additionally, while mixed in the HPA and LPA is respectively sent into the HPG and LPG to
the system is desalinating seawater, it can also provide a cooling ca­ undergo the generation process once again.
pacity of 0.8 kW, with the cooling COP of 1.06. Dadpour et al. [126] Fig. 17(b) shows the P-T diagrams of double-stage absorption cycle.
proposed a novel double-effect ARC that recovers waste heat from in­ It can be seen from the figure that the system has three kinds of working
ternal combustion engines, as depicted in Fig. 16(a), and involved the pressure and four kinds of solution concentration, which is obviously
development of a new type of generator capable of efficiently recovering different from the single-stage absorption cycle. The driving heat source
heat from high-temperature water instead of relying on combustion temperature of the double − stage absorption cycle can be reduced to
heat, as illustrated in Fig. 16(b) and Fig. 16(c), respectively. Imple­ about 50 ◦ C, while also recovering more low-grade energy and
mentation of this cycle not only reduces energy consumption signifi­ improving the scope of application [128].
cantly but also leads to substantial reductions in emissions of NOx and There are diverse variety of configurations for double-stage absorp­
CO2. tion cycles, but the research on this kind of system is limited recently.
Although the COP of the double-effect absorption cycle is higher than The main reason is that the double-stage absorption cycle adds multiple
that of the traditional single-stage absorption cycle, the number of de­ components, but only 35 % of the additional heat is obtained, which
vices required to operate the system is also higher than in traditional makes the system less competitive. However, in some special cases, the
systems, significantly increasing the system’s complexity. Additionally, double-stage absorption cycle is still an option when working under
this system not only requires higher heat source temperature, but also extreme low temperature conditions. Sun et al. [129] employed the
prone to causing corrosion to the equipment at high temperatures. double-stage AHP for heating and cooling processes in low-temperature
Therefore, the application of double-effect absorption cycles also has areas to meet the sustained demand for high energy density. A com­
certain limitations. parison between single-stage and double-stage AHPs was conducted,
and results revealed that the introduction of the single-stage AHP into
the process lowered the return water temperature of the primary
5.2. Double-stage absorption cycles
network and expanded the supply-return water temperature difference.
However, when employing the double-stage AHP, the system APF
In both natural environments and industrial processes, there is a
increased by approximately 0.73, operating costs decreased by 6.04
significant amount of low-grade energy below 100 ◦ C. However, tradi­
¥/GJ, and the heat transfer distance increased by 2.6 km. Yari et al.
tional single-stage absorption cycles struggle to recover heat below
[130] proposed a novel double-stage AHP integrated with seawater
100 ◦ C [86]. Double-stage absorption cycles can efficiently utilize low-
desalination. The system is optimized while the energy analysis is car­
grade energy while achieving greater temperature lift, as illustrated in
ried out. The results showed that the maximum temperature lift of the
Fig. 17(a) depicting its operational principle [127]. Compared to a
proposed system was 18–27 % higher than that of the traditional double-
single-stage absorption cycle, this system adds a generator and an
stage AHP, capable of raising the water temperature to around 120 ◦ C,
absorber, both of which are driven by low-grade heat sources. The high-
and reducing unit costs by 37 %. Liu et al. [131] integrated a low-
temperature refrigerant vapor generated by the heat absorption of HPG
temperature PEMFC with a double-stage AHP. The specific operation
is sent into the condenser to release condensation heat and form satu­
principle is shown in Fig. 18, where the AHP recovers the low-grade
rated liquid refrigerant, which is then sent into the evaporator after
energy released by the low-temperature PEMFC and is used to provide
throttling. Subsequently, it absorbs heat to form low-temperature satu­
cooling capacity. The results show that the total exergy efficiency of the
rated refrigerant vapor, which is then sent to the low-pressure absorber
integrated system is increased to 60.55 %, of which the exergy efficiency
(LPA). The HPG outlet solution is fed into the HPA. After the LPG ab­
of the low-temperature PEMFC subsystem is increased by 9.78 % due to
sorbs heat, the generated refrigerant vapor and solution are sent into the

Fig. 17. The process flow diagram of the double-stage absorption cycle. (a) System schematic diagram. (b) P-T diagram.

22
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 18. Schematic diagram of hybrid system integrating PEMFC and double-stage AHP [131].

the waste heat recovery performed by the system. The system achieves a drop of the low-grade energy source, thus achieving deep and efficient
maximum exergy efficiency of 70.44 % when the operating temperature energy recovery. In Fig. 19(c), at the same Teva, due to the double-
is 90 ◦ C. When the absorption cycle absorbed 4,389 kW of waste heat, it section absorption cycle having two solution cycles, it can recover
was able to produce 1,899.7 kW of cooling capacity with a cooling COP more heat, thus being capable of providing more heat supply compared
of 0.433. to the single-stage absorption cycle.
In terms of heating, Xu et al. [133] integrated the double-section
AHP with a power plant boiler, where waste heat generated in the
5.3. Double-section absorption cycles power plant drove the absorption cycle, ultimately using the generated
heat for district heating. The results indicated that the system could heat
The double-stage absorption cycle described in section 5.2 is capable the return water in the district heating network from 45 ◦ C to 105 ◦ C. It
of efficiently recovering low-temperature heat sources. However, the also avoided irreversible losses caused by the large temperature differ­
system performance is lower compared to a single-stage absorption ence between the driving heat source temperature and the return water
cycle. Additionally, the lower Teva during application is not conducive to temperature. Compared with the single district heating system, the en­
the efficient operation of the absorption cycle. To address these issues, ergy saving ratio reached 31.93 %, the COP of the system was 1.77, and
the researchers proposed a double-section absorption cycle, in which the heating capacity was 63.57 MW. Yang et al. [134] proposed a novel
two single-stage absorption cycles are connected in series, and both double-section AHT and applied it to a coal chemical process, recovering
systems use the same high and low-temperature drive heat sources. 60 % of the waste heat. The operating principle and energy utilization
The specific principle of the system is shown in Fig. 19(a), which process of this system are shown in Fig. 20(a) and Fig. 20(b), respec­
carries out twice evaporation processes that are sequentially recovered tively, utilizing NH3-H2O and H2O-LiBr as working pairs. The low-grade
by the low-grade energy distribution, which allows for better tempera­ energy is divided into high and low-temperature parts, with a critical
ture matching and reduces irreversible heat losses. During the heat re­ temperature between them. According to the principle of energy cascade
covery process, only the temperature of the second evaporation process utilization, the high-temperature part serves as the driving heat source
needs to be lower than the outlet temperature of the waste hot water. for the H2O-LiBr AHT cycle, while the low-temperature part serves as the
which is beneficial for the efficient operation of the evaporation process. driving heat source for the NH3-H2O AHT cycle. The high-temperature
Furthermore, the correspondence between temperatures ensures the heat produced by the NH3-H2O AHT cycle combines with the high-
efficient operation of both cycles, with a lower Teva achievable when temperature heat source supplied to the H2O-LiBr AHT cycle, gener­
Tgen is relatively high, and a higher Teva achievable when Tgen is rela­ ating high-temperature vapor within the H2O-LiBr AHT cycle to provide
tively low [132]. Fig. 19(b) and Fig. 19(c) shows a comparison between additional heat output. Research results show that steam at 0.5 MPa is
the P-T diagrams of single-stage and double-section absorption cycles. produced using this system, with the optimal COP reaching 0.227.
From Fig. 19(b), it can be observed that under the same driving heat In terms of power generation, due to the poor utilization of heat from
source and heat input capacities, the double-section absorption cycle the heat source by the evaporator in the ORC results in the outlet
can operate stably at a lower Teva, effectively increasing the temperature

23
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 19. (a) Schematic diagram of the double-section absorption cycle. (b) The P-T diagrams for single-stage and double-section absorption cycles at the same heat
input capacities [132]. (c) The P-T diagrams for single-stage and double-section absorption cycles at the same Teva [132].

temperature of the hot-side fluid being much higher than the inlet greatly improved. In terms of refrigeration, Beniwal et al. [136] used
temperature of the cold-side fluid. Therefore, in order to make full use of double-section absorption cycle to achieve the desired purpose in order
thermal energy, Tian et al. [135] integrated the double-section absorp­ to efficiently utilize 60–80 ◦ C waste heat for refrigeration. The AHT is
tion cycle into the ORC. In the traditional ORC, the waste heat tem­ first used to raise the residual heat temperature, and then the upgraded
perature can only be reduced from 130 ◦ C to about 70 ◦ C, but the heat is fed into the ARC to produce the desired cooling effect. The system
integrated system can reduce the waste heat temperature to 24.69 ◦ C, can achieve a cooling temperature of − 10 ◦ C and a cooling capacity of
achieving heat exchange and efficient use of waste heat under large 157 kW, and the waste heat generated during the distillation process can
temperature differences. The operation efficiency of the system is also be used for seawater desalination. Liu et al. [137] combined AHT

24
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 20. (a) Schematic diagram the novel cascade AHT [134]. (b) Energy utilization flowchart the novel cascade AHT [134]. (c) Schematic diagram of the double-
section absorption cycle integrating AHT and ARC [137]. (d) Relative positions of equilibrium stages between the absorption and generation side in the novel
absorption-generator [137].

and ARC into a new double-section absorptive cycle in order to utilize a diagram are shown in Fig. 21(a) and Fig. 21(b), respectively, where the
heat source below 100 ◦ C and to produce a cooling effect below 0 ◦ C. The absorber outlet solution is pressurized by a pump and then undergoes
operational principle of the system and the flow direction of the working heat exchange with the solution in the absorber, thereby recovering
fluid inside the absorption generator component are illustrated in some of the absorption heat. In addition, some of the absorbed heat is
Fig. 20(c) and Fig. 20(d), respectively. The two cycles share an absorber directly fed into the generator to reduce the external heat required
and generator. The results indicate that with the introduction of during the generation process, thus increasing the internal heat recovery
continuous variable temperature process, the system performance efficiency of the system. With the use of the GAX cycle, the solution heat
significantly improves, with the utilization temperature span of the heat exchanger between the generator and absorber is removed from the
source and refrigeration capacity increasing by 80 % and 108 %, cycle, simplifying the process. Furthermore, for efficient operation of the
respectively. Additionally, the proposed system shows great potential GAX cycle, there needs to be temperature overlap during the generation
with a low-grade heat source at 80 ◦ C and can generate refrigeration and absorption processes to transfer the absorbed heat to the generator.
temperature lower than − 15 ◦ C. Due to the high and low-pressure difference of the H2O-LiBr working
The outstanding performance of the double-section absorption cycle pair, it is difficult to produce temperature overlap, so NH3-H2O is usually
is attributed to the stepwise generation/evaporation process with energy chosen as the working pair for the GAX-based absorption cycle, but it is
cascade utilization, enabling the system to achieve higher internal cir­ also necessary to add REC to the cycle for the purification of ammonia
culation efficiency. Moreover, compared to traditional single-stage ab­ vapor.
sorption cycles, it exhibits lower irreversible losses in external Due to the simplicity of the GAX cycle and its higher efficiency and
circulation, which makes the double-section absorption cycle an effi­ attractiveness in terms of performance improvement, there has been a
cient way to achieve deep recovery of low-grade energy. However, lot of research in this area in recent years. Aprile et al. [139] analyzed a
because the system has more components than double-effect and gas-driven GAX-AHP. They studied the changes in performance by
double-stage, it also makes the construction and operating costs are varying water temperatures for full-load operation and by reducing gas
significantly higher. input to 50 % of full load for part-load operation. At hot water tem­
peratures below 50 ◦ C, the COP reached a maximum of 1.73, with a gas
utilization factor of approximately 1.5. Wu et al. [114] studied the in­
5.4. Based on generator-absorber heat exchange (GAX) absorption cycles fluence of different solar collectors on the performance of GAX-AHP. The
research found that the performance of the parabolic-trough collector
Generator-absorber heat exchange (GAX) cycle is another effective was the best, and it had a wider range of applications, improving ther­
way to achieve higher system performance, aiming to enhance the heat mal efficiency by 36 %. Wang et al. [140] conducted detailed mea­
recovery efficiency of the system under high-temperature driving heat surements and analysis of the internal parameters of the GAX cycle, with
sources. Its cycle configuration is essentially similar to that of a single- the operating principle and prototype illustrated in Fig. 22(a) and
stage absorption cycle [138]. The system differs from the double-effect Fig. 22(b), respectively. The study found that under conditions of high
absorption cycle in that it has a simpler process and a more noticeable thermal lift and low thermal thrust, the latent heat exchange between
effect on performance. The operating principle of the system and P-T

25
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 21. The process flow diagram of the GAX-based absorption cycle. (a) System schematic diagram. (b) System P-T diagram.

Fig. 22. (a) Schematic of the GAX-AHP. (b) Experimental prototype of the GAX-AHP [140].

26
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

the generator and absorber could not be carried out properly. Instead, working pressure and high-quality sealing requirements, which greatly
more sensible heat was transferred, resulting in a reduction or even increases the cost in engineering applications. Therefore, the practical
disappearance of temperature overlaps in the GAX cycle, ultimately application of GAX-AHP should be carefully considered.
making the GAX cycle process close to a single-effect cycle. During the
experimental process, the system COP varied between 1.185 and 1.506. 5.5. Absorption thermal energy storage
Villa et al. [141] proposed a novel variable and double restrictor to
be installed on a solution cycle between generator and absorber. It was Several of the above cycles recover low-grade energy for thermal
shown that the waste heat utilization of the new cycle increased by 6 % upgrading or temperature increase. When there is insufficient heat from
compared to the conventional GAX cycle. The cycle is able to obtain the the driving heat source, the system cannot operate, leading to limita­
maximum performance improvement, but at the same time increases the tions in its application. Therefore, researchers have proposed a ATES
complexity of the system. Jia et al. [142] proposed a novel GAX-based system, which can store thermal energy for later release, addressing the
two-stage absorption-resorption heat pump designed for multiple in­ intermittency and instability of energy sources. Due to its simple system
ternal heat recoveries, which aims to extend application capabilities at design, ATES has garnered significant attention from scholars and is
low ambient temperatures while enhancing heating temperature and being explored for various applications, including cooling, space heat­
energy utilization efficiency. The specific operating principle is shown in ing, domestic hot water, and heat transformation [144–146]. The spe­
Fig. 23. From the diagram, it can be seen that multiple internal heat cific operation principle and the P-T diagram of the system are shown in
recoveries are mainly achieved through sensible heat recovery in the Fig. 24(a) and Fig. 24(b), respectively. In addition to the drive unit, the
low-temperature parts of LPG, SHX, generator absorber exchanger- ATES system consists of generator, absorber, condenser, evaporator and
generator (GAX-G), and medium-pressure generator (MPG), as well as material storage tanks. The system operation can be divided into the
latent heat recovery in the solution-cooled absorber (SCA). The research charging process and discharging process. In the charging process,
findings indicate that under given operating conditions, the maximum generator absorbs low-grade energy to produce refrigerant vapor and a
COP is 1.367, with a heating temperature of 46.1 ◦ C, and the system can low-concentration refrigerant solution (process 1–2). After the vapor is
operate normally at ambient temperature above − 15.6 ◦ C. Although the sent into the condenser to discharge condensation heat to the outside
COP of the novel system is lower than that of traditional single-stage world, the saturated liquid refrigerant formed by cooling is stored in the
AHP, the required driving heat source temperature of the system has refrigerant storage tank (process 2-C). The generator outlet solution is
been reduced by 30 ◦ C, enabling effective recovery of low-grade energy stored in the solution storage tank (process 2–3). In the discharging
as low as 70 ◦ C. process, the refrigerant is sent into evaporator to absorb low-
The GAX cycle is considered the most promising option in the field of temperature heat and form low-temperature vapor (process C-E), then
absorption cycles because of its higher COP. By adjusting operating it is sent into absorber to mix with the solution coming out of the so­
conditions to achieve temperature overlap between the generation and lution storage tank, releasing absorption heat (process E, 5–6). The
absorption processes, part of the absorption heat is utilized to preheat released heat is supplied to the user for heating, while evaporator pro­
the generator, thereby enhancing internal heat recovery capability vides cooling capacity.
[143]. Although the GAX-based absorption cycle has many advantages In the charging and discharging processes depicted in Fig. 24(b),
for heating and cooling, the drive heat source temperature of the system there is a transitional period, during which the energy storage time can
is usually higher than 150 ◦ C because part of the absorption heat needs be adjusted according to different requirements. In the charging process,
to be supplied to generator. In addition, the working fluid requires high since the refrigerant and absorbent are stored separately, it means that

Fig. 23. Schematic diagram of the proposed GAX-based two-stage absorption-resorption heat pump cycle [142].

27
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 24. The process flow diagram of the ATES. (a) System schematic diagram [147]. (b) System P-T diagram [16].

heat is stored in the form of chemical energy. Therefore, heat loss during released by the system has a higher temperature compared to the stored
the storage period (process 3–4) is not significant. During the dis­ heat, thereby achieving the purpose of temperature upgrading. The
charging process, since process 4–5 consumes a portion of the stored research indicates that the maximum ESE of the system is 0.44, with a
heat, it is used to raise the pressure of the concentrated solution to the maximum ESD of 292.7 kWh/m3, achieving a temperature rise of 55 ◦ C.
evaporation pressure. Therefore, the total heat recovered from chemical The mentioned improvements have limited impact on the perfor­
energy in the discharging process is always less than the total heat input mance enhancement of the system, and there is no significant expansion
in the charging process. in the application scope. Therefore, Zhou et al. [152] proposed a mixed
According to the operating principle of the system, ATES can store cycle of double-effect/two-stage ATES using H2O-LiBr and C2H5OH-
both cold and heat, and cooling and heating can be provided either LiBr-[BMIM]Br as working pairs to enhance the flexibility of the ATES
simultaneously or independently, making the system more flexible than system, lower the generation temperature, expand the operating tem­
conventional thermal energy storage systems. In addition to flexibility, perature range, and provide 24 h combined cooling and heating. The
compact thermal storage units are also more ideal, so generator can be operating principle of the system are shown in Fig. 25(c) and Fig. 25(d),
used as absorber and condenser can also be used as evaporator [16]. respectively, where the system integrates the AHP sub-cycle and the
In the study of system improvement, Liu et al. [148] integrated ATES ATES sub-cycle together, allowing for energy storage while simulta­
into ARC in order to alleviate the mismatch between solar thermal and neously providing heating and cooling for users. By utilizing the low-
cooling demand. The study indicates that the integrated system has an temperature working fluid C2H5OH-LiBr-[BMIM]Br, the hybrid cycle
improved cooling capacity and COP of 4.44 % and 3.5 %, respectively, enables the recovery of low-grade heat sources down to 110 ◦ C. When
compared to the single-stage ARC, and the total cold storage capacity the Teva is − 5◦ C, the system achieves a maximum COP of 2.37 and ESD of
can reach 6890.4 MJ per day due to the addition of the energy storage 394 kJ/kg. More importantly, the cycle enables year-round cooling and
system, which allows the cooling time to be extended to 14 h. Ibrahim heating, with a cooling temperature range of − 5 to 5 ◦ C and a heating
et al. [149] proposed a double-effect ATES system where solar energy is temperature range of 48–71 ◦ C, meeting the requirements of both
stored as chemical energy during the day and released at night for commercial and residential applications.
cooling applications, providing approximately 14 h of effective cooling In the improvement research of ATES systems, there are still several
per day, achieving a COP of 1.35 and an exergy efficiency of up to 25 %. challenges to address. For example, there is a risk of crystallization of
Moreover, compared to single-stage ATES systems, the overall energy working fluids at too low temperatures, significant heat loss during
storage efficiency (ESE) of the integrated system is enhanced by 13–54 energy storage and energy release periods, and a relatively short oper­
%. Jeong et al. [150] proposed an ATES system capable of simulta­ ational lifespan of the systems. Therefore, to widely implement ATES
neously providing both cold and hot supply, utilizing heat sources as low systems in practical applications, further research is needed to overcome
as 80 ◦ C. The system achieves a maximum COP of 0.8, equivalent to the these challenges.
maximum COP of a single-stage ARC under the same operating condi­
tions, but the hybrid system additionally provides a maximum energy 5.6. Open absorption heat pumps
storage density (ESD) of 402.4 kJ/kg. Ding et al. [151] put forward a
new type II absorption thermal battery based on the principle of thermal The above-mentioned absorption cycles are all closed systems, where
energy storage, in order to solve the problem that traditional thermal the working fluid does not directly contact with the outside world.
batteries cannot utilize low-grade energy. The specific operation prin­ Therefore, the amount of heat to recover low-grade energy is limited,
ciples are shown in Fig. 25(a) and Fig. 25(b), respectively. Fig. 25(a) and additional equipment is required for heat exchange processes. Un­
depicts the charging process, which utilizes low-grade energy (renew­ like closed absorption systems, open absorption heat pump (OAHP) can
able energy/waste heat source) to heat the solution in the generator. As capture heat energy from moist flue gases through direct contact and
the generation process continues, the concentration of the solution be­ absorption processes. Fig. 26(a) illustrates the schematic diagram of the
comes higher and higher, allowing the heat energy to be stored. Fig. 25 OAHP. First, the moist flue gas is fed into the absorber, where the
(b) depicts the discharging process, where low-grade energy is supplied concentrated solution releases absorbed heat by absorbing moisture.
to the evaporator as heat input to generate refrigerant vapor. The heat The diluted solution is then pumped into the generator to be heated by

28
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 25. (a) The charging process of a type II absorption thermal battery [151]. (b) The discharging process of a type II absorption thermal battery [151]. (c) The
energy storage process of a double-effect/two-stage absorption refrigeration and thermal energy storage hybrid cycle [152]. (d) The energy release process of a
double-effect/two-stage absorption refrigeration and thermal energy storage hybrid cycle [152].

an external heat source. The solution in the generator absorbs heat and proposed system based on these findings [155]. The authors employs
produces refrigerant vapor and concentrated solution. The concentrated both CaCl2 and LiBr as working fluids. Research indicates that using
solution is sent to the absorber to continue the absorption process and these two working fluids can respectively increase the PER of the gas
the refrigerant vapor is sent to the condenser to condense into liquid boiler by 15.3 % and 16.3 %. Recovering industrial waste heat to
state and release the heat output. Compared to single-stage AHP, the simultaneously fulfill dehumidification, heating, and cooling needs is a
configuration of OAHP is simpler and evaporator is not required, which potential demand in today’s energy utilization. Shahzad et al. [156]
greatly reduces operation and maintenance costs. In addition, the direct proposed a multifunctional hybrid system to address waste heat recov­
contact of the working fluid with the moist flue gas is more efficient than ery from moist flue gas, employing a double-stage OAHP cycle that
the use of heat exchangers. operates on low-grade energy to recover latent heat from moist flue gas
Fig. 26(a) shows only the most basic principle of a single-stage for heating and dehumidifies the surrounding humid air for cooling. The
OAHP, and the utilization of thermal energy still needs to be results indicate that compared to the single-stage system
improved. Therefore, as more people recognize the potential applica­ (112.3–153.8 ◦ C, 0.118–0.2 kg/kg), the double-stage system can operate
tions of the system, research in this area is increasing gradually. After within a lower range of driving heat source temperatures (96.3 ◦ C) and
desulfurization, coal-fired flue gas contains a large amount of water and humidity ranges of 0.054–0.2 kg/kg. Furthermore, the hybrid system
waste heat. Yang et al. [154] proposed a full-open absorption heat pump achieves a COP of 1.73 and a cooling capacity of 9.85 kW when the heat
for recovering waste heat from flue gas. It can perform deep dehumid­ source temperature is 113.7 ◦ C. Simultaneously, it can provide a heating
ification of the flue gas, effectively recovering its latent heat. The capacity of 280.1 kW. Ye et al. [153] proposed a variable-stage OAHP in
recovered heat is used for user heating, and the use of direct contact heat order to be able to work in a wider operating range, and the operation
mass transfer without the use of solid mass transfer interfaces can save a principle is shown in Fig. 26(b). Based on the traditional OAHP, the
large amount of metal tube and plate materials, thus greatly reducing system is equipped with LPG and LPA assembly, which can adjust the
the initial investment. Subsequently, the authors further optimized the concentration difference between HPG and open absorber (OA), and

29
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 26. (a) Schematic diagram of the OAHP. (b) Schematic diagram of variable-stage OAHP system [153].

further adjust the equivalent stage. The results indicate that when the enhancing the overall system performance [157]. The coupling forms of
waste heat temperature ranges from 86-110 ◦ C and the heating tem­ absorption cycles and vapor compression cycles vary widely, with the
perature ranges from 55-70 ◦ C, the COP values range from 1.17 to 1.85, most typical being the compression-assisted absorption heat pump
with a thermal recovery rate of 48.7 % to 89 %. (CAHP) shown in Fig. 27(a). The main difference from a single-stage
The OAHP is capable of efficiently recovering latent and sensible absorption cycle lies in the addition of a compressor at the outlet of
heat from moist flue gas, and has a simple structure and lower initial the evaporator, with the system primarily based on the absorption cycle
cost. However, the contact between the interior of the system and the and the vapor compression cycle serving as a supplement. The P-T dia­
external environment causes the unit to be prone to corrosion, raising gram of single-stage AHP and CAHP are shown in Fig. 27(b) and Fig. 27
the cost of maintenance. Therefore, there is still room for research on (c), respectively. According to the single-stage AHP cycle shown in
material improvement of system components. Fig. 27(b), at a low driving temperature, the generated refrigerant vapor
flow rate is very low, resulting in a high refrigerant concentration in the
generator outlet solution, causing the gas-emission range of the system
5.7. Absorption-compression cycles
to be small, leading to a decrease in COP. Once the gas-emission range
approaches 0, the system will not function properly. However, in the
The absorption cycle can effectively recover low-grade energy, but
CAHP cycle shown in Fig. 27(c), due to the presence of a compressor
the performance of the system is low. The performance of vapor
between evaporator and absorber, the absorber pressure increases,
compression heat pump (VCHP) is much higher than the absorption
thereby increasing the concentration of the refrigerant in the absorber
cycle, but the use of electric energy is a high-grade energy, from the
exit solution, enlarging the concentration difference in the system, and
perspective of energy conservation and economy is not the best choice.
improving the COP. Therefore, the CAHP cycle not only expands the
Therefore, in recent years, many researchers have considered the po­
range of applicable heat source temperatures but also improves the
tential of coupling absorption cycles with vapor compression cycles to
system performance.
enhance cycle performance. By employing this approach, not only can
Due to the numerous advantages of CAHP cycles in recovering low-
the advantages of both cycles be simultaneously utilized, but the
grade energy, extensive research has been conducted on this technology
drawbacks of individual sub-cycles can also be mitigated, thereby

30
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 27. (a) Schematic diagram of the CAHP system. (b) P-T diagram of single-stage AHP. (c) P-T diagram of CAHP.

in recent years. Jia et al. [24] proposed a hybrid GAX-based absorption- improvement over traditional AHP. The system not only overcomes the
compression heat pump system, which can expand the application range inefficiency issue of traditional AHP in utilizing high-temperature flue
under extremely cold climatic conditions, increase the heating temper­ gas waste heat but also enhances the internal heat recovery capacity of
ature, and most importantly, utilize low-temperature heat sources. The the system, significantly improving the efficiency of flue gas waste heat
research shows that the system can operate normally at an ambient recovery.
temperature of − 40 ◦ C, with a maximum temperature lift of up to CAHP has many advantages in the application process, due to the
81.85 ◦ C and a COP of 1.116. In the practical application of CAHP, Wu higher refrigerant flow after compression, resulting in CAHP heating
et al. [158] proposed a novel PEMFC distributed energy system inte­ always being higher than that of AHP. However, when the generation
grated with a hybrid heat pump. It can flexibly switch between single- process is sufficiently effective to drive AHP effectively, the performance
stage AHP when there is sufficient waste heat and CAHP when there is of CAHP may not necessarily be higher than that of AHP due to the
insufficient waste heat. When the heating temperature ranges from 40 to corresponding increase in compressed power consumption, which limits
60 ◦ C, they can increase by 54.8 % and 20.3 %, respectively. Wu et al. the improvement of COP. In summary, the addition of a compressor is
[159] conducted a detailed experimental study on CAHP, with the beneficial for both heating efficiency and heating capacity at lower
operating principle and prototype illustrated in Fig. 28(a) and Fig. 28 driving temperatures, while at higher driving temperatures, only heat­
(b), respectively. The results showed that CAHP could lower the mini­ ing capacity is more advantageous [159].
mum temperature of the driving heat source from 125-130 ◦ C to In addition to the aforementioned CAHP, another typical system is
110–115 ◦ C. Furthermore, at a heat source temperature of 130 ◦ C, even the cascade absorption-compressor heat pump (CACHP). The operating
when AHP could operate normally, CAHP still increased the heating principle of this cycle is illustrated in Fig. 30(a). The condensation heat
capacity by 96.4 %. CAHP contributes more to performance improve­ released by condenser2 in the compression sub-cycle is sent into the
ment under low-temperature driving heat sources. absorption sub-cycle as the driving heat source, thereby achieving a
In order to expand the application range and improve the system stepwise temperature elevation. Furthermore, this process involves
performance of CAHP, Su et al. [29] proposed a GAX-based compres­ multiple pressure levels, which reduces throttling losses and enhances
sion-assisted cross-type absorption-resorption heat pump, the specific the ability to extract heat from low-grade energy sources. The use of
operating principle of which is illustrated in Fig. 29. The system pri­ CACHP also increases the energy grade, reducing compressor power
marily utilizes flue gas waste heat as the driving heat source during the consumption under the same operating conditions. Compared to single-
generation process, combining absorption-resorption cycle and GAX stage AHP, CACHP is more compact due to the shared evaporator and
cycle together, which offers the dual advantages of reducing the heat condenser between the two sub-cycles, eliminating unnecessary heat
source temperature and operating pressure. The research indicates that losses. When the ambient temperature drops below − 10 ◦ C, the system
the system achieves a maximum COP of 2.742, which is an 82.8 % can provide hot water above 60 ◦ C, demonstrating better applicability in

31
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 28. (a) Schematic diagram and measurement points of the NH3-H2O CAHP. (b) Experimental prototype of the NH3-H2O CAHP [159].

low-temperature conditions [160]. with an annual average environmental cost of only 580 $. Furthermore,
Researchers have conducted extensive studies on CACHP as well. Liu under optimal operating conditions, the annual average total cost of the
et al. [163] proposed a parallel gas engine integrated heat pump cascaded system is only 82 % of the total cost of the ARC, with envi­
combining VCHP and AHP to achieve cascaded utilization of gas engine ronmental costs accounting for just 0.24 % of the total cost. The in­
waste heat. The results indicate that the total heating capacity and pri­ dicates that using this system is more efficient and economical.
mary energy consumption increased by 54.5 % and 64.9 %, respectively,
while the PER decreased by 5.5 %. Compared to traditional systems, the
5.8. Summary
integrated system saves approximately 5 % of primary energy, indi­
cating superior performance and energy-saving potential. Zhang et al.
In this section, a summary of recent research on the recovery of low-
[164] extended the thermal coupling of AHT and VCHP from a double-
grade energy using absorption cycles is reviewed. Among them, the
stage structure to a triple-stage structure, increasing the system tem­
single-stage absorption cycle can recover a lot of low-grade energy, but
perature lift to 70–151 ◦ C and achieving a maximum COP of 2.1,
the performance improvement is limited. Table 5 summarizes the
attributed to reduced irreversible losses during the throttling process.
research on different types of absorption cycles in recent years. Double-
Gao et al. [165] proposed a double-stage rectifier and intercooler hybrid
effect absorption cycles can expand the gas-emission range of absorption
absorption-compression heat pump, which not only effectively reduces
heat pump system, thereby enhancing system performance. However,
the irreversible losses generated during the throttling process but also
this system not only requires higher heat source temperature, but also
increases the heating temperature to 130 ◦ C. The maximum COP can
prone to causing corrosion to the equipment at high temperatures.
reach 3.36. Zhang et al. [162] proposed a novel cascaded absorption-
Double-stage absorption cycles can fully utilize low-temperature heat
compression refrigeration system utilizing double-stage compression
sources and have a wider temperature range applicability. However, the
with complete intercooling, as illustrated in Fig. 30(b). The system
system COP is lower compared to single-stage absorption cycles. Double-
achieves a maximum COP of 3.25, demonstrating high performance,
section absorption cycles exhibit superior performance, lower

32
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 29. Schematic diagram of the GAX-based compression-assisted cross-type absorption-resorption heat pump system [29].

Fig. 30. (a) Schematic diagram of CACHP system [161]. (b) Schematic diagram of cascaded absorption-compression refrigeration system [162].

irreversible losses, and can recover a significant amount of low-grade sensible heat and latent heat in the moist flue gas, and improve the heat
waste heat. However, the system’s high cost and operational expenses output while dehumidifying, but the unit is easy to be corroded,
result in lower economic viability. GAX-based absorption cycles can increasing the maintenance cost. The absorption-compression cycle not
enhance internal heat recovery efficiency, reduce the heat required for only efficiently recovers low-grade energy, but also exhibits better
the absorption process, and feature simpler structures. However, the performance. However, due to the involvement of multiple components
systems typically require a driving heat source temperature higher than and the requirement for various energy sources to drive the cycle, it is
150 ◦ C, which presents certain limitations. The ATES system solves the comparatively more complex in terms of control. Based on the above
problem of intermittence and instability of energy, and can store both conclusion, it is evident that various types of absorption cycles have
cold and heat. However, when the operating temperature is too low, the their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, each advanced
working fluid has the risk of crystallization, and the heat loss is large. absorption cycle should be applied on different occasions according to
OAHP can be in direct contact with the environment, recover the the specific circumstances.

33
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Table 5
Summary of research on different advanced absorption cycles.
Cycle type Working pairs Operating temperature COP/ESD Recovered low-grade Relevant features Ref.
(oC) heat/ Heating capacity/
Cooling capacity

Double-effect H2O-LiBr 130 < Tgen < 140; Teva = 0.7–1.5 Heating capacity: Integrating ORC and double-effect ARC improved [123]
absorption 7; Tabs = Tcon = 27 62.38–355.1 kW performance by 22.6 %, with an equivalent power
cycles density reaching 157 kW.
H2O-LiBr 120 < Tgen < 182.5 1.21–1.39 Recovered low-grade Coupling this system with a gas turbine can [122]
heat: 270–350 MW increase energy utilization efficiency by 4.73–5.46
Cooling capacity: 11–17 %.
MW
H2O-LiBr 45 < Tabs < 75 0.95–1.2 Cooling capacity: 2–15 Using a double-effect ARC for seawater [124]
kW desalination significantly reduces costs, increases
water production by 90 %, and boosts COP by 60
%.
H2O-LiBr 10 < Teva < 16; 41 < 0.5–1.35 Cooling capacity: Coupling single-effect and double-effect absorption [125]
Tabs < 55 0.5–1.5 kW cycles for seawater desalination increases water
production by 8.5 L. Additionally, while
conducting seawater desalination, it can provide
0.8 kW of cooling capacity.
H2O-LiBr 115 < Tgen < 140; 7 < 0.97–1.06 Recovered low-grade Using a double-effect ARC for waste heat recovery [126]
Teva < 10 heat: 862 kW from the exhaust gases of an internal combustion
Heating capacity: 1046 engine can reduce fuel consumption by 467.7 m3/
kW hr.
H2O-LiBr 75 < Tgen < 90 0.9–1.1 Heating capacity: 113.2 By simultaneously utilizing solar energy and a [166]
kW direct gas-fired burner to drive the double-effect
Cooling capacity: 239 ARC, it is possible to save 93.3 kW of energy
kW through flexible switching of the heat source.
H2O-LiBr Teva = 7 1.325 Cooling capacity: Using double-effect ARC and multi-effect [167]
44.32–140 kW distillation technology to recover waste heat
generated in solid oxide fuel cell, the thermal
efficiency, exergy efficiency, and electrical
efficiency are 78.56 %, 65.41 %, and 65.77 %,
respectively.
H2O-LiBr 85 < Tgen < 135 0.6 Cooling capacity: Single/double-effect ARC recovery of high [168]
46.3–102.85 kW temperature solar heat, the total cooling capacity
of the system is 102.85 kW per day. Compared to
the VCHP system, the capital recovery period of the
system is 11.84 years.
H2O-LiBr 125 < Tgen < 175; Teva = 0.7–1.2 Cooling capacity: 88 kW By integrating a double-effect ARC with a cold and [169]
6.7; Tcon = 34 heat auxiliary device, the primary energy saving
rate and solar energy utilization rate have reached
58 % and 14.4 %, respectively.
H2O-LiBr 120 < Tgen < 125; Teva = 1.34–1.70 Cooling capacity: 5 kW Integrating the double-effect ARC with a high- [170]
4/12; Tabs = Tcon = 35/ temperature heat-driven ejector cycle significantly
40 reduces the operating temperature by 20–25 ◦ C
and enhances system performance significantly.
H2O–[mmim] 100 < Tgen < 150; 5 < 1.1–1.81 Heating capacity: While recovering solar thermal energy, it is also [171]
[DMP] Teva < 20; Tabs = Tcon = 0.72–0.87 kW possible to overcome the drawbacks of H2O-LiBr.
30 The COP and ECOP have increased by 5.22 % and
4.95 %, reaching maximum values of 1.81 and
0.69, respectively.
Double-stage H2O-LiBr Tgen = 90; Teva = 2; Tcon 0.73 Heating capacity: 9295 Setting up a double-stage AHP in an energy station [129]
absorption = 55 kW can effectively reduce the return water
cycles Cooling capacity: 3908 temperature of the primary heating network,
kW expand the supply-return water temperature
difference, and enhance heat collection
performance. The refrigeration cost has decreased
by 6.04 ¥/GJ.
H2O-LiBr Tgen = 90 ± 0.5; 75 < 0.24–0.32 Cooling capacity: 500 Integrating a double-stage AHT into a seawater [130]
Teva < 84; 120 < Tabs < kW desalination system has increased the maximum
200; 25 < Tcon < 35 total temperature rise by 18–27 % compared to
traditional systems. The evaporation temperature
can rise up to 120 ◦ C.
H2O-LiBr 50 < Tgen < 85; Teva = 4/ 0.32–0.42 Recovered low-grade The double-stage ARC recovers low-grade waste [131]
6; 20 < Tabs < 30 heat: 4389 kW heat from low-temperature PEMFC. The total
Cooling capacity: exergy efficiency reaches 60.55 %.
1899.7 kW
H2O-LiBr Tgen = 95; Teva = 7 0.69 Recovered low-grade Integrating a heat pump into a large internal [172]
heat: 6818 kW combustion engine to recover waste heat resulted
Heating capacity: 4104 in an additional 17.2 % of electrical power output
kW and recovered 391.55 kW of waste heat.
Cooling capacity: 1676
kW
H2O-LiBr Tgen = 85; 12 < Teva < 0.31–0.44 Heating capacity: 5 kW By coupling solar thermal storage technology with [173]
15; Tabs = 30; Tcon = 35 a dual-stage absorption cycle, under conditions of
(continued on next page)

34
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Table 5 (continued )
Cycle type Working pairs Operating temperature COP/ESD Recovered low-grade Relevant features Ref.
(oC) heat/ Heating capacity/
Cooling capacity

temperature rise between 30–46 ◦ C, the system

ESD is 233 kJ/kg, which is 2.51 times that of a
single-stage system (93 kJ/kg).
NH3-H2O 52 < Tgen < 130; Tabs = 0.31 Cooling capacity: 3.05 Combining a double-stage ARC with an ORC allows [174]
40 MW for the utilization of waste heat as low as 52 ◦ C to
produce cooling temperature at − 40 ◦ C. resulting
in a 15 % reduction in operating costs and a 14 %
decrease in carbon emissions, while enhancing
system stability by 97 %.
NH3-H2O 100 < Tgen < 180; Teva = 0.8 Recovered low-grade Integrating an expander into a double-stage triple- [175]
4; Tabs = Tcon = 35 heat: 209.5–225 kW effect ARC allows for simultaneous electricity
Cooling capacity: generation while refrigerating. The energy
125–200 kW efficiency, exergy efficiency, and cooling capacity
are 17 %, 76 %, and 165.4 kW, respectively.
NH3-IL Tgen = 175; − 60 < Teva 0.21–0.23 Recovered low-grade Utilizing for the recovery of low-temperature waste [176]
< -50; Tabs = 0; Tcon = 40 heat: 3.2826 kW heat generated in phosphoric acid fuel cells, it
Heating capacity: offers better energy-saving potential.
0.7039 kW
Cooling capacity:
2.5787 kW
Double-section H2O-LiBr Tgen = 115; 14.4 < Teva 1.77 Recovered low-grade The temperature of waste hot water is reduced [132]
absorption < 27.8; Tabs = 50; Tcon = heat: 3800 kW from 45 ◦ C to 15.9 ◦ C, thus efficiently recovering
cycles 55 Heating capacity: 8600 waste heat resources. The heating capacity of the
kW system reached 8,666.4 kW, providing a water
supply temperature of 52.5 ◦ C.
H2O-LiBr Teva = 27; Tabs = 50; 1.78 Heating capacity: 84.63 Integrated with the boiler system, the output heat [133]
Tcon = 55 kW heats the return water of the district heat network
Cooling capacity: 78.4 from 45 ◦ C to 80 ◦ C, with a heating capacity of
kW 63.57 kW.
H2O-LiBr and Tgen = 94.3; Teva = 84.4; 0.2–0.45 Heating capacity: 18 The double-section AHT, integrating two working [134]
NH3-H2O 131 < Tabs < 145; Tcon = MW fluids, is applied in a natural gas plant. This
40 integration reduces fuel consumption by 17–67 %
and achieves a rate of return of 62.16 %.
H2O-LiBr and 80 < Tgen < 100 0.28–0.32 Recovered low-grade Coupling ARC and AHT together allows for the [137]
NH3-H2O AHT: Teva = 70; Tabs = heat: 349.4–630.25 kW recovery of heat below 80 ◦ C and generates a
100; Tcon = 20 Heating capacity: cooling temperature of − 15 ◦ C. With the use of a
ARC: Teva = -5; Tabs = 203.63 kW continuous variable-temperature process, the
25; Tcon = 25 Cooling capacity: utilization range of the heat source temperature
93.81–195.54 kW and the refrigeration capacity have increased by
80 % and 108 % respectively.
H2O-LiBr and 70 < Tgen < 140 AHT: 0.2–0.9 Recovered low-grade Combining ARC, AHT, and seawater desalination [136]
NH3-H2O AHT: 70 < Teva < 90; 80 ARC: 0.25–0.65 heat: 300 kW cycles together can generate a cooling temperature
< Tabs < 140; Tcon = 35 Heating capacity: 150 of − 10 ◦ C with a cooling capacity of 70 kW.
ARC: − 10 < Teva < 5; kW Additionally, it has a desalination rate of 20 kg/hr.
Tabs = Tcon = 35 Cooling capacity: 70 kW
H2O-LiBr 90 < Tgen < 120 0.65–0.78 Recovered low-grade Coupling a double-section ARC with an ORC [135]
heat: 7110 kW enables combined heat and power generation,
Cooling capacity: 1404 lowering the heat source temperature to 70 ◦ C. The
kW thermoelectric efficiency and temperature
effectiveness reach 90.9 % and 1.2, respectively.
H2O-LiBr Tgen = 110.3 1.6–1.75 Heating capacity: 1711 Coupling AHP and ARC for recovering low-grade [177]
AHP: Tabs = 80.3; Tcon = kW waste heat generated in a thermal desalination
62 Cooling capacity: 1662 system achieves a maximum ECOP of 1.01. By
ARC: Tabs = 40; Tcon = kW adjusting different modes according to different
62 seasons, the energy-saving rate compared to
traditional systems can reach up to 42.7 %.
GAX-based NH3-H2O 170 < Tgen < 200; − 10 1.185–1.506 Heating capacity: Detailed experimental research has been [140]
absorption < Teva < 10; 45 < Tabs < 8.29–10.83 kW conducted to understand the changes in the
cycles 50 internal device. When the lifting factor is below
2.3, cycle degradation occurs, leading to a decrease
in system performance.
NH3-H2O 170 < Tgen < 200; Teva = 1.44–1.66 Recovered low-grade The system efficiently recovers solar energy by [26]
2; Tabs = Tcon = 50 heat: 31.9 kW adjusting the size of various heat exchangers,
Heating capacity: 48.2 resulting in a reduction of over 25 % in operating
kW costs. The thermal efficiency of the collectors
ranges from 0.5 to 0.6.
NH3-H2O 140 < Tgen < 190; − 35 1.4–1.82 − Applying a parabolic-trough collector to GAX-AHP [114]
< Teva < 10 not only expands its application range but also
increases thermal efficiency by 36 %.
NH3-H2O 165 < Tgen < 180 1.55–1.62 Heating capacity: The new cycle is composed of variable and double [141]
1.97–13.12 kW restrictor, and the waste heat utilization rate is 6 %
higher than that of the traditional GAX cycle.
(continued on next page)

35
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Table 5 (continued )
Cycle type Working pairs Operating temperature COP/ESD Recovered low-grade Relevant features Ref.
(oC) heat/ Heating capacity/
Cooling capacity

NH3-H2O 73 < Tgen < 135; − 20.6 1.1–1.367 Heating capacity: 55 kW Combining the absorption-resorption cycle with [142]
< Teva < 0; TLPA = 35; the GAX cycle allows it to be driven by a heat
TMPA = 40; THPA = 45 source at 73 ◦ C and operate normally at an ambient
temperature of − 15.6 ◦ C.
NH3-H2O 150 < Tgen < 191; 6.5 < 1.25–1.82 Recovered low-grade Using solar energy as a partial driving heat source [143]
Teva < 7.5; 35 < Tabs < heat: 35 kW for GAX-AHP helps reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
45 Heating capacity: 55 kW The solar energy utilization rate reaches 55.1 %,
providing 55 kW of heating capacity.
Absorption H2O-LiBr Tgen = 90; 9 < Teva < 10; COP: 0.67–0.72 Cooling capacity: Integrating ATES into ARC, the total cooling [148]
thermal energy Tabs = 25; Tcon = 40 ESD: 105.6 kWh/ 50–350 kW capacity of the new system increases by 4.44 %,
storage m3 reaching a total cold storage capacity of 6890.4
MJ/day.
H2O-LiBr Tgen = 127; Teva = 9; 30 COPtot: 1.35 Cooling capacity: 1700 Coupling ATES with a double-effect ARC to store [149]
< Tabs < 40; Tcon = 40 ESD: 123.4 kWh/ kW solar thermal energy. The ESD is 13–54 % higher
m3 than traditional systems, and the exergy efficiency
reaches 25 %.
H2O-LiBr Tgen = 80; Teva = 6; Tabs COPtot: 0.45–0.8 Cooling capacity: 3.5 It can operate in three modes: energy storage, [150]
= Tcon = 38 ESD: 402.4 kJ/kg kW cooling, and heating. Its performance is similar to
that of a single-stage ARC, but its operation is more
flexible.
H2O-LiBr 80 < Tdis < 145; 70 < ESD: 195.6–292.7 − Energy storage and heat exchange functions are [151]
Tcha < 90 kWh/m3 integrated, with a maximum ESE of 0.42–0.44.
H2O-LiBr and 117 < Tgen < 137; − 5 < COPtot: 1.7–2.37 Heating capacity: The hybrid cycle reduces the required temperature [152]
C2H5OH-LiBr- Teva < 5; Tabs = 35; Tcon ESD: 320–394 kJ/ 3060–3200 kW of the heat source and expands the working
[BMIM]Br = 50 kg temperature range. The heating temperature
ranges from 48 to 71 ◦ C, while the cooling
temperature ranges from − 5 to 5 ◦ C.
H2O-LiBr and H2O-LiBr: 67 < Tgen < H2O-LiBr: COP: − By employing a double-stage ATES and a novel [178]
H2O-LiNO3- 82 5–6 working fluid, the system achieves higher ESD and
[BMIM]NO3 H2O-LiNO3-[BMIM] ESD: 280–330 kJ/ an operating temperature as low as 31 ◦ C. The
NO3: 31 < Tgen < 47 kg addition of a compressor enhances the system COP.
5 < Teva < 10; 37 < Tabs H2O-LiNO3-
< 42 [BMIM]NO3:
COP: 12–13
ESD: 260–406 kJ/
kg
Open absorption H2O-LiBr 30 < Tgen < 90; 45 < 1.51–1.621 Recovered low-grade By adopting direct contact heat and mass transfer, [154]
heat pumps Tabs < 60 heat: 37.3–102.1 kW costs are reduced. The heat recovery capacity is
Heating capacity: increased by 19.7–178.1 % compared to the
177–248.6 kW condensing heat exchanger. The maximum exergy
efficiency reaches 23.5 %.
H2O-CaCl2 50 < Tgen < 60; Tabs = 1.26 Recovered low-grade Used to recover water and waste heat from flue gas [179]
52.8; Tcon = 28.8 heat: 18.2 kW after wet desulfurization, both new systems
Heating capacity: 42.3 compared to traditional OAHP show an increase in
kW COP of 4.2 % and 17.3 % respectively.
H2O-CaCl2 103 < Tgen < 110.9; 45 1.3–1.7 Recovered low-grade The new system can increase the PER of natural gas [155]
< Tabs < 75 heat: 160–220 kW boilers by 15.3 %, while also offering better
economic performance than most traditional waste
heat recovery systems.
H2O-KCOOH 86 < Tgen < 110; 55 < 1.17–1.85 Recovered low-grade The use of a novel working fluid overcomes the [153]
Tcon < 75 heat: 7.115 kW risks of crystallization and corrosion, resulting in a
Heating capacity: 6.169 heat recovery efficiency ranging from 48.7 % to 89
kW %.
H2O-LiBr 96.3 < Tgen < 159.6; 30 1.24–2.39 Heating capacity: 280.1 The double-stage OAHP can operate at lower Tgen, [156]
< Tabs < 53; Tcon = 73 kW providing 280.1 kW of heating capacity and 9.85
Cooling capacity: kW of cooling capacity. Its exergy efficiency is
7.8–13.96 kW 3–16 % higher than traditional systems.
H2O-LiBr 117.5 < Tgen < 137.5; 2.4–2.8 − Integrating OAHP into a seawater desalination [180]
Tcon = 30 system to provide freshwater and domestic hot
water. The maximum exergy efficiency of the
generator and absorber is 75 % and 43 %
respectively.
Absorption- NH3-H2O 80 < Tgen < 200; − 40 < 1.116–12 Recovered low-grade Expanded the application range under extremely [24]
compression Teva < -5; Tabs = 40; Tcon heat: 26.66 kW cold climate conditions, capable of operating
cycles = 45 Heating capacity: 49.45 normally at − 40 ◦ C, recovering low-grade energy
kW as low as 80 ◦ C.
NH3-LiNO3 Tgen = 130/190; − 20 < 0.6–1.8 Heating capacity: With a more flexible control strategy, it can be [181]
Teva < 20; 25 < Tcon < 45 50–350 kW adjusted within a capacity ratio range of
Cooling capacity: 1.13–2.27.
100–220 kW
NH3-LiNO3 110 < Tgen < 150; − 10 8–18 − While PEMFC provides electricity, the hybrid [158]
< Teva < 10; 35 < Tabs < system can also supply heat and cooling to users.
50; 35 < Tcon < 50 The equivalent power density is increased by 1.05
kW/m2 compared to a single PEMFC.
(continued on next page)

36
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Table 5 (continued )
Cycle type Working pairs Operating temperature COP/ESD Recovered low-grade Relevant features Ref.
(oC) heat/ Heating capacity/
Cooling capacity

NH3-H2O 100 < Tgen < 200; − 10 1.3–2.742 Heating capacity: While increasing COP, it also reduces the required [29]
< Teva < 15; Tabs = 40; 17–88.51 kW driving heat source temperature. The COP is
40 < Tcon < 50 increased by 82.8 % compared to traditional AHP
and by 30.57 % compared to traditional GAX-AHP.
H2O–[DMIM] 96 < Tgen < 130; − 30 < 1.065–2.56 Recovered low-grade Utilizing a novel working fluid significantly [161]
[DMP] Teva < 0; heat: 58.3–62.7 kW enhances applicability in cold regions, enabling
Heating capacity: efficient operation even in climates as low as
94–102.9 kW − 30 ◦ C, with a heating capacity ranging from 94 to
102.9 kW.
H2O-LiBr 72 < Tgen < 88; 72 < 1.32–2.1 Heating capacity: 50 kW The coupling of AHT and VCHP reduces the system [164]
Teva < 88; 75 < Tabs < irreversible losses, improving performance while
185 also raising the system temperature lift to
70–151 ◦ C.
H2O-LiBr Tgen = 75; Tabs = 38; 1.25–3.25 Cooling capacity: The system offers two cooling temperature ranges: [162]
Tcon = 35 50–150 kW − 20 to 0 ◦ C and − 50 to − 30 ◦ C. The total cost is 82
% of the ARC total cost, with environmental costs
amounting to only 580 $.

6. Application of absorption cycles with different low-grade low-grade energy sources, involved solar energy, industrial waste heat,
energy sources geothermal energy, and biomass energy is introduced in this section.

In both civil and industrial sectors, substantial amounts of energy are

6.1. Solar energy
required, in which fossil fuels serve as the primary source of energy.
However, the depletion of fossil fuel reserves poses a significant energy
The solar energy utilization technology can greatly reduce the con­
crisis for humanity. Besides, the extensive consumption of fossil fuels has
sumption of fossil fuels, and the relatively low operating costs of the
also led to severe environmental pollution issues, exacerbating green­
system also make it highly attractive. In the application process, the low-
house gas emissions [182]. Meanwhile, significant amounts of low-
grade heat provided by solar energy primarily serves as the driving heat
grade thermal energy are generated in both natural environments and
source for the generator in the absorption cycle, thus generating both
industrial production processes, which could greatly alleviate the pres­
heat and cooling energy.
sure on energy consumption with efficient energy recovery technolo­
gies. Absorption cycles have irreplaceable advantages in this regard as
6.1.1. Basic solar energy coupled absorption cycles
they can be directly driven by low-grade heat sources. Therefore,
research status of absorption cycles for recovering four most common
(1) Intermittent absorption cycles

Fig. 31. Schematic diagram of the intermittent solar absorption cycle system [183].

37
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

The intermittent absorption cycle can absorb solar energy during the heat is stored in a hot water storage. Oil serves as the medium to transfer
day and provide cooling during the night. Fig. 31 shows the schematic heat to the working fluid in the generator, thus providing a continuous
diagram of the intermittent solar absorption cycle system [183]. During driving heat source. Abu-Ein et al. [188] conducted a detailed thermo­
the daytime, the working fluid is heated by solar energy. Subsequently, dynamic first law and second law analysis of a 10 kW solar ammonia-
the refrigerant is separated and forms vapor. The refrigerant vapor water ARC system. When Tgen is 110 ◦ C and Teva is 0 ◦ C, the system
condenses in the condenser releasing heat, forming saturated liquid, cooling COP is 0.68. When Tgen is 200 ◦ C, both the cooling COP and
which is then stored in the refrigerant tank. During the night, the liquid ECOP reach their maximum values. The analysis also indicates that
refrigerant passes through an expansion valve and then absorbs heat in approximately 40 % of the exergy destruction occurs in the generator.
the evaporator, producing a cooling effect. Staicovici [184] conducted a The exergy destruction in condenser, absorber, and generator increases
detailed study on the intermittent solar NH3-H2O absorption cycle. The as Tgen rises. However, once it reaches a certain value, the exergy
results indicate that with Tgen and Tcon at 80 ◦ C and 24.31 ◦ C respec­ destruction tends to stabilize. Alvares et al. [189] conducted a theoret­
tively, the system cooling COP can reach 0.25–0.30. When the heat ca­ ical thermodynamic analysis of a solar hot water system coupled with
pacity ranges from 450 to 675 MJ/day and the lifespan is 15 to 18 years, NH3-H2O absorption cycle using a compound parabolic concentrator
the capital payback period is estimated to be 4 to 6 years. Sierra et al. collector. In order to achieve optimal performance, they investigated 13
[185] constructed an experimental model for an intermittent operation different cycle configurations, ensuring the system’s efficient operation.
NH3-H2O solar absorption cycle. They used water at 28 ◦ C to absorb the Wilbur et al. [190] replaced traditional wet cooling towers with dry
heat generated in the condenser. The COP range of the unit under this cooling towers, reducing maintenance costs. However, this simulta­
condition is 0.24–0.28. Swartman et al. [186] successfully implemented neously reduced system performance, which could be overcome by
an intermittent solar absorption cycle system and compared the per­ using high-performance vacuum collectors instead of traditional flat
formance of using NH3-H2O and NH3-NaSCN working pairs. The results plate collectors. Li et al. [191] proposed a cogeneration system driven by
indicated that NH3-NaSCN exhibited better system performance medium-temperature solar heat using an AHP to improve solar energy
compared to NH3-H2O. Furthermore, since the use of NH3-NaSCN utilization and electricity generation. The results showed that the system
eliminates the need for a distillation process, it reduces equipment costs. could harness up to 14502 MJ of solar thermal energy, with the AHP
recovering 914 MJ of condensate heat, resulting in an average COP of
(2) Continuous absorption cycles 1.52. The comprehensive utilization rate of solar energy reaches 15.96
%, which is 4.55 % higher than that of traditional systems.
The continuous solar absorption cycle has more advantages than the
intermittent absorption cycle because it can provide continuous heat 6.1.2. Advanced solar energy coupled absorption cycle
and cold capacity, so it has been more widely applications [187]. Fig. 32 Utilizing solar energy for heating and cooling will contribute to
shows the typical schematic diagram of a continuous solar absorption achieving China’s goal of peaking carbon emissions by 2030. The pre­
cycle system. After absorbing solar energy through the collector, the vious section mainly discusses basic solar energy-coupled absorption

Fig. 32. Schematic diagram of the continuous solar absorption cycle system [187].

38
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

cycles. These systems have limited solar energy utilization and their reduced heat losses. To address these issues, Sun et al. [192] proposed a
performance is not high, making them unable to be widely applied in novel low-temperature solar heating and cooling system based on
practice. Additionally, due to the low energy density and intermittent distributed double-stage AHP. The research results indicate that the
output of solar energy, which do not match the current society’s demand system APF is approximately 8.52, the annual exergy efficiency is
for high energy density, simple utilization of basic cycles cannot solve around 36.7 %, and the heat transfer distance can reach up to 24.5 km.
these issues [129]. Therefore, extensive research has been proposed to Compared to traditional systems, the proposed system can reduce the
improve the structure and composition of systems in order to achieve heating cost, cooling cost, and annual carbon emissions per floor area by
better performance, lower driving heat source temperatures, and 27.14 ¥/GJ, 12.12 ¥/GJ, and 23 kg, respectively.

Fig. 33. (a) Schematic diagram of the combined cooling, heating and power system [193]. (b) Schematic diagram of the AHP driven by triple heat sources [194].

39
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Chen et al. [193] combined parabolic trough collector (PTC), ORC, 6.2. Industrial waste heat
and double-effect AHP to create a multi-generation energy system that
integrates cooling, heating, and electricity generation, as shown in In addition to solar energy, there is a considerable amount of energy
Fig. 33(a). In their system, the higher temperature solar thermal energy contained in low-grade industrial waste heat, which exists in various
drives the ORC, with the excess heat generated in the cycle serving as the forms within industrial products and processing procedures. The re­
driving heat source for the double-effect AHP. The ORC with a thermal covery of industrial waste heat is also one of the most widespread ap­
storage unit can generate electricity and produce hot water, while the plications of absorption cycles in practical use. Industrial waste heat can
double-effect AHP enables heating and cooling under different working be classified into various forms, including flue gas waste heat, waste
conditions throughout the year. The research results indicate that the residue heat, waste water heat, chemical reaction heat, heat dissipation
COP of the double-effect AHP ranges from 1.38 to 2.37. Yan et al. [194] of products and equipment, and heat of cooling medium. They are
proposed a novel triple heat source-driven AHP, as shown in Fig. 33(b). widely distributed in such as electric power, chemical industry, metal­
where the exhaust gas serves as the heat source for the HPG, and the lurgy, papermaking, textile, and building materials, and other industries
superheated refrigerant vapor produced by HPG heats the solution in the [195].
first LPG by releasing heat. Meanwhile, low-temperature solar thermal Industrial waste heat resources are generally classified by tempera­
energy serves as the driving heat source for the second LPG. In the ture into high-temperature waste heat (above 400 ◦ C), medium-
system, the heat released by condenser and absorber is utilized as the temperature waste heat (between 100 ◦ C and 400 ◦ C), and low-
heat medium water for the air conditioner. Additionally, an ejector is temperature waste heat (below 100 ◦ C). Among them, medium to
incorporated into the system to lower the pressure of LPG to below the high-temperature waste heat has higher quality and is easier to capture
condensation pressure, allowing for the utilization of lower temperature and utilize, which can greatly reduce the consumption of fossil fuels.
solar thermal energy and expanding the temperature application range. Therefore, in recent years, there has been a significant amount of
Experimental studies show that when the solar hot water temperature research on absorption cycles for recovering industrial waste heat.
ranges from 78 to 90 ◦ C, the COP of the system is between 1.57 and 1.72. Cheng et al. [196] combined an ARC with a liquid desiccant dehumid­
Additionally, the system can achieve a maximum heating capacity of ification system to recover waste heat at 80 ◦ C from the dehumidifica­
26.6 kW. tion system. The results showed that when the ambient temperature was
Dai et al. [143] proposed an air source GAX based AHP driven by 23 ◦ C, the system achieved a cooling COP of 0.77, capable of reducing
hybrid liquefied petroleum gas and solar energy, and conducted exper­ the waste heat at 80 ◦ C to 61 ◦ C. Overall, the concept of waste heat
imental studies on it. The specific operating principle is illustrated in utilization makes cooling and dehumidification systems in building
Fig. 34. Using NH3-H2O as the working pair and a 45 m2 PTC solar spaces more effective compared to traditional multi-energy comple­
collector, the system is capable of providing 55 kW of heating capacity. mentary systems, especially in hot and humid climates [197]. Zhou et al.
The system adopts three operating modes: (1) Liquefied petroleum gas- [198] proposed a novel integrated system coupling a domestic hot water
Solar hybrid mode; (2) Solar only mode; and (3) Liquefied petroleum gas heat exchanger with an absorption cycle to recover waste heat generated
only mode. At average ambient temperatures of 17.52 ◦ C, 20.0 ◦ C, and by wind turbines. The results indicate that the system can generate
8.77 ◦ C, the average COPs of the three modes are 1.54, 1.63, and 1.20 73.25 kW of heating capacity, 45.86 kW of cooling capacity, 4.494 kW of
respectively. In mode one and mode two, the solar thermal efficiencies output power, and provide 0.274 kg/s of domestic hot water using in­
can reach 40.2 % and 55.1 % respectively, significantly reducing reli­ dustrial waste heat. The exergy flow rate and exergy efficiency of the
ance on fossil fuels. Furthermore, higher ambient temperatures and flow system can reach 2756 kW and 36.76 %, respectively.
rates, as well as lower inlet hot water temperatures, all contribute to the Zhang et al. [199] proposed a waste heat recovery scheme based on
improvement of heat pump performance, with ambient temperature AHP, which involves recovering the waste heat from the steam dis­
having the greatest impact. At the same conditions, if the heat loss from charged by the turbine in a coal-fired air-cooled unit, thereby reducing
exhaust gas is excluded, the system COP can reach 1.82. the thermal energy consumption of the existing waste heat treatment
system, as shown in Fig. 35(a). Compared to traditional heating
methods, the coal consumption rate has decreased by 11.69 g/(kWh),

Fig. 34. Schematic diagram of a GAX based AHP driven by hybrid liquefied petroleum gas and solar energy [143].

40
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Fig. 35. (a) Flow sheet of the combined heating and power system with AHP recovering waste heat [199]. (b) System schematic of the proposed distributed energy
system [202].

while the unit thermal efficiency and overall thermal efficiency have CAHP, thereby efficiently utilizing thermal energy. Using DMETEG-
increased by 1.89 % and 2.27 %, respectively. Compared to traditional R134a as the working pair in the CAHP system is beneficial for
cogeneration systems, the integrated system unit and overall thermal providing users with more heating and cooling capacity. The research
efficiencies have increased by 1.39–1.89 % and 1.74–2.27 %, respec­ shows that the integrated system provides a heating capacity of 7.9 kW
tively. The improved system not only significantly reduces irreversible and a cooling capacity of 2.4 kW, consuming approximately 9.96 % and
heat losses in the heat network but also further saves coal consumption 7.51 % of the PEMFC output power, respectively. Compared to tradi­
[200,201]. Furthermore, high-temperature PEMFC have the advantage tional AHP, the integrated system exhibits improvements in both exergy
of high clean power generation efficiency, but they also generate efficiency and COP.
abundant waste heat. In order to improve energy efficiency, Liang et al.
[202] proposed an integrated distributed energy system combining 6.3. Geothermal energy
high-temperature PEMFC and CAHP. The operating principle is illus­
trated in Fig. 35(b). The low-temperature waste heat generated in the In addition to solar energy and industrial waste heat, geothermal
high-temperature PEMFC is used as the driving heat source for the energy is another widely used low-grade energy source. Many

41
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

technologies for utilizing geothermal energy have been extensively In cooling mode, the system operating efficiency ranges between 30 %
researched. The combination of geothermal energy with absorption and 45 %. Behzadi et al. [206] proposed a double-effect ARC that utilizes
cycles is a promising energy-saving technology. In the recovery of both solar energy and geothermal energy as driving heat sources. The
geothermal energy using absorption cycles, Wu et al. [203] conducted a study found that after recovering geothermal energy, the COP of the
detailed comparison between ground source AHP and ground source system increased by approximately 15 %. The total exergy efficiency of
electrical heat pump. The results indicate that, ground source AHP ex­ the hybrid system ranges from 11.03 % to 13.07 %, and the total cost of
tracts less heat from the soil and is able to release more heat, thus the system ranges from 63.52 $/GJ to 66.97 $/GJ. Ehyaei et al. [207]
reducing ground thermal imbalance in colder regions. For buildings that studied a novel geothermal-driven ORC coupled with ARC for combined
only use heating, the average soil temperature of ground source AHP is cooling and power generation, as illustrated in Fig. 36. The hot water
4–6 ◦ C higher than that of ground source electrical heat pump, and the extracted from the production well first provides heat to the evaporator
PER of AHP in cold regions is still higher than that of electrical heat of the ORC, and then to the generator of the ARC. Finally, the
pump. In order to address the thermal imbalance issue caused by the geothermal water is returned to the injection well. The research results
year-round operation of ground source AHP in regions with large dif­ indicate that integrating ORC into ARC can increase the system energy
ferences in heating and cooling loads, Li et al. [204] proposed a hybrid efficiency from 9.3 % to 47.3 %. However, the exergy efficiency de­
system that collects and stores geothermal energy during transitional creases from 15.6 % to 4.6 %, which is mainly due to the increase in
seasons on top of the traditional AHP, and conducted a thermal balance exergy destruction of the system. From an economic perspective, the
analysis. The simulation results indicate that the proposed novel system analysis shows that the operating cost decreases from 0.0552 $/kWh to
raises the average soil temperature to 16.49 ◦ C under heating condi­ 0.0028 $/kWh with the use of the integrated system.
tions, and after 10 years of simultaneous cooling and heating operation,
the average soil temperature stabilizes at around 15 ◦ C.
Apart from utilizing geothermal energy for standalone heating, ab­ 6.4. Biomass energy
sorption cycles are mostly coupled with other systems to form hybrid
systems, primarily used for simultaneous power generation, heating, Biomass energy is another potential low-grade energy source as an
and cooling. The main advantage of hybrid systems is the ability to alternative to fossil fuels. Additionally, its utilization can significantly
achieve higher overall efficiency by utilizing waste heat generated by reduce greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to national energy se­
one subsystem as the driving heat source for other subsystems, thereby curity. Biomass can be converted into fuels through clean technologies
generating multiple forms of energy [18]. Bendaikha et al. [205] pro­ such as biological, chemical, and thermal conversion. Especially in rural
posed an integrated absorption cycle with geothermal energy and areas, large quantities of biomass energy can be used as the driving heat
PEMFC, where geothermal energy serves as the low-temperature driving source for absorption cycles, offering the potential for significant ben­
heat source for evaporator. In heating mode, as all the heat recovered efits [208]. At sewage treatment plants, a large amount of biogas is
from the thermal storage tank is pumped to the fan coil to heat the produced, and burning this biogas generates a considerable amount of
building, the operating efficiency of the hybrid system can reach 70 %. heat. Villela et al. [209] utilized this heat as the driving heat source for
an ARC and conducted an economic analysis thereof. The results

Fig. 36. System schematic of the geothermal-driven hybrid system [207].

42
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

indicate that when not considering the cost of biogas, the performance of and cold storage in daily life. The main purpose of setting up two
the ARC is superior to that of the VAHP. Siddiqui [210] investigated the absorber is expanding the concentration difference to enhance the sys­
impact of using three different energy sources, namely biomass, lique­ tem performance. Due to its high-pressure ratio, LPA is more advanta­
fied petroleum gas, and solar energy, as driving heat sources on the geous for low-temperature cooling in the system. The heat released by
operating cost of the absorption cycle, while keeping other parameters MPA can be used for producing domestic hot water, desalinating
constant. The research findings indicate that, in terms of refrigeration, seawater, and drying agricultural products. Under typical operating
the cost of using solar energy is nearly five times higher than that of conditions with a driving heat source temperature of 230 ◦ C, the pro­
liquefied petroleum gas, and the cost of using liquefied petroleum gas is posed system achieves a maximum energy utilization rate of 22.46 %
32 % higher than biomass energy, suggesting that biomass energy is a and an exergy efficiency of 12.26 %.
more economical option with significant development potential. Huang
et al. [211] simulated a combined cooling, heating, and power genera­ 6.5. Summary
tion system powered by biomass energy. In the integrated system, the
biomass boiler provides heat, the ARC provides cooling, and the IC en­ Table 6 summarizes the research on absorption cycle to recover
gine generates electricity, effectively meeting diverse energy needs different types of low-grade energy sources. According to the afore­
while substantially lowering carbon emissions. mentioned studies, solar energy, industrial waste heat, geothermal en­
Kumar et al. [212] adopted evaporator parallel and double absorber ergy, and biomass energy are abundant and widely distributed. The
configuration for a multi-generation absorption circulation system recovery of these low-grade energy sources not only helps reduce energy
driven by biomass energy. The operating principle of the system, shown consumption and dependence on fossil fuels but also effectively reduces
in Fig. 37, involves three evaporators arranged in parallel to provide greenhouse gas emissions, thereby promoting sustainable development.
three different cooling temperatures for ice making, food refrigeration, Among these, solar energy and industrial waste heat are characterized

Fig. 37. Schematic diagram of multi-generation absorption cycle for recovering biomass energy [212].

43
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Table 6
Summary of research on absorption cycles to recover different types of low-grade energy sources.
Low-grade Cycle type Working Typical application COP Recovered low-grade heat/ Relevant features Ref.
energy pairs Heating capacity/ Cooling
capacity

Solar energy Single-stage H2O-LiBr Combined heat and 1.52–1.68 Heating capacity: 94–169 The available solar thermal energy of up to [191]
power generation kW 14502 MJ generates an additional power of
217 kWh.
Double-stage H2O-LiBr Heating and cooling 0.73 Heating capacity: 9295 kW The system APF and exergy efficiency are 8.52 [129]
Cooling capacity: 3908 kW and 36.7 %, respectively. The heating and
cooling costs are reduced by 27.14 ¥/GJ and
12.12 ¥/GJ, respectively.
Double-effect H2O-LiBr Combining cooling, 1.38–3 Recovered low-grade heat: The system achieved four different energy [193]
heating, and power 430.5–582.6 kW supplies. The annual energy efficiency and
generation exergy efficiency are 56.5 % and 9.6 %,
respectively.
Double-effect H2O-LiBr Heating 1.57–1.72 Recovered low-grade heat: The released heat is used as the heat medium [194]
10.937 kW water for the air conditioner, with a hot water
Heating capacity: 20.938 temperature of 43.5 ◦ C.
kW
GAX-based NH3-H2O Heating 1.25–1.82 Recovered low-grade heat: The solar thermal efficiency can reach up to [143]
53.83 kW 55.1 %, reducing dependency on fossil fuels,
Heating capacity: 35.47–55 providing 55 kW of heating capacity.
kW
Single-stage NH3-H2O Heating 1.1–1.55 − The unbalanced absorption-resorption cycle [85]
reduces the required solar energy temperature
and can operate in cold regions. The maximum
COP and heating temperature of the system
are 1.55 and 45 ◦ C, respectively.
Single-stage NH3-H2O Heating 1.05–1.5 Heating capacity: 100–240 The balanced-type absorption-resorption cycle [86]
kW eliminates the need for rectifiers, reducing
installation costs. The system can operate in
environments as low as − 5.8 ◦ C, with
maximum COP and heating temperature of
1.51 and 53.1 ◦ C, respectively.
Industrial Absorption- DMETEG- Combined heat and 1.15–1.37 Heating capacity: 7.8898 The integrated system provides heating [202]
waste heat compression R134a power generation kW capacity of 7.9 kW and cooling capacity of 2.4
cycles Cooling capacity: 2.3773 kW. Installing a compressor can increase both
kW exergy efficiency and COP, while also
expanding the operating temperature range.
Single-stage H2O-LiBr Combined heat and 1.8 Heating capacity: Compared to traditional heating methods, the [199]
power generation 84546–115290 kW coal consumption rate decreased by 11.69 g/
(kWh), while the unit thermal efficiency and
total thermal efficiency increased by 1.89 %
and 2.27 %, respectively.
Single-stage H2O-LiBr Combined heat and 1.73 Heating capacity: By coupling with ORC, the system output [200]
power generation 8026.66–32106.64 kW power and heating capacity increased by 1.47
MW and 32106.64 kW, respectively.
Additionally, the system reduced irreversible
losses and saved coal consumption.
Single-stage H2O-LiBr Combined heat and 1.45–1.67 Heating capacity: By recovering the waste heat from the direct [201]
power generation 15708.23–78541.16 kW air cooling in the coal-fired power plant, the
energy efficiency was further improved. The
output power and heating capacity increased
by 16.2 MW and 78541.16 kW, respectively.
Single-stage H2O-LiBr Refrigeration 0.77 Cooling capacity: 29–33.6 The ARC is utilized to recover the waste heat [196]
kW generated by the liquid desiccant
dehumidification system, capable of reducing
the waste heat from 80 ◦ C to 61 ◦ C.
Double-section H2O-LiBr Heating and cooling 0.5–0.7 Cooling capacity: 5–10 kW Integrating the AHP and AHT allows for the [31]
recovery of waste heat ranging from 70 to
100 ◦ C. The cooling temperature and heating
temperature range from 14 to 20 ◦ C and 80 to
106 ◦ C, respectively.
Single-stage H2O-LiBr Combined heating, − Heating capacity: 73.25 kW Recovering the waste heat generated in the [198]
cooling, power, and Cooling capacity: 45.86 kW wind turbine can produce 73.25 kW of heating
freshwater capacity, 45.86 kW of cooling capacity, 4.494
generation kW of output power, and 0.274 kg/s of
domestic water.
Geothermal Single-stage NH3- Heating 1.48–1.73 Recovered low-grade heat: Compared to ground source electrical heat [203]
energy LiNO3 144–373 kW pump, ground source AHP extract less heat
from the soil, and the average soil temperature
is higher by 4–6 ◦ C.
Double-effect H2O-LiBr Heating and energy − Heating capacity: Storing solar energy in the soil raised the [204]
storage 40.29–46.94 kW average soil temperature to 16.49 ◦ C,
Cooling capacity: improving the problem of ground thermal
24.19–35.78 kW imbalance.
(continued on next page)

44
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

Table 6 (continued )
Low-grade Cycle type Working Typical application COP Recovered low-grade heat/ Relevant features Ref.
energy pairs Heating capacity/ Cooling
capacity

Double-effect H2O-LiBr Combined cooling 1–1.5 Cooling capacity: 11.4 kW After recovering geothermal energy, the [206]
and power system COP increased by 15 %. The exergy
generation destruction of the absorption cycle accounted
for 2.68 % of the overall system, which is
beneficial for improving internal heat
recovery.
Single-stage H2O-LiBr Combined cooling 0.84 Cooling capacity: 10 kW Integrating ORC into ARC can increase the [207]
and power system energy efficiency from 9.3 % to 47.3 %.
generation The operating cost also decreased from 0.0552
$/kWh to 0.0028 $/kWh.
Single-stage H2O-LiBr Combined heating, − Cooling capacity: After integrating geothermal well, ARC, [213]
cooling, power, and 538.2–777 kW parabolic trough collectors, and ORC together,
freshwater the system maximum power generation and
generation exergy efficiency reached 9146.7 kW and
20.52 %, respectively.
Double-section H2O-LiBr Combined heating, 0.49–0.8 Recovered low-grade heat: The hybrid system is capable of providing [214]
cooling, power, and 12574 kW various energy supplies, with net power
freshwater Heating capacity: 6251 kW output, freshwater production, heating, and
generation Cooling capacity: 4991 kW cooling capacities being 78.47 kW, 92.1 m3/
day, 6251 kW, and 4991 kW, respectively.
Biomass Single-stage NH3-H2O Refrigeration − Cooling capacity: Using biogas generated from wastewater [209]
energy 222.6–307.03 kW treatment plants as the driving heat source has
greatly reduced operating costs.
Single-stage NH3-H2O Refrigeration 0.51 Heating capacity: 125–325 In addition to providing multiple energy, it [211]
kW also significantly reduces carbon emissions.
Cooling capacity: 75–85 kW
Double-stage NH3-H2O Heating and cooling − Heating capacity: 11 kW The system provides multiple temperature [212]
Cooling capacity: 24 kW levels, expanding its range of applications. The
maximum energy utilization rate and exergy
efficiency are 22.46 % and 12.26 %,
respectively.

by high energy efficiency and ease of recovery, making them more (4) Research on an integrated AHP waste heat recovery system with
commonly used in practical applications. In contrast, absorption cycles multi-functions, involving cooling, heating, dehumidification,
driven by geothermal and biomass energy have seen limited practical power generation and so on.
applications due to geographical constraints, making their widespread (5) Establishment of comprehensive evaluation methods and criteria
promotion challenging. for low-grade energy (waste heat and renewable energy) recovery
technologies to improve the correct and reasonable application of
7. Research prospective various advanced system.
(6) Developing intelligent control systems and optimization algo­
After conducting a thorough review of integrating absorption heat rithms. In the control process of absorption cycles, the complexity
pump into different renewable and waste heat, it is founded that the of system configurations often makes the control process
AHP systems have been well and widely studied for low-grade heat cumbersome. Therefore, developing reasonable control methods
energy recovery and updating. Nevertheless, some pivotal research gaps and optimization algorithm tailored for absorption cycles is
are still found and can potentially be the directions for further research. essential.

(1) Research on novel working pairs with better performance to 8. Conclusions

improve the heat and mass transfer ability. Existing working
medium (e.g. NH3-H2O, H2O-LiBr) all have their limitations, so The forms of low-grade energy are diverse, and they tend to dissipate
exploitation better working pairs for absorption heat pump sys­ into the environment in various ways without intervention. Absorption
tem remains a challenge. In addition, there are lacks of thermo­ cycles take advantage in recovering and updating various waste heat
dynamic property data of many new working fluids for practical and low-grade energy to provide useful energy sources according to
application. specific requirements, which not only reduces the consumption of fossil
(2) Study and optimization of key components in AHP systems. fuels but also decreases environmental pollution. Therefore, absorption
Currently, research on the improvement of the internal structures cycles have broad prospects for applications in recovering low-grade
of generators, absorbers, condensers, and evaporators is rela­ energy. This study provides a detailed summary of the research status
tively limited, leading to numerous constraints in their practical in this area over the past few years. Based on this review, the major
application. Therefore, in order to enhance applicability, conclusions are drawn as follows:
focusing on aspects such as contact area, heat transfer coefficient,
and corrosion resistance in heat exchanger research is a crucial (1) The most widely used working pairs in current applications are
pathway to improving system performance and safety indices. NH3-H2O and H2O-LiBr. However, the former requires an addi­
(3) Development and further application of novel system configura­ tional distillation process, and NH3 is a flammable and toxic
tions. Currently, various advanced system configurations all have substance. The latter requires equipment to maintain a vacuum,
certain disadvantages and deficiencies under a certain condition. and it tends to crystallize in low-temperature environments.
Some of these configurations are still in the research stage and Therefore, in recent years, a large number of binary and ternary
have not been extensively applied in practice. novel working pairs have been developed to overcome the

45
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

aforementioned issues. Among these, ionic liquids with stable Yang: Investigation. Xiaosong Zhang: Writing – review & editing,
chemical properties are considered ideal absorbents. Considering Supervision.
both heat transfer and thermodynamic factors, in novel binary
working pairs, H2O-ILs are more suitable for refrigeration, while
Declaration of competing interest
NH3-ILs are more suitable for heating applications. In novel
ternary working pairs, using H2O-LiNO3-[BMIM]Br can greatly
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
reduce the risks of crystallization and corrosion, making systems
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
more efficient in recovering low-grade energy compared to those
the work reported in this paper.
using traditional working pairs.
(2) Basic absorption cycles include absorption heat pump for heat
Data availability
increase and absorption heat transformer for temperature up­
grade. In practical applications, absorption cycles are often
Data will be made available on request.
coupled with another system to maximize their advantages,
including coupling with gas boilers for recovering flue gas waste
heat, solar thermal systems to enhance energy utilization effi­ Acknowledgments
ciency, and ORC for combined heat and power generation.
However, the limited performance enhancement and narrow This work is supported by Key Research and Development Program
applicability of single-stage absorption cycles restrict the wide­ of Jilin Province (No. 20230203120SF), Science and Technology
spread practical application of integrated systems. Therefore, Development Program of Jilin City (No.20230103007).
currently most applications use advanced absorption cycles to
efficiently recover low-grade energy. References
(3) Advanced absorption cycles exhibit superior performance and a
[1] Wu Z, Jiang Y, Wang Y, You S, Zhang H, Liu S, et al. Investigating the
broader range of applications compared to traditional systems. In
performance of heat exchangers in absorption heat pump systems using both
general, the double-effect absorption cycles are capable of effi­ numerical and experimental methods. Energy Convers Manag 2023;278:116744.
ciently recovering 160–180 ◦ C of low-grade energy, increasing [2] Siddiqui MU, Said SAM. A review of solar powered absorption systems. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 2015;42:93–115.
the system COP by approximately 50 % compared to traditional
[3] Su W, Li J, Lu Z, Jin X, Zhang J, Liu Z, et al. Performance analysis and
single-stage absorption cycles. The double-stage absorption cy­ optimization of a solar assisted heat pump-driven vacuum membrane distillation
cles not only allow for the significant recovery of energy below system for liquid desiccant regeneration. Energy Convers Manag 2024;301:
100 ◦ C but also generates an additional 35 % heating capacity for 118047.
[4] Chowdhury AS, Ehsan MM. A critical overview of working fluids in organic
producing high-temperature steam. The double-section absorp­ rankine, supercritical rankine, and supercritical brayton cycles under various
tion cycles employ a stepwise generation/evaporation process heat grade sources. Int J Thermofluids 2023;20:100426.
with energy cascade utilization, thereby conferring enhanced [5] Forman C, Muritala IK, Pardemann R, Meyer B. Estimating the global waste heat
potential. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;57:1568–79.
performance and heating capacity upon the system. GAX-based [6] Wu W, Wang B, Shi W, Li X. An overview of ammonia-based absorption chillers
absorption cycles exhibit superior internal heat recovery capa­ and heat pumps. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;31:681–707.
bilities, typically achieving a COP of 1.5 or higher, which can [7] Su Z, Zhang M, Xu P, Zhao Z, Wang Z, Huang H, et al. Opportunities and
strategies for multigrade waste heat utilization in various industries: a recent
operate efficiently even in environments with temperatures review. Energy Convers Manag 2021;229:113769.
below − 15 ◦ C. Absorption thermal energy storage solves the [8] Balderas-Sánchez IN, Rivera W, Jiménez-García JC. Thermodynamic analysis of a
problems of energy intermittence and instability, and the novel absorption heat transformer. Appl Therm Eng 2019;162:114268.
[9] Su W, Lu Z, She X, Zhou J, Wang F, Sun B, et al. Liquid desiccant regeneration for
maximum energy storage density is typically above 350 kJ/kg.
advanced air conditioning: a comprehensive review on desiccant materials,
Open absorption heat pumps are capable of recovering both regenerators, systems and improvement technologies. Appl Energy 2022;308:
latent and sensible heat from moist flue gas, utilizing low-grade 118394.
[10] Shi L, Shu G, Tian H, Deng S. A review of modified Organic Rankine cycles (ORCs)
energy as low as 50 ◦ C, with a heat recovery rate of up to 89 %.
for internal combustion engine waste heat recovery (ICE-WHR). Renew Sustain
Absorption-compression cycles have a wider gas-emission range Energy Rev 2018;92:95–110.
and operating temperature range compared to conventional [11] Shi X, Zou J, Chen Z. Advanced thermoelectric design: from materials and
single-stage absorption cycles, and can increase heating capacity structures to devices. Chem Rev 2020;120:7399–515.
[12] Mahmoudinezhad S, Sadi M, Ghiasirad H, Arabkoohsar A. A comprehensive
by approximately 96.4 %. review on the current technologies and recent developments in high-temperature
(4) Combining waste heat and renewable energy (including solar heat exchangers. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2023;183:113467.
energy, geothermal energy, and biomass energy) with absorption [13] Adamson K, Walmsley TG, Carson JK, Chen Q, Schlosser F, Kong L, et al. High-
temperature and transcritical heat pump cycles and advancements: a review.
heat pump technologies is a crucial way to achieve low-carbon Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2022;167:112798.
goals. Among these, the recovery of solar thermal energy can [14] Wu W, Wang B, Shi W, Li X. Absorption heating technologies: A review and
address the issues of low energy density and intermittency, perspective. Appl Energy 2014;130:51–71.
[15] Nikbakhti R, Wang X, Hussein AK, Iranmanesh A. Absorption cooling systems –
meeting the requirement for round-the-clock cooling and heat­ review of various techniques for energy performance enhancement. Alex Eng J
ing. Compared to traditional heating methods, industrial waste 2020;59:707–38.
heat recovery technologies can greatly reduce coal consumption [16] Mehari A, Xu ZY, Wang RZ. Thermal energy storage using absorption cycle and
system: a comprehensive review. Energy Convers Manag 2020;206:112482.
and improve the thermal efficiency of integrated systems. The
[17] Altamirano A, Pierrès NL, Stutz B. Review of small-capacity single-stage
utilization of biomass recovery technologies not only enhances continuous absorption systems operating on binary working fluids for cooling:
the security and diversity of energy supplies but also facilitates theoretical, experimental and commercial cycles. Int J Refrig 2019;106:350–73.
[18] Alhuyi-Nazari M, Mukhtar A, Yasir ASHM, Ahmadi MH, Kumar R, Luong T.
advancements in agricultural development and increases the
Applications of geothermal sources for absorption chillers as efficient and clean
value of agricultural products through integrated use. cooling technologies for buildings: a comprehensive review. J Build Eng 2024;82:
108340.
[19] Ji L, Shukla SK, Zuo Z, Lu X, Ji X, Wang C. An overview of the progress of new
CRediT authorship contribution statement
working pairs in absorption heat pumps. Energy Rep 2023;9:703–29.
[20] Cudok F, Giannetti N, Ciganda JLC, Aoyama J, Babu P, Coronas A, et al.
Wei Su: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project adminis­ Absorption heat transformer - state-of-the-art of industrial applications. Renew
tration. Yuhao Han: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investiga­ Sustain Energy Rev 2021;141:110757.
[21] Donnellan P, Cronin K, Byrne E. Recycling waste heat energy using vapour
tion. Zhaoyang Liu: Resources, Investigation. Xu Jin: Writing – review absorption heat transformers: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;42:
& editing. Zhongyan Liu: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Di 1290–304.

46
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

[22] Zheng D, Dong L, Huang W, Wu X, Nie N. A review of imidazolium ionic liquids [53] Luo C, Wang Y, Li Y, Wu Y, Su Q, Hu T. Thermodynamic properties and
research and development towards working pair of absorption cycle. Renew application of LiNO3-[MMIM][DMP]/H2O ternary working pair. Renew Energy
Sustain Energy Rev 2014;37:47–68. 2019;134:147–60.
[23] Klute S, Budt M, van Beek M, Doetsch C. Steam generating heat pumps – [54] Zhang X, Li Y, Wang Y, Qi F, Zhao H, Luo C. Double-effect/two-stage
overview, classification, economics, and basic modeling principles. Energy compression-assisted absorption thermal energy storage using LiNO3-ionic
Convers Manag 2024;299:117882. liquids/H2O working fluids. Appl Therm Eng 2020;181:116003.
[24] Jia T, Dou P, Chen E, Dai Y. Feasibility and performance analysis of a hybrid GAX- [55] Luo C, Li Y, Li N, Su Q. Thermodynamic properties and evaluation of the lithium
based absorption-compression heat pump system for space heating in extremely nitrate–imidazole IL–water ternary systems as new working fluids for a double-
cold climate conditions. Energy 2022;242:122936. effect AHP cycle. Int J Refrig 2018;90:58–72.
[25] Wu W, Li X, You T, Wang B, Shi W. Combining ground source absorption heat [56] Ji Q, Yin Y, Cao B, Wang M. Comparative study of the cascade absorption heat
pump with ground source electrical heat pump for thermal balance, higher pump running optimal ternary ionic liquid working pair. Energy Convers Manag
efficiency and better economy in cold regions. Renew Energy 2015;84:74–88. 2024;299:117704.
[26] Dai E, Jia T, Dai Y. Theoretical and experimental investigation on a GAX-Based [57] Xu ZY, Wang RZ. Absorption seasonal thermal storage cycle with high energy
NH3-H2O absorption heat pump driven by parabolic trough solar collector. Sol storage density through multi-stage output. Energy 2019;167:1086–96.
Energy 2020;197:498–510. [58] Ziegler B, Trepp C. Equation of state for ammonia-water mixtures. Int J Refrig
[27] A B, George TG, MJ M. Thermal design and optimization. Wiley 1996. 1984;2:101–6.
[28] Rossa JA, Federal UOSC, Bazzo E, Federal UOSC. Thermodynamic modeling of an [59] Libotean S, Salavera D, Valles M, Esteve X, Coronas A. Vapor-liquid equilibrium
ammonia-water absorption system associated with a microturbine. Int J Appl of ammonia+lithium nitrate+water and ammonia+lithium nitrate solutions from
Thermodyn 2009;12:38–43. (293.15 to 353.15) K. J Chem Eng Data 2007;52:1050–5.
[29] Su W, Han Y, Jin X, Liu Z, Zhang X. Energy, economic, and environmental [60] Libotean S, Martiń A, Salavera D, Valles M, Esteve X, Coronas A. Densities,
evaluation of a GAX-based cross-type absorption-resorption heat pump. Energy viscosities, and heat capacities of ammonia + lithium nitrate and ammonia +
Convers Manag 2024;300:117952. lithium nitrate + water solutions between (293.15 and 353.15) K. J Chem Eng
[30] Kholghi SA, Mahmoudi SMS. Energy and exergy analysis of a modified absorption Data 2008;53:2383–8.
cycle: A comparative study. Sustain Energy Technol Assess 2019;32:19–28. [61] Chaudhari SK, Salavera D, Coronas A. Densities, viscosities, heat capacities, and
[31] Huicochea A. A novel advanced absorption heat pump (Type III) for cooling and vapor-liquid equilibria of ammonia + sodium thiocyanate solutions at several
heating using low-grade waste heat. Energy 2023;278:127938. temperatures. J Chem Eng Data 2011;56:2861–9.
[32] Berlitz T, Plank H, Ziegler F, Kahn R. An ammonia-water absorption refrigerator [62] Wu Y, Chen Y, Wu T. Experimental researches on characteristics of vapor-liquid
with a large temperature lift for combined heating and cooling. Int J Refrig 1998; equilibrium of NH3-H2O-LiBr system. Int J Refrig 2006;29:328–35.
21:219–29. [63] Wu T, Wu Y, Yu Z, Zhao H, Wu H. Experimental investigation on an
[33] Wu W, Zhang X, Li X, Shi W, Wang B. Comparisons of different working pairs and ammonia–water–lithium bromide absorption refrigeration system without
cycles on the performance of absorption heat pump for heating and domestic hot solution pump. Energy Convers Manag 2011;52:2314–9.
water in cold regions. Appl Therm Eng 2012;48:349–58. [64] Sun J, Fu L, Zhang S. A review of working fluids of absorption cycles. Renew
[34] Roe D, Lb O, Fo L. Vapor pressure of lithium nitrate: ammonia system. J Am Chem Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:1899–906.
Soc 1921;43:1575–80. [65] de Lucas A, Donate M, Rodríguez JF. Vapour pressures, densities, and viscosities
[35] Chinnappa JCV. Experimental study of the intermittent vapour absorption of the (water + lithium bromide + potassium acetate) system and (water +
refrigeration cycle employing the refrigerant-absorbent systems of ammonia lithium bromide + sodium lactate) system. J Chem Thermodyn 2006;38:123–9.
water and ammonia lithium nitrate. Sol Energy 1961;5:1–18. [66] De Lucas A, Donate M, Guez JFR. Vapor pressures, densities, and viscosities of the
[36] Heard CL, Rivera W, Best R. Characteristics of an ammonia/lithium nitrate double (H2O + LiBr + sodium formate) system and (H2O + LiBr + potassium formate)
effect heat pump-transformer. Appl Therm Eng 2016;99:518–27. system. J Chem Eng Data 2003;48:18–22.
[37] Sun D. Comparison of the performances of NH3-H2O, NH3-LiNO3 and NH3- [67] Jian S, Lin F, Shigang Z. Performance calculation of single effect absorption heat
NaSCN absorption refrigeration systems. Energy Convers Manag 1998;39: pump using LiBr+LiNO3+H2O as working fluid. Appl Therm Eng 2010;30:
357–68. 2680–4.
[38] M M, R R. An experimental comparison of ammonia–water and [68] Yang D, Zhu Y, Liu S, Lv H, Luo C. Thermodynamic properties of a ternary AHP
ammonia–water–lithium bromide mixtures in an absorption heat pump. Ashrae working pair: lithium bromide + 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride + H2O.
Trans 1985;91:1837–1846. J Chem Eng Data 2019;64:574–83.
[39] Yuan H, Zhang J, Huang X, Mei N. Experimental investigation on binary [69] Luo C, Wang Y, Han X, Yi-Qun L, Qing-Quan S. Density, viscosity, specific heat
ammonia–water and ternary ammonia–water–lithium bromide mixture-based capacity, and specific enthalpy of a novel ternary working pair: LiBr–[BMIM]Cl/
absorption refrigeration systems for fishing ships. Energy Convers Manag 2018; H2O. Chinese J Eng 2019;41:731–40.
166:13–22. [70] Luo C, Zhang Y, Su Q. Saturated vapor pressure, crystallization temperature and
[40] Steiu S, Salavera D, Bruno JC, Coronas A. A basis for the development of new corrosivity of LiBr-[BMIM]Cl/H2O working pair. Ciesc Journal 2016;67:1110–6.
ammonia–water–sodium hydroxide absorption chillers. Int J Refrig 2009;32: [71] Bakhtiari B, Fradette L, Legros R, Paris J. A model for analysis and design of
577–87. H2O–LiBr absorption heat pumps. Energy Convers Manag 2011;52:1439–48.
[41] Wu W, Zhang H, You T, Li X. Performance comparison of absorption heating [72] Sun J, Fu L, Zhang S, Hou W. A mathematical model with experiments of single
cycles using various low-GWP and natural refrigerants. Int J Refrig 2017;82: effect absorption heat pump using LiBr–H2O. Appl Therm Eng 2010;30:2753–62.
56–70. [73] Zhou Y, Pan L, Han X, Sun L. Dynamic modeling and thermodynamic analysis of
[42] Barragán Reyes RM, Gómez VMA, García-Gutiérrez A. Performance modelling of lithium bromide absorption refrigeration system using Modelica. Appl Therm Eng
single and double absorption heat transformers. Curr Appl Phys 2010;10:S244–8. 2023;225:120106.
[43] Flamensbeck M, Summerer F, Riesch P, Ziegler F, Alefeld G. A cost effective [74] Du S, Wang RZ, Xia ZZ. Optimal ammonia water absorption refrigeration cycle
absorption chiller with plate heat exchangers using water and hydroxides. Appl with maximum internal heat recovery derived from pinch technology. Energy
Therm Eng 1998;18:413–25. 2014;68:862–9.
[44] Park Y, Kim J, Lee H. Physical properties of the lithium bromide + 1,3-pro­ [75] Du S, Wang RZ, Xia ZZ. Graphical analysis on internal heat recovery of a single
panediol + water system. Int J Refrig 1997;20:319–25. stage ammonia–water absorption refrigeration system. Energy 2015;80:687–94.
[45] Best R, Rivera W, Cardoso MJ, Romero RJ, Holland FA. Modelling of single-stage [76] Lu D, Chen G, Gong M, Bai Y, Xu Q, Zhao Y, et al. Thermodynamic and economic
and advanced absorption heat transformers operating with the water/carrol analysis of a gas-fired absorption heat pump for district heating with cascade
mixture - ScienceDirect. Appl Therm Eng 1997;17:1111–2. recovery of flue gas waste heat. Energy Convers Manag 2019;185:87–100.
[46] Kim J, Park Y, Lee H. Performance evaluation of absorption chiller using LiBr+ [77] Mirl N, Schmid F, Spindler K. Reduction of the return temperature in district
H2N(CH2)2OH+H2O, LiBr+HO(CH2)3OH+H2O, and LiBr+(HOCH2CH2)2NH+ heating systems with an ammonia-water absorption heat pump. Case Stud Therm
H2O as working fluids. Appl Therm Eng 1999;19:217–25. Eng 2018;12:817–22.
[47] Yoon J, Kwon O. Cycle analysis of air-cooled absorption chiller using a new [78] Mirl N, Schmid F, Bierling B, Spindler K. Design and analysis of an ammonia-
working solution. Energy 1999;24:795–809. water absorption heat pump. Appl Therm Eng 2020;165:114531.
[48] Wu W. Low-temperature compression-assisted absorption thermal energy storage [79] Wu Z, You S, Zhang H, Wang Y, Wei S, Jiang Y, et al. Performance analysis and
using ionic liquids. Energy and Built Environment 2020;1:139–48. optimization for a novel air-source gas-fired absorption heat pump. Energy
[49] Boman DB, Hoysall DC, Staedter MA, Goyal A, Ponkala MJ, Garimella S. Convers Manag 2020;223:113423.
A method for comparison of absorption heat pump working pairs. Int J Refrig [80] Wu Z, You S, Zhang H, Wang Y, Jiang Y, Liu Z, et al. Experimental investigations
2017;77:149–75. and multi-objective optimization of an air-source absorption heat pump for
[50] Zhai C, Sui Y, Sui Z, Wu W. Ionic liquids for microchannel membrane-based residential district heating. Energy Convers Manag 2021;240:114267.
absorption heat pumps: Performance comparison and geometry optimization. [81] Wu Z, You S, Jiang T, Zhang H, Wang Y, Jiang Y, et al. Model development and
Energy Convers Manag 2021;239:114213. numerical analysis of a vertical falling film absorption heat pump. J Clean Prod
[51] Wu W, You T, Li X. Performance comparisons of NH3/ionic liquid 2022;331:129967.
absorption–compression heat pump for increasing the utilization of geothermal [82] Lu D, Bai Y, Dong X, Zhao Y, Guo H, Gong M. Gas-fired absorption heat pump
energy. Int J Refrig 2019;104:19–33. applied for high-temperature water heating: Parametric study and economic
[52] Ji Q, Wang Y, Yin Y, Wang M, Che C, Cao B, et al. Cooling performance of analysis. Int J Refrig 2020;119:152–64.
compression-absorption cascade system with novel ternary ionic-liquid working [83] Lu D, Bai Y, Zhao Y, Dong X, Gong M, Luo E, et al. Experimental investigations of
pair. Energy 2023;278:128018. an absorption heat pump prototype with intermediate process for residential
district heating. Energy Convers Manag 2020;204:112323.

47
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

[84] Sui Y, Wu W. Ionic liquid screening and performance optimization of transcritical [114] Wu W, Wang B, You T, Shi W, Li X. Configurations of solar air source absorption
carbon dioxide absorption heat pump enhanced by expander. Energy 2023;263: heat pump and comparisons with conventional solar heating. Appl Therm Eng
125689. 2018;141:630–41.
[85] Jia T, Dai Y. Development of a novel unbalanced ammonia-water absorption- [115] Dai B, Yang H, Liu S, Liu C, Wu T, Li J, et al. Hybrid solar energy and waste heat
resorption heat pump cycle for space heating. Energy 2018;161:251–65. driving absorption subcooling supermarket CO2 refrigeration system: Energetic,
[86] Jia T, Dai E, Dai Y. Thermodynamic analysis and optimization of a balanced-type carbon emission and economic evaluation in China. Sol Energy 2022;247:123–45.
single-stage NH3-H2O absorption-resorption heat pump cycle for residential [116] Bellos E, Arabkoohsar A, Lykas P, Sammoutos C, Kitsopoulou A, Tzivanidis C.
heating application. Energy 2019;171:120–34. Investigation of a solar-driven absorption heat transformer with various collector
[87] Feng L, Jin Z, Zhou R, Xu M, Qin L, Li S. Thermodynamic analysis of an ammonia- types for industrial process heating. Appl Therm Eng 2024;244.
water solution cross-type absorption-resorption heat pump system. Appl Therm [117] Mei S, Lu X, Zhu Y, Wang S. Thermodynamic assessment of a system configuration
Eng 2021;198:117460. strategy for a cogeneration system combining SOFC, thermoelectric generator,
[88] Wang M, Deng C, Wang Y, Feng X. Exergoeconomic performance comparison, and absorption heat pump. Appl Energy 2021;302:117573.
selection and integration of industrial heat pumps for low grade waste heat [118] Li L, Qian J, Teng S, Zhang Y, Yin J, Zhou Q. Comparative analysis and
recovery. Energy Convers Manag 2020;207:112532. optimization of waste-heat recovery systems with large-temperature-gradient
[89] Sekar S, Saravanan R. Experimental studies on absorption heat transformer heat transfer. Appl Therm Eng 2023;234:121179.
coupled distillation system. Desalination 2011;274:292–301. [119] Li B, Wang S, Wang K, Song L. Thermo-economic analysis of a combined cooling,
[90] Horuz I, Kurt B. Absorption heat transformers and an industrial application. heating and power system based on carbon dioxide power cycle and absorption
Renew Energy 2010;35:2175–81. chiller for waste heat recovery of gas turbine. Energy Convers Manag 2020;224:
[91] Siqueiros J, Romero RJ. Increase of COP for heat transformer in water 113372.
purification systems. Part I - Increasing heat source temperature. Appl Therm Eng [120] Mubashir W, Adnan M, Zaman M, Imran M, Naqvi SR, Mehmood A. Thermo-
2007;27:1043–53. economic evaluation of supercritical CO2 Brayton cycle integrated with
[92] Romero RJ, Rodríguez-Martínez A. Optimal water purification using low grade absorption refrigeration system and organic Rankine cycle for waste heat
waste heat in an absorption heat transformer. Desalination 2008;220:506–13. recovery. Therm Sci Eng Prog 2023;44:102073.
[93] A S. Effect of irreversibilities on performance of an absorption heat transformer [121] Bishal SS, Faysal DF, Ehsan MM, Salehin S. Performance evaluation of an
used to increase solar pond’s temperature. Renew Energy 2004;4:501–515. integrated cooling and power system combining supercritical CO2, gas turbine,
[94] Ishida M, Ji J. Graphical exergy study on single stage absorption heat absorption refrigeration, and organic rankine cycles for waste energy
transformer. Appl Therm Eng 1999;19:1191–206. recuperating system. Results Eng 2023;17:100943.
[95] Luo J, Yang H. Investigations on a bubble-pump-aided diffusion absorption heat [122] Alali AE, Tubeshat AA, Khasawneh KA. Performance analysis of stirling engine
transformer using deep eutectic solvent for harvesting and upgrading thermal double-effect absorption chiller hybrid system for waste heat utilization from gas
energy. Appl Energy 2023;340:121069. turbine modular helium reactor. Energy Convers Manag 2022;251:114976.
[96] Liu Z, Lu D, Shen T, Cheng R, Chen R, Gong M. Improving heat supply of [123] Ma Z, Cai L, Zhang X, Zhang X. Thermodynamics and 3E analyses of a high-
ammonia-water absorption heat transformer by enlarging heat source utilization temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell-based CCHP system with
temperature span. Energy 2023;280:128219. cascade utilization of waste heat. Int J Refrig 2023;152:204–13.
[97] Yang M, Low E, Law CL, Chen J, Show PL, Huang S. Heat and mass transfer in a [124] Elbassoussi MH, Ahmed MA, Zubair SM, Qasem NAA. On a thermodynamically-
counter flow parallel plate membrane-based absorption heat pump (PMAHP). Int balanced humidification-dehumidification desalination system driven by a vapor-
J Therm Sci 2022;171:107227. absorption heat pump. Energy Convers Manag 2021;238:114142.
[98] Mehrjouiee H, Fallah M, Mohammad S. Mahmoudi S. Advanced exergy analysis of [125] Elbassoussi MH, Ahmed MA, Zubair SM. On a novel integration of a multistage
a double absorption heat transformer recovering industrial waste heat for pure absorption heat pump with a balanced humidification-dehumidification
water production. Therm Sci Eng Prog 2024;47:102242. desalination unit. Energy Conversion and Management: X 2021;12:100128.
[99] Wang S, Jiang S, Wu Z, Li Y, Gao H. Investigation on the cycle performance of a [126] Dadpour D, Deymi-Dashtebayaz M, Hoseini-Modaghegh A, Abbaszadeh-
novel diffusion absorption heat transformer with ejection boost. Therm Sci Eng Bajgiran M, Soltaniyan S, Tayyeban E. Proposing a new method for waste heat
Prog 2024;48:102423. recovery from the internal combustion engine for the double-effect direct-fired
[100] Hou J, Che D, Liu Y, Jiang Q. A new system of absorption heat pump Vs. boiler for absorption chiller. Appl Therm Eng 2022;216:119114.
recovering heat and water vapor in flue gas. Energy Procedia 2018;152:1266–71. [127] Xu Z, Wang R. Absorption heat pump for waste heat reuse: current states and
[101] Wang X, Zhuo J, Liu J, Li S. Synergetic process of condensing heat exchanger and future development. Front Energy 2017;11:414–36.
absorption heat pump for waste heat and water recovery from flue gas. Appl [128] Loreti G, Facci AL, Baffo I, Ubertini S. Combined heat, cooling, and power systems
Energy 2020;261:114401. based on half effect absorption chillers and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel
[102] Xu A, Xu M, Xie N, Liang J, Zeng K, Kou G, et al. Performance analysis of a cells. Appl Energy 2019;235:747–60.
cascade lithium bromide absorption refrigeration/dehumidification process [129] Sun F, Xu W, Chen H, Hao B, Zhao X. Configuration optimization of solar-driven
driven by low-grade waste heat for hot summer and cold winter climate area in low temperature district heating and cooling system integrated with distributed
China. Energy Convers Manag 2021;228:113664. water-lithium bromide absorption heat pumps. Sol Energy 2023;253:401–13.
[103] Zhang L, Hu Y, Chu J, Xu C, Yao Y, Lv H. Performance investigation on a [130] Yari M, Salehi S, Mahmoudi SMS. Three-objective optimization of water
concentrating photovoltaic thermal system integrated with spectral splitter and desalination systems based on the double-stage absorption heat transformers.
absorption heat pump. Appl Therm Eng 2024;237:121772. Desalination 2017;405:10–28.
[104] Zhang H, Zhao H, Li Z. Waste heat recovery and water-saving modification for a [131] Liu W, Jin B, Wang D, Yu Z. Performance modeling and advanced exergy analysis
water-cooled gas-steam combined cycle cogeneration system with absorption heat for low-energy consumption data center with waste heat recovery, flexible
pump. Energy Convers Manag 2019;180:1129–38. cooling and hydrogen energy. Energy Convers Manag 2023;297:117756.
[105] Ökten K, Kurşun B. Thermo-economic assessment of a thermally integrated [132] Xu ZY, Gao JT, Mao HC, Liu DS, Wang RZ. Double-section absorption heat pump
pumped thermal energy storage (TI-PTES) system combined with an absorption for the deep recovery of low-grade waste heat. Energy Convers Manag 2020;220:
refrigeration cycle driven by low-grade heat source. J Energy Storage 2022;51: 113072.
104486. [133] Xu ZY, Mao HC, Liu DS, Wang RZ. Waste heat recovery of power plant with large
[106] Liu X, Yang X, Yu M, Zhang W, Wang Y, Cui P, et al. Energy, exergy, economic and scale serial absorption heat pumps. Energy 2018;165:1097–105.
environmental (4E) analysis of an integrated process combining CO2 capture and [134] Yang S, Qian Y, Wang Y, Yang S. A novel cascade absorption heat transformer
storage, an organic Rankine cycle and an absorption refrigeration cycle. Energy process using low grade waste heat and its application to coal to synthetic natural
Convers Manag 2020;210:112738. gas. Appl Energy 2017;202:42–52.
[107] Alrobaian AA. Energy, exergy, economy, and environmental (4E) analysis of a [135] Tian W, Teng S, Xi H. Cogeneration system based on large temperature difference
multi-generation system composed of solar-assisted Brayton cycle, Kalina cycle, heat transfer with stepwise utilization. Energy Convers Manag 2023;281:116843.
and absorption chiller. Appl Therm Eng 2022;204:117988. [136] Beniwal R, Garg K, Tyagi H. Thermodynamics analysis of a novel absorption heat
[108] Liu Z, Xie N, Yang S. Thermodynamic and parametric analysis of a coupled LiBr/ transformer-driven combined refrigeration and desalination system. Energy
H2O absorption chiller/Kalina cycle for cascade utilization of low-grade waste Convers Manag 2023;277:116597.
heat. Energy Convers Manag 2020;205:112370. [137] Liu Z, Lu D, Shen T, Guo H, Bai Y, Wang L, et al. New configurations of absorption
[109] Akimoto R, Yamaki T, Nakaiwa M, Matsuda K. Evaluation of a power generation heat transformer and refrigeration combined system for low-temperature cooling
system that integrates multiple Kalina cycles and absorption heat pumps. Case driven by low-grade heat. Appl Therm Eng 2023;228:120567.
Stud Therm Eng 2021;28:101363. [138] Herold KE, Radermacher R, Klein SA. Absorption chillers and heat pumps. 2016.
[110] Liu W, Ji Y, Wang RQ, Zhang XJ, Jiang L. Analysis on temperature vacuum swing [139] Aprile M, Scoccia R, Toppi T, Guerra M, Motta M. Modelling and experimental
adsorption integrated with heat pump for efficient carbon capture. Appl Energy analysis of a GAX NH3–H2O gas-driven absorption heat pump. Int J Refrig 2016;
2023;335:120757. 66:145–55.
[111] Qu M, Abdelaziz O, Yin H. New configurations of a heat recovery absorption heat [140] Wang J, Wu W, Shi W, Li X, Wang B. Experimental investigation on NH3–H2O
pump integrated with a natural gas boiler for boiler efficiency improvement. generator-absorber heat exchange (GAX) absorption heat pump. Energy 2019;
Energy Convers Manag 2014;87. 185:337–49.
[112] Zhu K, Xia J, Xie X, Jiang Y. Total heat recovery of gas boiler by absorption heat [141] Villa G, Toppi T, Aprile M, Motta M. Performance improvement of gas-driven
pump and direct-contact heat exchanger. Appl Therm Eng 2014;71:213–8. absorption heat pumps by controlling the flow rate in the solution branch. Int J
[113] Salehi S, Yari M, Rosen MA. Exergoeconomic comparison of solar-assisted Refrig 2023;145:290–300.
absorption heat pumps, solar heaters and gas boiler systems for district heating in [142] Jia T, Chu P, Dou P, Dai Y. Working domains of a novel solar-assisted GAX-based
Sarein Town. Iran Appl Therm Eng 2019;153:409–25. two-stage absorption-resorption heat pump with multiple internal heat recovery
for space heating. Energy Convers Manag 2020;220:113060.

48
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

[143] Dai E, Lin M, Xia J, Dai Y. Experimental investigation on a GAX based absorption [172] Chun A, Donatelli JLM, Santos JJCS, Zabeu CB, Carvalho M. Superstructure
heat pump driven by hybrid liquefied petroleum gas and solar energy. Sol Energy optimization of absorption chillers integrated with a large internal combustion
2018;169:167–78. engine for waste heat recovery and repowering applications: thermodynamic and
[144] Zhang X, Li M, Shi W, Wang B, Li X. Experimental investigation on charging and economic assessments. Energy 2023;263:125970.
discharging performance of absorption thermal energy storage system. Energy [173] Gao JT, Xu ZY, Wang RZ. Experimental study on a double-stage absorption solar
Convers Manag 2014;85:425–34. thermal storage system with enhanced energy storage density. Appl Energy 2020;
[145] Zhao YJ, Wang RZ, Li TX, Nomura Y. Investigation of a 10 kWh sorption heat 262:114476.
storage device for effective utilization of low-grade thermal energy. Energy 2016; [174] Liu S, Qian Y, Li D, Jaromír Klemeš J, Yang S. Multi-Scenario scheduling
113:739–47. optimisation for a novel Double-Stage ammonia absorption refrigeration system
[146] Lu Z, Wang R, Gordeeva L. Novel multi-step sorption-reaction energy storage incorporating an organic Rankine cycle. Energy Convers Manag 2022;270:
cycles for air conditioning and temperature upgrading. Energy 2017;118:464–72. 116170.
[147] Tsoukpoe KE, Le Pierrès N, Lu L. Numerical dynamic simulation and analysis of a [175] Okwose CF, Abid M, Ratlamwala TAH. Performance analysis of compressor-
lithium bromide/water long-term solar heat storage system. Energy 2012;37: assisted two-stage triple effect absorption refrigeration cycle for power and
346–58. cooling. Energy Convers Manag 2021;227:113547.
[148] Liu M, Cheng Y, Cheng W, Zhan C. Dynamic performance analysis of a solar [176] Chen W, Chenbin X, Wu H, Li Z, Zhang B, Yan H. Thermal analysis and
driving absorption chiller integrated with absorption thermal energy storage. optimization of combined cold and power system with integrated phosphoric acid
Energy Convers Manag 2021;247:114769. fuel cell and two-stage compression–absorption refrigerator at low evaporation
[149] Ibrahim NI, Al-Sulaiman FA, Saat A, Rehman S, Ani FN. Charging and discharging temperature. Energy 2021;216:119164.
characteristics of absorption energy storage integrated with a solar driven double- [177] Wang Y, Morosuk T, Yang S, Cao W. A high-efficiency multi-function system
effect absorption chiller for air conditioning applications. J Energy Storage 2020; based on thermal desalination and absorption cycle for water, water-cooling or
29:101374. water-heating production. Energy Convers Manag 2023;284:116962.
[150] Jeong J, Jung HS, Lee JW, Kang YT. Hybrid cooling and heating absorption heat [178] Wei J, Zhou C, Mo Z, Zhang X, Luo C, Li N, et al. Thermodynamic analysis of a
pump cycle with thermal energy storage. Energy 2023;283:129027. novel absorption thermochemical energy storage cycle with double compression
[151] Ding Z, Wu W. Type II absorption thermal battery for temperature upgrading: coupled two-stage generation. Appl Therm Eng 2022;215:118912.
energy storage heat transformer. Appl Energy 2022;324:119748. [179] Zhang H, Dong Y, Lai Y, Zhang H, Zhang X. Waste heat recovery from coal-fired
[152] Zhou C, Lv F, Wan Z, Wang Y, Luo C. A double-effect/two-stage absorption boiler flue gas: Performance optimization of a new open absorption heat pump.
refrigeration and thermal energy storage hybrid cycle using dual working fluids. Appl Therm Eng 2021;183:116111.
Appl Therm Eng 2022;214:118858. [180] Xue Y, Zhao B, Wang S, Yin P, Wang H. Performance analysis of an open
[153] Ye B, Ding Y, Wang Z, Chen G. Experimental evaluation of a variable-stage open absorption heat pump and thermal desalination system for heat and water
absorption heat pump system utilizing aqueous KCOOH solution as absorbent. Int recovery of coal-fired flue gas based on zero liquid discharge. Energy Convers
J Refrig 2023;148:83–95. Manag 2022;273:116379.
[154] Yang B, Jiang Y, Fu L, Zhang S. Experimental and theoretical investigation of a [181] Wu W, You T, Wang J, Wang B, Shi W, Li X. A novel internally hybrid absorption-
novel full-open absorption heat pump applied to district heating by recovering compression heat pump for performance improvement. Energy Convers Manag
waste heat of flue gas. Energy Build 2018;173:45–57. 2018;168:237–51.
[155] Yang B, Yuan W, Fu L, Zhang S, Wei M, Guo D. Techno-economic study of full- [182] Zhang J, Zhang H, He Y, Tao W. A comprehensive review on advances and
open absorption heat pump applied to flue gas total heat recovery. Energy 2020; applications of industrial heat pumps based on the practices in China. Appl
190:116429. Energy 2016;178:800–25.
[156] Kashif Shahzad M, Ding Y, Xuan Y, Gao N, Chen G. Performance analysis of a [183] Rivera CO, Rivera W. Modeling of an intermittent solar absorption refrigeration
novel double stage multifunctional open absorption heat pump system: an system operating with ammonia–lithium nitrate mixture. Sol Energy Mater Sol
industrial moist flue gas heat recovery application. Energy Convers Manag 2022; Cells 2003;76:417–27.
254:115224. [184] Staicovici MD. An autonomous solar ammonia-water refrigeration system. Sol
[157] Gado MG, Ookawara S, Nada S, El-Sharkawy II. Hybrid sorption-vapor Energy 1986;36:115–24.
compression cooling systems: a comprehensive overview. Renew Sustain Energy [185] Sierra FZ, Best R, Holland FA. Experiments on an absorption refrigeration system
Rev 2021;143:110912. powered by a solar pond. Heat Recovery Syst CHP 1993;13:401–8.
[158] Wu W, Zhai C, Sui Y, Zhang H. A novel distributed energy system using high- [186] Swartman RK, Ha V, Swaminathan C. Comparison of ammonia-water and
temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell integrated with hybrid-energy ammonia-sodium thiocyanate as the refrigerant-absorbent in a solar refrigeration
heat pump. Energy Convers Manag 2021;235:113990. system. Sol Energy 1975;17:123–7.
[159] Wu W, Shi W, Wang J, Wang B, Li X. Experimental investigation on NH3–H2O [187] Li ZF, Sumathy K. Technology development in the solar absorption air-
compression-assisted absorption heat pump (CAHP) for low temperature heating conditioning systems. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2000;4:267–93.
under lower driving sources. Appl Energy 2016;176:258–71. [188] Abu-Ein SQ, Fayyad SM, Momani W, Al-Bousoul M. Performance analysis of solar
[160] Ji Q, Han Z, Zhang X, Sun X, Li G, Li X, et al. Study on the heating performance of powered absorption refrigeration system. Heat Mass Transf 2009;46:137–45.
absorption-compression hybrid heat pump in severe cold regions. Appl Therm [189] Alvares SG, Trepp C. Simulation of a solar driven aqua-ammonia absorption
Eng 2021;185:116419. refrigeration system Part 1: mathematical description and system optimization.
[161] Wu W, Zhai C, Huang S, Sui Y, Sui Z, Ding Z. A hybrid H2O/IL absorption and Int J Refrig 1987;10:40–8.
CO2 compression air-source heat pump for ultra-low ambient temperatures. [190] Wilbur PJ, Manchini TR. A comparison of solar absorption air conditioning
Energy 2022;239:122180. systems. Sol Energy 1976;18:569–76.
[162] Zhang H, Pan X, Chen J, Xie J. Energy, exergy, economic and environmental [191] Li X, Wang Z, Yang M, Yuan G. Modeling and simulation of a novel combined heat
analyses of a cascade absorption-compression refrigeration system using two- and power system with absorption heat pump based on solar thermal power
stage compression with complete intercooling. Appl Therm Eng 2023;225: tower plant. Energy 2019;186:115842.
120185. [192] Sun F, Zhao X, Hao B. Novel solar-driven low temperature district heating and
[163] Liu F, Dong F, Yan A, Li Y, Yan C, Li J. Heating performance of a parallel gas cooling system based on distributed half-effect absorption heat pumps with
engine compression-absorption heat pump. Appl Therm Eng 2017;123:1308–17. lithium bromide. Energy 2023;270:126884.
[164] Zhang X, Wang RZ, Xu ZY. Air-source hybrid absorption-compression heat pumps [193] Chen Y, Xu J, Zhao D, Wang J, Lund PD. Exergo-economic assessment and
with three-stage thermal coupling configuration for temperature lift over 150 ◦ C. sensitivity analysis of a solar-driven combined cooling, heating and power system
Energy Convers Manag 2022;271:116304. with organic Rankine cycle and absorption heat pump. Energy 2021;230:120717.
[165] Gao P, Qing C, Chang M, Shao L, Zhang C. Hybrid absorption-compression heat [194] Yan X, Shi Y, Gao N, Chen G. Experimental investigation on a novel triple heat
pump with two-stage rectification and subcooler. Appl Therm Eng 2020;181: sources-driven absorption heat pump system. Energy Build 2019;198:28–37.
116027. [195] Men Y, Liu X, Zhang T. A review of boiler waste heat recovery technologies in the
[166] Alhamid MI, Coronas A, Lubis A, Ayou DS, Nasruddin SK, et al. Operation strategy medium-low temperature range. Energy 2021;237:121560.
of a solar-gas fired single/double effect absorption chiller for space cooling in [196] Cheng X, Yin Y, Che C, Ji Q, Cao B, Chen W. Experimental and simulation study
Indonesia. Appl Therm Eng 2020;178:115524. on an air conditioning system cascade driven by waste heat using
[167] Liang W, Han J, Ge Y, Zhu W, Yang J, Lv W, et al. Investigation on combining multicomponent solution. Build Environ 2024;247:111021.
multi-effect distillation and double-effect absorption refrigeration cycle to recover [197] Hu T, Shen Y, Kwan TH, Pei G. Absorption chiller waste heat utilization to the
exhaust heat of SOFC-GT system. Energy Convers Manag 2024;301:118054. desiccant dehumidifier system for enhanced cooling – energy and exergy analysis.
[168] Ma H, Li Q, Wang D, Song Q, Zhou S, Wang X, et al. Operating performance and Energy 2022;239:121847.
economic analysis of solar single/double-effect compound absorption [198] Zhou J, Hai T, Ali MA, Shamseldin MA, Almojil SF, Almohana AI, et al. Waste heat
refrigeration system. Sol Energy 2022;247:73–85. recovery of a wind turbine for poly-generation purpose: feasibility analysis,
[169] Siddique MZ, Badar AW, Siddiqui MS, Butt FS, Saleem M, Mahmood K, et al. environmental impact assessment, and parametric optimization. Energy 2023;
Performance analysis of double effect solar absorption cooling system with 263:125891.
different schemes of hot/cold auxiliary integration and parallel-serial [199] Zhang HS, Zhao HB, Li ZL. Performance analysis of the coal-fired power plant
arrangement of solar field. Energy 2022;245:123299. with combined heat and power (CHP) based on absorption heat pumps. J Energy
[170] Sioud D, Bourouis M, Bellagi A. Investigation of an ejector powered double-effect Inst 2016;89:70–80.
absorption/recompression refrigeration cycle. Int J Refrig 2019;99:453–68. [200] Zhang H, Liu Y, Liu X, Duan C. Energy and exergy analysis of a new cogeneration
[171] Ferwati MS, Ahmad AM, Takalkar GD, Bicer Y. Energy and exergy analysis of system based on an organic Rankine cycle and absorption heat pump in the coal-
parallel flow double effect H2O-[mmim][DMP] absorption refrigeration system fired power plant. Energy Convers Manag 2020;223:113293.
for solar powered district cooling. Case Stud Therm Eng 2021;28:101382.

49
W. Su et al. Energy Conversion and Management 315 (2024) 118760

[201] Zhang H, Liu X, Liu Y, Duan C, Dou Z, Qin J. Energy and exergy analyses of a geothermal energy: energy, exergy, and economic analyses and optimization.
novel cogeneration system coupled with absorption heat pump and organic J Clean Prod 2020;258:120780.
Rankine cycle based on a direct air cooling coal-fired power plant. Energy 2021; [208] Khan EU, Martin AR. Optimization of hybrid renewable energy polygeneration
229:120641. system with membrane distillation for rural households in Bangladesh. Energy
[202] Liang Y, Zhang X, Cai L. Thermal analysis of high-temperature proton exchange 2015;93:1116–27.
membrane fuel cell integrated compression-assisted absorption heat pump [209] de Castro Villela IA, Silveira JL. Thermoeconomic analysis applied in cold water
system. Int J Refrig 2023;147:91–105. production system using biogas combustion. Appl Therm Eng 2005;25:1141–52.
[203] Wu W, Wang B, You T, Shi W, Li X. A potential solution for thermal imbalance of [210] Siddiqui MA. Optimum generator temperatures in four absorption cycles using
ground source heat pump systems in cold regions: ground source absorption heat different sources of energy. Energy Convers Manag 1993;34:251–66.
pump. Renew Energy 2013;59:39–48. [211] Huang Y, Wang YD, Rezvani S, McIlveen-Wright DR, Anderson M, Hewitt NJ.
[204] Li Y, Bi Y, Lin Y, Wang H, Sun R. Analysis of the soil heat balance of a solar- Biomass fuelled trigeneration system in selected buildings. Energy Convers Manag
ground source absorption heat pump with the soil-based energy storage in the 2011;52:2448–54.
transition season. Energy 2023;264:126394. [212] Praveen Kumar G, Ayou DS, Narendran C, Saravanan R, Maiya MP, Coronas A.
[205] Bendaikha W, Larbi S. Hybrid fuel cell and geothermal resources for air- Renewable heat powered polygeneration system based on an advanced
conditioning using an absorption chiller in Algeria. Energy Procedia 2012;28: absorption cycle for rural communities. Energy 2023;262:125300.
190–7. [213] Assareh E, Alirahmi SM, Ahmadi P. A Sustainable model for the integration of
[206] Behzadi A, Gholamian E, Ahmadi P, Habibollahzade A, Ashjaee M. Energy, exergy solar and geothermal energy boosted with thermoelectric generators (TEGs) for
and exergoeconomic (3E) analyses and multi-objective optimization of a solar and electricity, cooling and desalination purpose. Geothermics 2021;92:102042.
geothermal based integrated energy system. Appl Therm Eng 2018;143:1011–22. [214] Ghiasirad H, Asgari N, Khoshbakhti Saray R, Mirmasoumi S. Thermoeconomic
[207] Ehyaei MA, Ahmadi A, El Haj AM, Rosen MA. Investigation of an integrated assessment of a geothermal based combined cooling, heating, and power system,
system combining an organic rankine cycle and absorption chiller driven by integrated with a humidification-dehumidification desalination unit and an
absorption heat transformer. Energy Convers Manag 2021;235:113969.

50