⭐ 1.

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY — Detailed Concepts

1.1 Sensation
 Process of detecting physical energy (light, sound,
pressure).
 Involves receptors → convert stimuli → neural signals
(transduction).
 Exam-focus concepts:
o Absolute Threshold – minimum stimulus detected
50% of the time.
o Difference Threshold (JND) – minimum change
detected.
o Weber’s Law – JND is proportional to original
stimulus.

1.2 Perception
 Interpretation and organization of sensory input into
meaningful experiences.
 Bottom-up processing – data-driven.
 Top-down processing – expectations, experience
influence perception.
 Gestalt laws: proximity, similarity, closure, continuity,
figure-ground.

1.3 Attention
  Selective focus on certain stimuli.
 Selective attention – cocktail-party effect.
 Divided attention – multitasking.
 Sustained attention – vigilance.

1.4 Learning
 Permanent change in behavior due to experience.
 Classical conditioning: Pavlov, US–UR–CS–CR.
 Operant conditioning: Skinner; reinforcement &
punishment.
 Observational learning: Bandura; modeling, imitation.

1.5 Memory
 Encoding → Storage → Retrieval
 Types:
o Sensory memory → seconds
o Short-term (STM) → 7 ± 2 items
o Long-term (LTM) → permanent store
 LTM types:
o Explicit: semantic + episodic
o Implicit: procedural
 Forgetting: decay, interference, retrieval failure.
1.6 Motivation & Emotion
 Motivation: drives behavior (needs, desires).
o Theories: Maslow, Drive-reduction, Incentive
theory.
 Emotion: physiological arousal + expressive behavior +
conscious experience.
o Theories: James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schachter-
Singer.

⭐ 2. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY — Detailed Concepts

2.1 Neurons & Neural Communication
 Parts: dendrites, soma, axon, myelin, synapse.
 Action Potential: all-or-none electrical impulse.
 Neurotransmitters:
o Dopamine → reward, schizophrenia
o Serotonin → mood, depression
o GABA → inhibitory, anxiety
o Glutamate → excitatory, memory
o ACh → movement, learning

2.2 Nervous System Organization

 Central Nervous System: brain + spinal cord
  Peripheral:
o Somatic → voluntary
o Autonomic → involuntary
 Sympathetic → fight/flight
 Parasympathetic → rest/digest

2.3 Brain Structure

 Hindbrain: medulla, pons, cerebellum
 Midbrain: reticular formation (arousal)
 Forebrain:
o Thalamus → sensory relay
o Hypothalamus → hunger, hormones
o Limbic system → emotion, memory
o Cerebral cortex → higher thinking

2.4 Endocrine System

 Glands releasing hormones.
 Pituitary → master gland
 Adrenal → stress hormones
 Thyroid → metabolism
⭐ 3. PERSONALITY / SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY — Detailed
Concepts
3.1 Personality Theories
 Psychoanalytic (Freud): id, ego, superego; unconscious
motives.
 Trait theory: Big Five (OCEAN).
 Humanistic: Rogers, Maslow → self-actualization.
 Behavioral: personality learned through reinforcement.
 Biological: genetics influence temperament.

3.2 Personality Assessment

 Objective tests: MMPI, 16PF
 Projective tests: Rorschach, TAT
 Interviews, observations

3.3 Social Psychology Concepts

 Attitudes & Persuasion
o Cognitive dissonance (Festinger)
 Social Influence:
o Conformity (Asch)
o Obedience (Milgram)
o Compliance (foot-in-door)
 Group dynamics: norms, roles, social loafing
  Attribution theory:
o Internal/External attribution
o Fundamental attribution error
 Prejudice & stereotyping
 Prosocial behavior: helping, altruism

⭐ 4. ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY — Detailed Concepts

4.1 Concepts of Normality & Abnormality
 Statistical deviation
 Social norm violation
 Maladaptive behavior
 Distress & dysfunction

4.2 Classification Systems

 DSM-5 – American classification
 ICD-11 – International classification

4.3 Major Disorders

 Anxiety disorders: GAD, phobias, panic disorder
 Mood disorders: depression, bipolar
 Psychotic disorders: schizophrenia
 Neurodevelopmental: autism, ADHD
  Personality disorders: borderline, antisocial
 Somatic disorders: illness anxiety
 Trauma-related: PTSD
 Dissociative disorders: DID
 Obsessive-compulsive disorder

4.4 Therapies
 Psychodynamic
 Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
 Humanistic therapy
 Behavior therapy
 Biological treatments (medication, ECT)

⭐ 5. RESEARCH METHODS – Basic Techniques

5.1 Types of Research
 Experimental: cause-effect
 Correlational: relationships (r = +1 to –1)
 Descriptive: case study, observation, survey

5.2 Variables
 Independent variable (IV): manipulated
 Dependent variable (DV): measured
  Extraneous / Confounding variables

5.3 Sampling Techniques

 Random
 Stratified
 Systematic
 Convenience sampling

5.4 Hypothesis Types

 Null hypothesis (H0)
 Research hypothesis (H1)
 Directional & non-directional

5.5 Data
 Quantitative vs Qualitative
 Levels of measurement:
o Nominal
o Ordinal
o Interval
o Ratio

5.6 Basic Statistics

 Mean, median, mode
  Standard deviation
 Correlation
 t-test, chi-square (concepts)

⭐ 6. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY — Detailed Concepts

6.1 Memory Processes
 Encoding, storage, retrieval
 LTM: semantic, episodic, procedural
 STM capacity (Miller’s 7±2)
 Forgetting theories

6.2 Cognition
 Thinking, problem-solving, reasoning
 Algorithms vs heuristics
 Insight & creativity

6.3 Language
 Structure: phonemes, morphemes, syntax
 Theories:
o Chomsky → innate LAD
o Skinner → learning
 Stages of language development
6.4 Decision-Making
 Heuristics:
o Availability
o Representativeness
o Anchoring
 Biases: confirmation bias, hindsight bias

6.5 Intelligence
 Concepts: IQ, mental age
 Theories:
o Spearman (g factor)
o Gardner (multiple intelligences)
o Sternberg (triarchic theory)
 Tests: Stanford-Binet, WAIS

📘 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY — DETAILED NOTES (EXPANDED

VERSION)
(Perfect for last-minute revision + MCQ preparation)

1.1 Sensation (Expanded)

Sensation is the process by which sensory organs detect
physical energy (light, sound waves, pressure, chemicals)
from the environment and convert them into neural signals.
This conversion of physical energy → electrical signals is
called transduction.
Key Concepts (Exam-Focused)
 Absolute Threshold
Minimum intensity of a stimulus required to be detected
50% of the time.
Example: Smallest sound you can hear.
 Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference —
JND)
Minimum change in a stimulus needed to detect a
difference.
 Weber’s Law
JND increases in proportion to the magnitude of the
original stimulus.
Formula: ΔI / I = constant
 Signal Detection Theory
Detecting a weak signal depends on:
o Stimulus intensity
o Motivation
o Alertness
o Past experience
Outcomes: hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection.
1.2 Perception (Expanded)
Perception involves organizing and interpreting sensory
information so it becomes meaningful.
It depends on expectations, memory, attention, and context.
Types of Processing
 Bottom-up processing
Data-driven; perception starts at the sensory receptor
level.
 Top-down processing
Perception influenced by prior knowledge, beliefs,
experiences, and expectations.
Example: Reading a messy handwriting based on
context.
Gestalt Principles (VERY IMPORTANT for MCQs)
The mind organizes visual input into meaningful wholes:
1. Proximity – things close together are grouped.
2. Similarity – similar items grouped together.
3. Closure – mind fills gaps in incomplete images.
4. Continuity – smooth, continuous patterns perceived.
5. Figure-Ground – separating object (figure) from
background.

1.3 Attention (Expanded)

Attention refers to the selective concentration on specific
stimuli while ignoring others.
Types of Attention
 Selective Attention
Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others.
Cocktail-party effect: hearing your name in noise.
 Divided Attention
Ability to process more than one stimulus at a time
(multitasking).
Performance decreases with complexity.
 Sustained Attention (Vigilance)
Maintaining focus for long periods.
Example: air traffic controllers.
 Shift Attention
Switching focus between tasks (task-switching).

1.4 Learning (Expanded)

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour due
to experience.
1. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
Learning through association.
 US → UR (food → salivation)
 CS + US → CR (bell + food → salivation)
 CS → CR (bell → salivation)
Important concepts:
 Acquisition
  Extinction
 Spontaneous recovery
 Generalization
 Discrimination

2. Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Learning through consequences.
 Reinforcement → increases behaviour
o Positive reinforcement → adding a reward
o Negative reinforcement → removing an unpleasant
stimulus
 Punishment → decreases behaviour
o Positive punishment → adding something
unpleasant
o Negative punishment → removing something
pleasant
Schedules of Reinforcement (important):
 Fixed ratio
 Variable ratio (highest resistance to extinction)
 Fixed interval
 Variable interval

3. Observational Learning (Bandura)

Learning by observing and imitating others.
Processes: attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.
Famous study: Bobo doll experiment.

1.5 Memory (Expanded)

Memory involves encoding, storage, and retrieval of
information.
Stages of Memory
1. Sensory Memory
o Holds information for a few seconds.
o Types: iconic (visual), echoic (auditory)
2. Short-Term Memory (STM)
o Duration: 20–30 seconds
o Capacity: 7 ± 2 items
o Uses rehearsal to retain information.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
o Unlimited capacity
o Relatively permanent

Types of LTM
Explicit (Declarative) Memory
Conscious recall
 Semantic – facts, knowledge
  Episodic – personal experiences
Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory
Unconscious
 Procedural – skills, habits
 Priming
 Conditioned responses

Forgetting
 Decay – fading of memory over time
 Interference
o Proactive – old interferes with new
o Retroactive – new interferes with old
 Retrieval failure – tip-of-the-tongue
 Encoding failure – never learned properly

1.6 Motivation (Expanded)

Motivation refers to internal states that activate and direct
behaviour.
Major Theories
 Drive-Reduction Theory
Needs create a drive → organism seeks to reduce drive.
 Incentive Theory
Behaviour motivated by external rewards.
  Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological → safety → love/belonging → esteem →
self-actualization
 Cognitive Theories
Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation
Expectancy-value theory

1.7 Emotion (Expanded)

Emotion involves:
1. Physiological arousal
2. Expressive behavior
3. Conscious experience
Major Theories of Emotion
 James-Lange Theory
Stimulus → physiological change → emotion
(“I feel sad because I am crying”)
 Cannon-Bard Theory
Emotion and bodily responses occur simultaneously.
 Schachter–Singer Two-Factor Theory
Emotion = physiological arousal + cognitive label
Example: Same arousal → fear or excitement depending
on interpretation.
2 — BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY (Detailed)
2.1 Neurons & Neural Communication
Definition: Neurons are the basic signaling cells of the
nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit
electrochemical signals.
Major parts & functions
 Dendrites — receive incoming signals (many, branching).
 Soma (cell body) — metabolic center; integrates signals.
 Axon — long fibre that transmits action potentials away
from the soma.
 Myelin sheath — fatty insulation around axons
(Schwann cells in PNS, oligodendrocytes in CNS);
increases conduction speed via saltatory conduction.
 Axon terminals (terminal boutons) — release
neurotransmitter into the synapse.
 Synapse (synaptic cleft) — tiny gap between neurons
where chemical transmission occurs.
Action potential (stepwise):
1. Resting potential ≈ –70 mV (Na⁺ outside, K⁺ inside).
2. Depolarization: stimulus → Na⁺ channels open → Na⁺
influx.
3. Threshold reached → action potential (all-or-none).
4. Repolarization: K⁺ efflux.
5. Hyperpolarization / Refractory period → neuron briefly
cannot fire again.
6. Sodium–potassium pump restores ionic balance.
Synaptic transmission:
 Arrival of AP → Ca²⁺ influx at terminal → vesicles fuse →
neurotransmitter release → binds post-synaptic
receptors → excitatory (EPSP) or inhibitory (IPSP).
 Reuptake / enzymatic degradation remove
neurotransmitter.
Major neurotransmitters (high-yield)
 Dopamine (DA): reward, motor control, motivation.
Clinical: ↑ linked to psychosis/schizophrenia
(mesolimbic), ↓ linked to Parkinson’s (nigrostriatal).
 Serotonin (5-HT): mood, sleep, appetite; low →
depression, anxiety.
 GABA: main inhibitory NT; low → anxiety, seizures.
 Glutamate: main excitatory NT; learning & memory
(LTP). Excess → excitotoxicity.
 Acetylcholine (ACh): neuromuscular junction, learning &
memory; loss → Alzheimer’s.
Neuron types
 Sensory (afferent) — from periphery → CNS.
 Motor (efferent) — CNS → muscles/glands.
 Interneurons — within CNS, connect neurons.
Exam tips / mnemonics
 “All-or-none” = action potential: fires full or not at all.
  Mnemonic for NTs: SAD-GA → Serotonin, Acetylcholine,
Dopamine, GABA, Glutamate, Adrenaline
(norepinephrine).

2.2 Nervous System Organization

Overview: Divided into Central Nervous System (CNS) and
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
CNS
 Brain — higher functions.
 Spinal cord — reflexes, conduit between body and brain.
PNS
 Somatic nervous system — sensory & voluntary motor
control (skeletal muscles).
 Autonomic nervous system (ANS) — regulates
involuntary functions: heart, digestion, glands.
o Sympathetic (“fight-or-flight”): increases heart rate,
dilates pupils, mobilizes energy (adrenaline).
o Parasympathetic (“rest-and-digest”): conserves
energy, stimulates digestion.
Reflex arc (simple):
Receptor → sensory neuron → interneuron (spinal cord) →
motor neuron → effector (muscle). (Clinical relevance: deep
tendon reflex testing.)
Clinical links
  Damage to peripheral nerves → weakness, loss of
sensation.
 Autonomic dysregulation → orthostatic hypotension,
panic physiology.
Exam tip
 Remember sympathetic = S for stress; parasympathetic
= P for peace.

2.3 Brain Structure (major regions & functions)

Macro-division: Hindbrain → Midbrain → Forebrain.
Hindbrain
 Medulla oblongata: autonomic functions — breathing,
heart rate, reflexes (vomit, swallow).
 Pons: relay between cortex and cerebellum; role in sleep
regulation.
 Cerebellum: coordination of voluntary movement,
balance, motor learning (not cognition per se).
Midbrain
 Reticular formation: arousal, wakefulness, filtering
sensory info (reticular activating system).
 Substantia nigra: dopamine neurons involved in
movement (Parkinson’s pathology).
Forebrain
 Thalamus: sensory relay station (except olfaction).
  Hypothalamus: homeostasis (hunger, thirst,
temperature), controls pituitary (hormones).
 Limbic system: emotion & memory. Key structures:
o Amygdala — fear, emotional learning.
o Hippocampus — consolidation of declarative
(episodic) memory.
 Basal ganglia: movement initiation, habit formation.
 Cerebral cortex (neocortex): folded outer layer — higher
cognition. Lobes:
o Frontal lobe: executive functions, planning, motor
cortex (precentral gyrus), Broca’s area (speech
production, typically left).
o Parietal lobe: somatosensory cortex (postcentral
gyrus), spatial processing.
o Temporal lobe: auditory processing, Wernicke’s
area (language comprehension), memory (medial
temporal structures).
o Occipital lobe: visual processing.
Hemispheric specialization
 Left: language, analytic tasks (most people).
 Right: spatial processing, face recognition, gestalt
perception.
Neuroplasticity
  Brain’s ability to reorganize after injury; basis for
learning and recovery.
Neuroimaging (quick)
 EEG: electrical activity (sleep stages, seizures).
 CT / MRI: structural imaging.
 fMRI / PET: functional imaging (blood flow, metabolic
activity).
Exam tips
 Hippocampus → H for history (episodic memory).
 Amygdala → A for alert/fear.

2.4 Endocrine System

Definition: Network of glands that secrete hormones into
bloodstream to regulate physiology & behavior.
Major glands
 Hypothalamus: integrates neural & endocrine systems;
controls pituitary.
 Pituitary (master gland): anterior releases ACTH, TSH,
FSH, LH, GH, prolactin; posterior releases ADH, oxytocin.
 Adrenal glands: adrenal medulla
(epinephrine/norepinephrine — rapid stress response),
adrenal cortex (cortisol — longer-term stress).
 Thyroid: thyroxine (T4) regulates metabolism; hypo →
slow, depression-like; hyper → anxiety, weight loss.
  Pancreas: insulin & glucagon (glucose regulation).
Clinical relevance
 HPA axis (hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal) — central to
stress response and PTSD/depression pathophysiology.
 Endocrine imbalances can mimic psychiatric symptoms
(e.g., hyperthyroidism → anxiety).
Quick recall
 Pituitary → think growth & reproduction; adrenal →
stress; thyroid → metabolism.

3 — PERSONALITY & SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (Detailed)

3.1 Personality Theories
Definition: Personality = consistent patterns of thinking,
feeling, and behaving.
Major theoretical approaches (high-yield)
1. Psychoanalytic (Freud)
 Structure: id (pleasure principle), ego (reality principle),
superego (morality).
 Emphasis on unconscious motives, early childhood
experiences, psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic,
latency, genital).
 Mechanisms: defense mechanisms (repression,
projection, denial, rationalization, displacement).
  Clinical: psychoanalytic therapy (free association,
transference).
2. Trait Theories
 Focus on measurable traits that are stable across
situations.
 Big Five (OCEAN): Openness, Conscientiousness,
Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.
 Eysenck: three-factor model (PEN: Psychoticism,
Extraversion, Neuroticism).
 Cattell: 16 personality factors (16PF).
3. Humanistic
 Maslow: hierarchy of needs → self-actualization highest.
 Rogers: concept of self, unconditional positive regard,
congruence vs. incongruence.
 Emphasis on free will, growth, intrinsic motivation,
therapist warmth.
4. Behavioral / Social Learning
 Personality as learned patterns via reinforcement,
punishment, and modeling (Bandura).
 Reciprocal determinism: person, behaviour,
environment interact.
5. Biological / Temperament
 Genetic contributions to temperament (activity level,
emotionality); heritability studies, twin studies.
Clinical links
 Personality disorders conceptualized as maladaptive trait
constellations (DSM criteria).
Exam tips
 Know OCEAN definitions and examples.
 Defense mechanisms: be able to identify example
scenarios.

3.2 Personality Assessment

Purpose: Measure personality traits, psychopathology
indicators, and dynamics.
Types of instruments
 Objective tests (structured): standardized scoring →
higher reliability.
o MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory): measures clinical syndromes; validity
scales detect faking.
o 16PF: measures 16 primary personality factors.
o NEO-PI-R: measures Big Five traits.
 Projective tests (unstructured): ambiguous stimuli →
reveal unconscious aspects (criticized for low reliability).
o Rorschach inkblot test — interpretations of
inkblots.
 o TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) — stories told
about ambiguous pictures.
 Interviews & Behavioral observation: clinical interviews
(structured/semi-structured), naturalistic observation.
Psychometric properties
 Reliability: consistency (test–retest, internal
consistency).
 Validity: does the test measure what it intends?
(construct, criterion, content).
 Standardization: norms for interpretation;
administration instructions.
Practical notes
 MMPI: used for diagnosis and forensic contexts;
interpret with caution in diverse cultural backgrounds.
Projective tests: useful clinically for hypothesis generation, not as sole diagnostic tool.
Exam tips
 Remember reliability vs validity distinction and
examples of each.

3.3 Social Psychology Concepts

Scope: How people think about, influence, and relate to one
another.
Attitudes & Persuasion
 Attitude components: cognitive, affective, behavioural
(ABC).
  Persuasion models:
o Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM): two routes to
persuasion — central (careful processing) vs
peripheral (cues).
o Cognitive dissonance (Festinger): inconsistency
between attitudes & behavior creates discomfort →
leads to attitude change or rationalization.
Social Influence
 Conformity (Asch): adjusting behaviour/belief to match
group norm; influenced by group size, unanimity, task
difficulty, culture.
 Obedience (Milgram): compliance with authority;
situational factors strongly influence obedience.
 Compliance techniques: foot-in-the-door, door-in-the-
face, low-ball.
Group Processes & Dynamics
 Groupthink: desire for harmony leads to poor decisions
(symptoms: self-censorship, illusion of unanimity).
 Social facilitation: presence of others enhances simple
tasks, impairs complex tasks.
 Social loafing: individuals exert less effort in group tasks
when not individually accountable.
Attribution Theory
 Internal (dispositional) vs external (situational)
attributions.
  Fundamental attribution error (FAE): tendency to over-
attribute others’ behaviour to disposition and under-
estimate situational factors.
 Actor-observer bias: we attribute our own actions to
situations, others’ to dispositions.
 Self-serving bias: take credit for successes, blame
external factors for failures.
Prejudice, Stereotypes & Discrimination
 Stereotype: cognitive schema about a group.
 Prejudice: affective/emotional prejudice toward group.
 Discrimination: behavioural consequences (treatment).
 Causes: in-group/out-group bias, social learning,
authoritarian personality, realistic conflict.
Prosocial Behavior & Helping
 Altruism vs egoistic helping.
 Factors affecting helping: bystander effect (diffusion of
responsibility), perceived cost, similarity, mood.
 Kin selection and reciprocal altruism explain
evolutionary bases.
Aggression & Prosocial
 Biological influences: testosterone, serotonin levels.
 Social influences: frustration-aggression hypothesis,
media exposure, social learning.
Application to clinical practice
  Social influence knowledge helps understand group
therapy dynamics, patient compliance, stigma reduction.
Exam tips & quick facts
 Asch → conformity; Milgram → obedience; Zimbardo →
role influence (Stanford Prison).
 ELM: central = lasting persuasion; peripheral = short-
term.
 Bystander effect: remember Kitty Genovese case often
used in MCQs.

Quick Revision Cards (one-liners to memorize)

 Hippocampus = memory consolidation; Amygdala =
fear.
 Sympathetic = stress (SNS); Parasympathetic = relax
(PNS).
 Dopamine ↑ → reward/psychosis; ↓ → Parkinson’s.
 MMPI = objective; Rorschach = projective.
 OCEAN = Big Five.
 Asch (conformity), Milgram (obedience), Bandura
(modeling).
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY — Extremely Detailed Notes

4.1 Concepts of Normality & Abnormality

Understanding abnormality is central in clinical psychology.
Psychologists use multiple criteria:

1. Statistical Deviation
 Behavior is considered abnormal if it is rare or
infrequent in a population.
 Example: IQ below 70 (2% of population) → considered
abnormal.
Limit: Some rare traits are desirable (e.g., high IQ).

2. Social Norm Violation

 Abnormality defined by breaking societal rules, cultural
expectations, or norms.
 Example: Talking loudly to oneself in public.
Limit: Norms vary across cultures (cultural relativity).

3. Maladaptive Behavior
 Behavior that interferes with daily functioning, work,
relationships, or self-care.
 Example: Avoiding all social contact → maladaptive.
This is the most clinically accepted criterion.

4. Personal Distress
 Individual experiences unhappiness, anxiety,
depression, fear, etc.
  Even if behavior looks normal to others, distress
indicates abnormality.

5. Dysfunction
 Difficulty performing major life activities:
o Work
o Social relationships
o Daily tasks
Used widely in DSM-5 & ICD-11.

6. Cultural & Contextual Considerations

 Behavior must be judged considering:
o Age (e.g., tantrums in toddlers vs adults)
o Culture
o Life circumstances

4.2 Classification Systems

In clinical psychology, two major diagnostic systems are used
worldwide.

DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorders, 5th Edition)
 Published by American Psychiatric Association (APA)
 Most commonly used in clinical psychology
  Organizes disorders based on:
o Symptoms
o Duration
o Functional impairment
 Uses a categorical approach (present/not present).
 Over 300 disorders.

ICD-11 (International Classification of Diseases, 11th Edition)

 Published by World Health Organization (WHO)
 Used internationally (including India).
 Broader medical classification that includes both
physical and mental disorders.

Why classifications are needed?

 Helps communication among clinicians.
 Guides treatment planning.
 Allows research consistency.
 Helps insurance/medical documentation.

4.3 Major Psychological Disorders (Exam High Yield)

Below are the MOST frequently tested disorders.

A. Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety = excessive worry, fear, tension.

1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

 Continuous, exaggerated worry for 6+ months.
 Symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, irritability, muscle
tension.

2. Phobias
 Irrational, intense fear of objects/situations.
Types:
 Specific phobia (e.g., fear of animals)
 Social anxiety disorder (fear of being judged)
 Agoraphobia (fear of open/public places)

3. Panic Disorder
 Sudden panic attacks: heart pounding, sweating,
trembling, fear of dying.

B. Mood Disorders

1. Depression (Major Depressive Disorder)

Symptoms (≥2 weeks):
 Low mood
 Loss of interest
  Sleep change
 Appetite change
 Fatigue
 Suicidal thoughts

2. Bipolar Disorder
Characterized by manic + depressive episodes.
Mania symptoms:
 Elevated mood
 Increased energy
 Decreased sleep
 Risky behavior
 Rapid speech

C. Psychotic Disorders

Schizophrenia
Core features:
 Delusions (false beliefs)
 Hallucinations (false perceptions)
 Disorganized speech
 Flat affect
 Social withdrawal
  Impaired functioning
Hallucinations are mostly auditory.

D. Neurodevelopmental Disorders

1. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

 Impaired communication
 Poor social interaction
 Repetitive behaviors
 Early onset (childhood)

2. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Symptoms:
 Inattention
 Hyperactivity
 Impulsivity
Most common in school-age children.

E. Personality Disorders
Personality disorders = stable, inflexible patterns causing
distress.

1. Borderline Personality Disorder

 Instability in relationships
  Fear of abandonment
 Impulsive behavior
 Self-harm tendencies

2. Antisocial Personality Disorder

 No regard for rules
 Lack of guilt
 Aggression, deceit
 Often associated with criminal behavior

F. Somatic Symptom & Related Disorders

Illness Anxiety Disorder (Hypochondriasis)

 Preoccupation with having a serious illness
 Minimal/no physical symptoms

G. Trauma- & Stressor-Related Disorders

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Occurs after trauma (violence, accident, assault).
Symptoms:
 Intrusive memories/flashbacks
 Avoidance
  Negative mood
 Hyperarousal (jumpiness, irritability)

H. Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

 Presence of two or more identities
 Memory gaps
 Result of severe childhood trauma in most cases

I. Obsessive-Compulsive & Related Disorders

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

 Obsessions: unwanted thoughts (e.g., contamination
fear)
 Compulsions: repetitive behaviors (handwashing,
checking)
 Time consuming and distressing

4.4 Therapies

1. Psychodynamic Therapy (Freud)

 Focus on unconscious conflicts
 Uses:
 o Free association
o Dream analysis
o Transference

2. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

 Most evidence-based therapy
 Goal: change maladaptive thoughts and behaviors
 Effective for anxiety, depression, OCD.

3. Humanistic Therapy (Rogers)

 Focuses on self-growth
 Uses:
o Unconditional positive regard
o Empathy
o Genuineness

4. Behavior Therapy
 Based on classical & operant conditioning
 Techniques:
o Exposure therapy (for phobias & OCD)
o Systematic desensitization
o Reinforcement
5. Biological Treatments
 Medication
 Antidepressants (SSRIs)
 Antipsychotics
 Mood stabilizers
 ECT (for severe depression)
5. RESEARCH METHODS – Basic Techniques
5.1 Types of Research
 Experimental: cause-effect
 Correlational: relationships (r = +1 to –1)
 Descriptive: case study, observation, survey

5.2 Variables
 Independent variable (IV): manipulated
 Dependent variable (DV): measured
 Extraneous / Confounding variables

5.3 Sampling Techniques

 Random
 Stratified
 Systematic
 Convenience sampling
5.4 Hypothesis Types
 Null hypothesis (H0)
 Research hypothesis (H1)
 Directional & non-directional

5.5 Data
 Quantitative vs Qualitative
 Levels of measurement:
o Nominal
o Ordinal
o Interval
o Ratio

5.6 Basic Statistics

 Mean, median, mode
 Standard deviation
 Correlation
 t-test, chi-square (concepts)
6. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY — Detailed Concepts
6.1 Memory Processes
 Encoding, storage, retrieval
 LTM: semantic, episodic, procedural
  STM capacity (Miller’s 7±2)
 Forgetting theories

6.2 Cognition
 Thinking, problem-solving, reasoning
 Algorithms vs heuristics
 Insight & creativity

6.3 Language
 Structure: phonemes, morphemes, syntax
 Theories:
o Chomsky → innate LAD
o Skinner → learning
 Stages of language development

6.4 Decision-Making
 Heuristics:
o Availability
o Representativeness
o Anchoring
 Biases: confirmation bias, hindsight bias

6.5 Intelligence
 Concepts: IQ, mental age
 Theories:
o Spearman (g factor)
o Gardner (multiple intelligences)
o Sternberg (triarchic theory)
 Tests: Stanford-Binet, WAIS