INTRODUCTION

The art of world's each civilization is the emblematic of his consciousness and

conceptual flow. Dr. H. L. Sharma told the art as a scale of any nation’s culture

with reference of Pitirim Sorokin.1 Human had begun to manifest his feelings from the

beginning of civilization. They ever displayed their artistry by stone tool, and ever his

artistic interest reveal by making of bone tools and sculptures. In this sequence, they

embellished to the rock shelters with scribbles in the Mesolithic period. Respectively

human's capacity of artistic expression beyond the line sketching had begun to be

reflected in pottery drawings, which were gradually developed in the art of seal, stamps

and molded coins. But exploratory human mind was not satisfied enough. So, they were

started to embellish to their houses, which were most essential element of the daily life,

with their creative potential. The resulting the architectural art had emerged, which

provided later the shelter to the other various arts. In the words of Banister Fletcher, the

architecture can be described as the printing press of all ages.2 One of India's diverse arts;

the architecture is the most developed and grand.

The status of religious architecture in Indian architecture is premier in terms of

artistry, which was constructed in almost all of religions and sects. It seems that, in the

initial stage the architecture was very plain and without any ornamentation, but later their

construction plan and adornment were developed with the development of their

respective religion and sects in the society. Innovative Developed architectural styles

where one side looks philosophical aspect in which the abandonment of worldliness and

is trying to establish the glory of the divine element, on the other side the artist has given

ample space to the joy of physical life. Sometimes later ancient Indian architectures are
1
Dr. Hardwari Lal Sharma, ‘Sunderam’, Lucknow-1975, Preface, Page-11-12.
2
Banister Fletcher, A history of architecture on the comparative method, Preface, Page-4.
force to think about the artist's purpose and motivation source. What was the idea, which

gave inspiration for built temples like Deogarh’s Dashavatara to Kandaria Mahadev

Temple? Like this, the many question will be try to solve in this research work. For that,

requires look at the architectural evolution and the various elements of respectively

development in the Indian context.

One of the various aspects of human evolution the position of architecture is

distinct and important. Each creature of world has sense of comfort and self-defense,

which gives

inspiration of arrangement of shelter to their security and habitat. Nests of birds,

beehive and insect's Cells are the good example for the same. This consciousness would

be relatively high in human beings due to their exploratory instincts. The search of

habitat for protection by wild creatures and natural inconveniences was developed as

Architecture in the course of time. Along with the development of human culture, the

tradition of building making had taken form of art by the regular practice and oral

transfer of acquired knowledge. This tradition later gave the birth to architectural art. The

development process of architectural art might be encouraged by desires of best habitat,

resources and the shelter with various facilities.3 Vastospati sources in Rigveda is

envisaged that –

vāstos pate prati jānīhy asmān svāveśo anamīvo bhavā nah|

yat tvemahe prati tan no jusasva śam nobhava dvipada śam castuspade ||
vāstos pate pratarano na edhi gayasphāno gobhir aśvebhir indo|
ajarāsas te sakhye syāma piteva putrān prati no jusasva ||
vāstos pate śagmayā samsadā te saksīmahi ranvayā gātumatyā |
pāhi ksema uta yoge varman no yūyam pāta svastibhih sadā nah ||4

(Acknowledge us, O Guardian of the Homestead: bring no disease, and give us happy

3
Dr. Shri Krishna Jugnoo and Prof. Bhanwar Sharma, Editor and Translater, Samràngansutradhàr.
4
Rigveda, 7.54.1-3, Tattírìya Samhita, [Link]
entrance. Whatever we ask of thee, be pleased to grant it, and prosper thou quadrupeds

and bipeds. Protector of the Home, be our promoter: increase our wealth in kine and

steeds, O Indu. May we be ever-youthful in thy friendship: be pleased in us as in his sons

a father. Through thy dear fellowships that bring the welfare, may we be victors,

Guardian of the Dwelling! Protect our happiness in rest and labour. Preserve us

evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.)5

According
.” to Dr. Parameshwari Lal Gupta- “Architecture is the name of building6

and craft science”

In the context of Indian Sanskrit literature; the word ‘Vastu’ is originate from

‘vâs’ of Sanskrit Language, which means 'populate or inhabit'. Since any residence has

need the building, therefore 'architecture' implies is 'habitable house or to dwell’.

‘Sthàpátya’ word is also used as a synonym for the ‘Vastu’.7 In reference to the origin

of ‘Vastu’, Matsya Purana mentions very interesting plot. According to the description of

the Matsya Purana – “A most terrifying creature born from the Shiva transpiration, which

was wandering in universe and extremely ravenous. He fell on earth after gaining

strength to eat whole universe by Lord Shiva. At the same time, he was frozen by the

gods, monsters, demons, and Brahma and Shiva. By which the part was astriction, the

part made his dwelling place. Thus, he became famous as ‘Vastu’ due to inhabited by

all the gods.” 8 The term ‘Architecture’ is used in Anglo language. It is the alteration

of the Greek-language two words- 'arki (major) + 'Tektan' (producer) = i.e. 'Arkitektan'

(major leading) the alteration. It noted that building is a ‘special place’ and the owner

or master of all of its construction-related knowledge was said as ‘Sthàpatì’. Thus,

his creation became said as ‘Sthapatya’.9

5
Ralph T. H. Griffith, The Hymns of the Rigveda, 2nd edition, Kotagiri (Nilgiri) 1896.
6
Dr. Parmeshwari Lal Gupta, Bhartiya Vastu Kala, Page-1.
7
Dr. Pankajlata Srivastava, Prachin Bhartiya Itihas, Page-166.
8
Matsya Puran, 252.5-14.
9
U. N. Rai, Bhartiya Stapatya ewam Kala, Page-9
 In ancient India; on the one hand led to the creation of serious fundamental texts

on the subject of Architecture, while its subsidiary subjects, sculpture, statue

characteristic iconography and portrait art subjects were also documented in detail.

Approximately 117 books were written in ancient India, which was related with

architectural science. The following books are remarkable of them: Vrihatsamhita,

Manasara, Màyàmàtàm, Samrãngàn- sõtradhãr, Vishnudharmottar Puran, Shilpratnàsãr

and Vishwkarmiya Prakãsh. Additionally; the architectural references in texts are

available in Vedic literature, Agni Puran, Matsya Puran, Kamikagam,

Anshumadbhedagam, Suprbhedagam, Roopmandan etc.10

Human attempted to communicate not only with their surrounded nature in the

order of development of civilization, but also tried to express their memories and

fantasies through art. The process of creative expression of human, which was started

from making of stone tools, appeared as the opulent architecture by a gradual journey

respectively, rock-arts, various sculptures, seals, etc. The historicity of architecture is

similar to human civilization. If we looked at the history of architecture, the religious and

secular architecture has two obvious differences appear. This is clear that proverbial

architecture will be developed first, thereafter religious architectural developed by

inspiration of religious sentiments. Nomadic human had taken shelter in natural rock

shelters, but they feel need of permanent residence with the development of agriculture

and animal husbandry. Human takes shelter in trees in early stage. This notion is strongly

supported by Vayu Purana, where stated that- "Before people used to the type of

accommodation in the shelter of the trees, so the houses simulate the same trees

repeatedly been deliberately constructed and planned. Tree branch way back and forth, up

and down, is spread around, so he and his men for dating spreading sticks made perfect

10
P. K. Aacharya, Maansaar series; Acharya Baldev, Puran Vimarsh, Page-312-313.
accommodation. Having configured the same way, like the branches of the tree houses

called "schools" were put. That was known as ‘home theatre’ because they are created in

the shape of the branch; here the "house" is the useful term. This is because the branches

of the ‘house’ and ‘Shalatw’ have become, from the house of the mind and the mind

amused peace to, the name of the home and the school 'chateau' is placed.11 "Tree

behuising beyond safe and permanent housing requires relatively little human will be

inspired to find accommodation in the rock shelters. Evidence of residence in caves by

humans in prehistoric times received from Harnihar, Mirzapur, Sinhanpur, Manikapur,

Panchmadhi, Adamgadh, Dharmapuri, Chitrakoot, Sheopur, Chakradharpur,

Bhimbathaka etc. places.12 In order the process of exploring new behuising practices

formed pit-hole. Pit-holes were constructed trough making pit in the ground, covered

with reeds and branches of trees. 16 pit-holes evidence of such mills received from the

Neolithic site Burjahom near Srinagar in India.13 By this time the man had entered the era

of rural civilization. Thereafter thriving human pit-holes out of the bamboo poles with

overhead-built as residential structures. Built of straw huts in the same order in the mud

wall was an attempt to create a more robust. I sense the art of fire and cooking utensils

respectively raw brick and concrete began. After the Stone Age in India; chalcolithic

Indus civilization witnessed large-scale use of bricks, albeit bamboo ceilings, Bally etc.

constituted only. Indus civilization again after a period of rural civilization came into

existence, the raw clay and straw-built houses and the position of pre-mauryan period

persisted.14

From India's perspective, the Mauryan period, a new era in architectural

11
Vayu Puran, 8.122-127
12
Dr. Pankajlata Srivastava, ibid, page-166.
13
D. K. Bhattacharya, Bhartiya Pragaitihaas ki Rooprekha, Page-141-143.
14
V. K. Tiwari, Prachin Bhartiya Smaarako ka Sanrakshan: takniki ewam pravidhiyan, page-252
construction. Wood Work was at its peak during this period. Using wooden building,

basilica, etc. were built and fortified. In this context, the Kingdom of Pataliputra and

security-walled palace is remarkable.15 After Mauryan period and its tradition of

building magnificent architecture in India has a history in which both secular and

religious architecture appear in abundance built, although the evidence-format

architecture religious architecture remaining in the same abundance. Who advanced to

the current evidence is still aaryaavart to proclaim cultural heritage.

After Mauryan period the influence of Buddhism was established in society from

the first century to until early Gupta period. Several architectures were constructed under

influence of Buddhism. Which were mainly stupa, monasteries and shrines. Then again

the architectural art comes to its peak in the Gupta period. During this period, along with

the rise of Vaishnavism temple architecture also flourished. It is quite natural that this

period shall be other architectural work would be done but unfortunately those are not

available at present. Dashavatara temple of Deogarh near Jhansi in about the sixth

century is the best sample of Gupta period architecture. The temple is one of the earliest

Hindu stone temples still surviving today. Built in the late Gupta Period, Vishnu Temple

shows the ornate and beauty seen in Gupta style architecture. In this temple the iron

spikenards were used to prevent the stone bricks.16 In the Middle Ages was a period

of religious regeneration India. Architectural development in the art of building with

little competition, the then kings and rulers of the temple had begun. Many architectural

related literatures were also composed. The architectural complex rules which have been

introduced. 17

The architectural art received adequate protection by Chalukya and Pallava king
15
A. L. Basham, The wonder; that was India, Page-252-253.
16
A. L. Basham, The wonder; that was India, Page-256-257
17
ibid.
during the middle age of six to eighth century. The early temples of Pallava dynasty are

located at Mamallpuram and Kanchi. The apogee of Pallava architecture appears in the

Shor and Kailash temple, which are respectivily located at Mamallpuram and Kanchi.

Pallava architecture re-developed during the period of tenth-twelfth century in the regime

of Cholas. Brihadeshwara temple of Tanjaur builted by Rajaraja is the best example

of this period, which is the largest temple of its time. After Cholas; Pandya rulers

developed innovative architecture, which is known as the Pandyan style. The temples of

Madurai and Srirangam are remarkable in this style.

Many other concurrent styles were developed in Indian architectural art with

these styles. In which; styles of Chalukya, Hoysala and Rashtrakuta rulers as well as the

important temple styles of Orissa and Vijaya nagar were developed. The architecture of

Chandel Kings of Bundelkhand, attract a separate attention in sequence to mention the

diverse styles of the temple at the time of the tenth-eleventh century. The evidences of

this architectural style exist at Khajuraho about 100 miles to the southeast from Jhansi.

It seems by observation of architectural development that house construction had

become a key element in developed human civilization. Several elements of towns and

villages were come in existence. Land selection, measurement and other element

were developed in the work of building construction.18 Under the influence of

religious rites special buildings began erected for worship. After coming into force of

religious architecture, Indian architecture was divided into two categories- proverbial and

religious. Village, town, variety of residential buildings, roads and forts etc. can be

placed under the proverbial architecture. The main elements of the city, the insertion is

discussed in the literature, among them land-examination, land-collection, Direction

18
K. D. Bajpayee, Bhartiya Vastukala ka Itihaas, Pg. - 2.
(Dikprichchhed), ground configuration (Pãd Vinyàs), Sacrifice (Bali karma Vidhàn),

village or town-configuration, land legislation (different floor buildings), entrance-

legislation (Gopur vidhàn), pavilion-legislation (house- building) and Royal palace

legislation (Ràjvéshma vidhàn) are prominent.19 The construction details of Town (Pùr)

are also described in Ramayana, Mahabharata, Manasara, Maymat, and Samrangan-

sutradhaar.20 The architecture with religious sentiment other than public purposes

dwelling, they are part of the religious architecture. In later time, the temple became the

main symbol of religious architecture.

The initial overview of the literary sources is essential to understand the

architecture's nature and evolution in the Indian context. The oldest evidence of Indian

architecture comes from Rig-Veda21 Yaksha-Sadma is mentioned in Rig Veda on a

place which indicates to Yajan which was valid as god. 22 In addition to the Rigveda,

Yajurveda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda are also received indications of architecture.

The Shatpatha Brahmin mentioned that the Agnidravya (Agnishala) is covered around

with mat, which was open only in east for the purpose of entrance gate. 23 In Tattiriya

samhita, The sancotorum word is used for these kind of hermitage.24 According to

Apastamb Srautsutra, the sacrificial altar isolated from the external environment by it. 25

According to Dr. Bajpai "there were three parts of Vedic buildings. The first part was the

home gateway, included with front courtyard. The second part was meeting hall,

which was named as 'Sabha' and 'Asthan Mandap' also. The third was called as

19
Vinod Bihari Dutta, Town and planning in Ancient India, Pg. - 13-14.
20
Vinod Bihari Datta, ibid, Pg. - 15-16.
21
K. D. Bajpayee, Bhartiya Vastukala ka Itihaas, Pg. -2.
22
Rig Veda, 4.3.13.
23
Shatpatha Brahmin, 3.1.22, 3.6.1-2.
24
Tattiriya Samhita, 6.2.55
25
Apastamb Srautsutra, 10.5.1
‘Patni-Sadan’ or ‘Antah Pur’. The Aryans have reserved a room or place in the

building, called as 'Agnishala'. which was named as 'Devgriha' in Chateau. Later in the

buildings was developed as a house of worship."26 Tattiriy Aranyaka has been used the

term ‘Dhandhani’ for it.27

Sage Agatsya was mentioned in Rig Veda as an architectural hierophant. Rig

Veda refers to origin from pitcher of two saints, named as 'Maan' and 'Vshishtha'.28 Sayan

considered to 'Maan' as second name of 'Kumbhaj' (Agatsya). Remember, this is believed that

Agastya was originated by pitcher. A meaning of 'Maan' also is ‘measurement’; it's possible

that Agastya was concerned with Vedic architecture.29 Rig Veda mentions Twshata and

Hribhu the craftsmen, who had built Vajra for Indra.30 During the Vedic period; sacrifice,

veneration and invocation of the gods were an important part of religious rituals, so that

sacrificially actions were more common in Vedic society. Consequently, the requirement of

religious architecture will be bolstered.31 Although; only sacrificial altars and yagya

shala's evidence has been found as religious architecture in this period. Sacrificial altar

was built by mixing of soil, straw and dung; 32 while possibly yajan shala was built with

bamboo and straw etc.33 Percy Brown has attempted to determine the outline of the Vedic

houses. According to him; “In the Vedic villages huts were of the beehive pattern made of a

circular wall of bamboos held together with bands of withes and covered either with a

26
K. D. Bajpayee, ibid, Pg. – 35.
27
Tatttiriya Aranyak, 10.67
28
Rig veda, 1.33.13
29
Tarapad Bhattacharya, a study of Vastuvidya, Pg.-13
30
Rig veda, 1.32.2
31
U. N. Ray, ibid, Pg.-11; Dr. Pankajlata Srivastava, Prachin Bhartiya Itihaas, Pg.-168.
32
U. N. Ray, ibid, Pg.-11
33
Dr. Pankajlata Srivastava, ibid, pg.-168
domical roof of leaves or thatched with grass. A remarkable illustration of this may be seen in

the interior of the rock-cut Sudama cell in the Barabar hill group, where every detail of

timber construction is copied in the living rock. At a later date in evolution of the Vedic hut the

circular plan was elongated into an oval with a barrel roof formed on a frame of bent bamboos

also covered with thatch. Soon some of these huts were arranged in threes and fours around a

squared courtyard and the roofs covered with planks of wood or tiles. In the better class houses

unbaked bricks were used for the walls and the doorways were square-headed openings with

double doors. One device to maintain to barrel shape of the roof was to stretch a thong or withe

across the end of the arch like the cord of the bow, in a word an embryo tie-rod. This contrivance

constricted the cord of the arch and produced a shape resembling a horseshoe, a type of archway,

commonly referred to as the ‘chaitya’ or ‘sun-window’, which become characteristic of the

subsequent architectures of the Buddhists. It will be seen therefore, that a very ancient usage

underlies many of these village forms, which is significant in view of theensuing structural

developments.” 34 A cave is located at Banglamota 15 km. north from Kananoor in Malabaar

which is in semi-circular shape and has an open space in the roof like as chimney.35 Similarly,

the combination of certain of the caves in the hills Nagarjuni andBarabar had been produced.

In the words of R. K. Mukharji- “The Indians have borrowed the knowledge of architecture and

its science from the established technique construction method of Vedic altars and Yajya

shalas."36

Dr. Parmeshwari Lal Gupta refer to the usage of many words like as Prasad,

Devayatan, Dev Grih, Dev Sthaan, Dev Kul etc. in Brahmins, Sutra, Mahabharat and

Ramayan subsequently of the Vedic literature. Dr. Gupta presumes architectural

framework as given as below based on references such as Yaksha-bhawan, Yaksha-

chaitya, Yaksha- Aaytan in subsequent publications:-

1. A platform made of stone slab, with emblem or without emblem (Chàtwar)

34
Percy Brown, Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu period), Pg. -3.
35
Dr. Parmeshwari Lal Gupta, Bhartiya Vastu Kala, Pg.-26.
36
R. K. Mukharji, Hindu Civilization, Pg.-324.
 2. A platform under a ciborium made of stone slab, with emblem or without emblem

(Chhàtra Chatwar)

3. A platform made of stone slab surrounded by fences (Wãtak)

4. platform made of stone slab within the pillared architecture (Mandap)

5. A platform within the house made of stone slab (Grihà or Chaityà)37

Agam and Puranas expand the worship of idol of various gods, thereby paved the

way for the construction of sculptures and temples. It was necessary to establish the

nature of the edifice and idols of the gods with the development of idol worship.38

The earliest instructions of architecture science are found in all classes of Indian

literature. Dwijendra Nath Shukla had been divided into six sections to the architecture

related literature.39

1. Purana

2. Agam

3. Tantra

4. Pratistha Granth

5. Neeti Granth

6. Shilp Granth; He also mentioned the literature in these sections which are:-

A. Purana

1. Agni Purana

2. Garun Puran

3. Narad Puran

4. Brahmand Puran

37
Dr. Parmeshwari Lal Gupta, ibid, Pg.-68.
38
Dwijendra Nath Shukla, Bhartiya sthaptya, Pg.- 636.
39
Dwijendra Nath Shukla, ibid, Pg.- 635-641.
 5. Bhavishya Puran

6. Matsya puran

7. Linga Purana

8. Vayu Purana

9. Skanda Purana

In addition to these principal Puranas; the architectural instructions are also

mentioned in Brahmavaivarta Puran, Brihaddharm Puran, Devipuran, Harivansha Puran,

Kalika Purana, the Padm Purana, Vishnu Purana and Vishnudharmottar Puran.

B. Agam

1. Anshumdbhedagam

2. Kamikagam

3. Kãrnagam

4. Vaikhansagam

5. Suprbedhagm

The number of agam is 28, but in addition to the above the terms of architectural

discipline are also describe in the Kirnagam, Shaiwagm, Kãlottragam and Shaivagam

Nibandhan.

C. Tantra:

1. Gandharva Tantra

2. Hyashispanchratra Tantra

3. Gyanavarn Tantra

4. Kaulavli Tantra

5. Kulavarn Tantra
 6. Mahakapil Pancharātra

7. Nirvana Tantra

8. Meru Tantra

9. Prantoshini Tantra

10. Purushcharyaarnav Tantra

11. Tantralok

12. Tantraraj Tantra

13. Tantra Samuchchaya

14. Tantra Sar

15. Vishnu Samhita

D. Pratishtha Granth:

1. Aramadipratishta Paddhati

2. Ishanshivgurudev Paddhati

3. Kupadijalsthan Lakshan

4. Ksheeraarnav

5. Devalaya Lakshan

6. Pratishtha Tattva

7. Pratishtha Tantra

8. Mathpratishta Tattva

9. Raghunandan Mathpratishta

10. Shardatilak

11. Smurtarchnadikarn (Atri Samhita)

12. Hemadrichturhwarg-
Chintamani J. Shilpa Granth:

1. Agastya Sakladhikar

2. Aprajitprichchha

3. Bhuvanpradeep

4. Vrihachchilpshastra

5. Kashyapshilp

6. Manasara

7. Mansollas

8. Mnushyaly-chandrika

9. Maymat

10. Pauranik Vastushantiprayog

11. Prayogmanjari

12. Prayogparijat

13. Rupmandan

14. Smrangnsutrdhar

15. Shilpratn

16. Shilpa Shastra (Narada)

17. Vastu Muktavli

18. Vashtupurushvidhan (Narada)

19. Vashturajvallabh

20. Vastu Sangrah

21. Vastu Shastra (Vishwakarma)

22. Vastu Vidya

23. Viswakarm Vidyaprkash

 There are other 24 texts in addition to the above, whose study or full publication

has not been edited. Ankashastra, Aprajit Vastushastra, anshumat, Anshuman Kalp,

Vinod Aagar, Aayadi Lakshan, Aay Tattva, Abhilsitarth-Chintamani, kautuk Lakshan,

Kriya sangrah panchika, Ksheeraarnv, Gargya samhita, Grih-nirupan-sankshep, grih-

nirmaan-vidhi, Grih peethika, Grih vastu pradeep, Gopur vimanadi lakshan, Gram

nirmaan, Ghtotsarg-Suchanika, chakra shastra, Chitrkarm Shilpa Shastra, Chitra lakshan,

Chitra sutra, Jaymadhav-Mansollas, Jalargal and Jalargl yantra are remarkable texts of

them.40 Besides the above; the details about architecture are available in astrological

treatise Vrihtsnhita (Warahi) and policy texts Shukra-Nitisar and Kautilya Arthashastra.

In addition to literature, the early formats of temples are also to see in ancient

statues, seals, coins, etc. Dr. Gupta noted many coins of this type which are marked with

symbols of Chaitya, column containing the archway and circular multistoried Temples. 41

According to K. D. Bajpayi, "the temple or fane at the beginning were made as a

simple and plain. The statue was set up on some height from ground. Then around the

railing were made.42 Bajpayi admits to religious motivation in the beginning of

construction of the temple. According to him, "there was idolatry at its origin.” 43 The

temples were made to conserve to sculptures of gods, kings and loved one. Such

buildings of this type were described in Pratima Natak of Great poet Bhas, where

were the statues of their ancestors showed to Bharat Kumar.44 Along with the

development of temple architecture, the various factors of aesthetic sense were

conjoined with it. For example: - the sculptures of gandharva couple, nymph and
40
Dwijendra Nath Shukla, ibid, Pg.- 637.
41
Dr. Parmeshwari Lal Gupta, ibid, Pg.- 69-74.
42
K. D. Bajpayi, Bhartiya Vastukala ka itihas, Pg.- 2-3.
43
K. D. Bajpayi, ibid, Pg.- 3-4.
44
Pratima natak, translated by Baldev Shastri Nyayteerth, Pg.- 37-40.
demigod began to be marking at the door of the temple. Sense of aesthetic adornment in

the ancient Indian architects can be estimated spontaneous by observation of Buddhist

and Jain architecture, where the marking of demigod, nymph and couples is

innately. The stupa of Sanchi and Nagarjuni Kond are prime examples.45

In the context of above, it occurs in the innate curiosity to know those factors

which influence the spiritual purpose-built temples had the beauty explanatory factors.

So, the basic aim of this research work is focused on the impact of culture and society on

the Indian temple in the special reference of Nagar style temples. There has been a lot of

research into Hindu temple architecture, but it is realized that many aspects of this subject

is still unexplored. This study attempts to collate all the existing research that has been

undertaken in this field, and potentially contribute to the existing body of knowledge

through a structural analysis of Hindu Temple architecture.

This dissertation presents the philosophical and practical aspects that govern the

construction of a Hindu temple building with the aim to understand how it influenced the

form of the Hindu temple in its evolutionary process. The various stages of temple

construction and construction techniques that have been employed in temple construction

since ancient times has been studied not only though archival research but also through a

comparative study of these important aspects and their relevance in modern day Hindu

temple construction.

45
Dr. Parmeshwari Lal Gupta, ibid. Pg.-75.
 OBJECTIVES

Finally the research aims to present a dimensional study of temples taken from

different time periods from the northern and the southern styles respectively for the safety

assessment of the temples.

Therefore the objective of the research is as follows-

1. Understand the basic concept of Hinduism and its relevance on the design and

construction of Hindu temple architecture.

2. Present a study of the concept of a Hindu temple, its evolution, development of

its architectural styles along their materials of construction with the main focus on

Nagara or North Indian style.

3. Identify and synthesize the geometry and structural systems of Hindu temple

architecture with examples from the Nagara or ‘north Indian style’ and Dravidian

or the ‘south Indian style’ Hindu temples.

4. Studying the material characteristic, construction techniques and process involved

in the construction of a Hindu temple.

5. Dimensional study of the temples with respect to the simple indexes for the safety

assessment of the structure.

This dissertation is based on archival research and other documentary, literary

works and theoretical investigation on ancient treatise and modern research works on the

temple architecture of India.

The archival research has helped to bring out the basic concept of Hinduism and

how it influenced the design of Hindu temple architecture. The Vastushastra and

Shilpshastra along with other general manuals on Hindu architecture have been referred
to highlight the concepts that have been adopted since ancient times for the construction

of the sacred Hindu temples.

This dissertation brings out the differences in the form and scale of the Hindu

temple with the help of examples from the ‘north Indian style’ and the ‘south Indian

style’ temples, highlighting that though the elements of Indian temples may differ across

regions they were all based on a single philosophy of design. The design philosophy of

the Hindu temple is based on concepts of Hindu cosmology i.e. the divine

‘Vastupurushamandala’. The influence of this basic divine concept on the layout of the

temple plan and its external and internal forms and features is further explained with the

examples of temples of the ‘north Indian style and the south Indian style’ from different

time periods.

A study of the plan of the Hindu temple and various other elements of the temple

along with the form and sizes in which they evolved over centuries of temple

development form the basis for understanding the structural basis for adopting certain

traditional construction techniques for the construction of these temples.

This dissertation also presents the construction technology of the Hindu temple the

processes involved during its construction, the human skills required and methods

utilized by architects and their team. Together these aspects bring out the art, science and

philosophy behind the construction of the Hindu temple.

The dimensional study with respect to the simple indexes analysed in the dissertation is

an attempt to look into the safety assessment of the Hindu temple structure. Studies have

been conducted from the drawings and information available in the books, journals and

websites.
 The scope of this dissertation is mainly the Nagara ‘north Indian style’ and the

Dravidian ‘south Indian style’ temple architecture, the two major forms of temple

architecture styles that marked the high point of Hindu temple architecture in India. It

looks into aspects of their origin and development, the philosophy which created them

and the way in which this philosophy can be interpreted for better understanding of the

structure itself and the time and society that created them. However in this study the

root of the Hindu temples i.e. the Buddhists temples is not covered. Also, since the Jain

temples are not fundamentally different from the Hindu temple architecture in that they

differ in the iconography rather than form and style, it has also not been included in the

scope of the present study.

This study also does not take into account the details of different types, forms and

architectural features developed amongst the ‘Nagara’ and the ‘Dravidian’ style. The

study is primarily limited to temple construction in stone and not those built with other

materials like wood and brick. The study does not include the temples constructed

of wood from the regions of Kerala and the foot hills of Himalayas. The stone temples

from the Kashmir region which have their own distinct style, the early rock cut

architecture temples and temples built during the 14th century and later which developed

new forms due to the fusion of two different cultures is also not included here. The

dimensional study of the temples was restricted to few examples from the north and the

south temples due to the limited availability of the required information and drawings.