BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION
FAILURES,DECAY AND DAMAGE

BY,
[Link] MARRU
INTRODUCTION
In today’s fast rising era where the thing of the future boils down to a country’s
ability to establish world class infrastructures and magnificent skyscrapers-
construction builders, engineers and architects consider the most important aspect of
the project itself, the structural stability.
Recently if we notice present problems facing by civil engineers, first and foremost
thing is building failures and its collapse.
Before considering failures let me ask
- From where the concept of factor of safety came?
- Why we are particular about fire safety in buildings?
- Can any anyone tell me why every civil engineer has to follow certain code for design?
FAILURES
There are numerous causes for a structural failure, and there is a requirement for a
proper analysis of all the factors before construction.
Building components tend to fail at different rates depending on the materials,
designs, method of construction, environmental conditions and the use to which the
building is put.
Substandard materials and design errors are identified as major causes of
component failure.
The causes of building collapse can be classified as-
1. Cracks and corrosion
2. Thermal changes
3. Bad Design
4. Faulty Construction
5. Foundation Failure
6. Fire accidents
7. Extraordinary Loads and many more..
CRACKS AND CORROSIONS
A properly designed and constructed concrete is initially water-tight and the reinforcement
steel within it is well protected by a physical barrier of concrete cover which has low
permeability and high density.
Concrete also gives steel within it a chemical protection.
Steel will not corrode as long as concrete around it is impervious and does not allow moisture
or chlorides to penetrate within the cover area.
Steel corrosion will also not occur as long as concrete surrounding it is alkaline in nature having
a high pH value.
Due to wetting and drying cycles, heating and cooling cycles, loading and unloading cycles,
cyclic loading, leaching of lime and most importantly additions and alterations done on the
structures, isolated cracks, voids, entrapped air and large capillary pores get interconnected
and external moisture and chlorides find their way to reinforcement steel and corrosion starts.
 CORROSION INHIBITORS CORROSION PROMOTERS
High quality concrete Oxygen
High ph value(12-13) Water
Concrete protects steel from corrosion Stray electrical currents
Uneven chemical environment around
reinforcement
Environments that lower pH value
Chlorides

Corrosion is a electro chemical process requiring an anode , a cathode , and an electrolyte.

A moist concrete matrix forms an acceptable electrolyte , and the steel reinforcement provides the
anode and cathode.
In good quality concrete the corrosion rate will be very slow.
Accelerated corrosion takes place mainly because of
Alkalinity
Carbonation
Chloride
Dissimilar metals
Alkalinity:
Alkali-aggregate reactions may create expansions
and severe caracking of concrete structures and
pavements.
Certain aggregates such as reactive forms of silica,
react with potassium, sodium, and calcium hydroxide
from the cement and form a gel around the reacting
aggregates.
When the gel is exposed to moisture the aggregate
is exposed to moisture, it expands creating forces
that cause tension cracks to form around the
aggregate.
Once the cracking has formed more moisture
penetrates the concrete, accelerating the alkali
aggregate reaction and allowing additional freeze
thaw damage.
Carbonation:
Carbonation of concrete is a reaction of acidic gases in
the atmosphere and the products of cement hydration.
Normal air contains carbon dioxide (CO2) in relatively
low concentrations (0.03%).
The level of CO2 in industrial atmospheres is, higher.
Carbon dioxide penetrates into the pores of concrete by
diffusion and reacts with the calcium hydroxide dissolved
in the pore water.
As a result of this reaction, the alkalinity of concrete is
reduced to a pH value of about 10, and, consequently,
concrete protection of the reinforcing steel is lost.
The passivity of the protective layer on steel is destroyed.
When steel is depassivated and the environment is acidic
or mildly alkaline, corrosion begins if moisture and oxygen
gain access into the concrete.¹
Chloride penetration:
Chlorides can be introduced into concrete by coming into contact with environments containing
chlorides, such as sea water or de-icing salts.
Penetration of the chlorides starts at the surface, then moves inward.
Penetration takes time, depending upon:
1. The amount of chlorides coming into contact with the concrete.
2. The permeability of the concrete.
3. The amount of moisture present.

Eventually the concentration of chlorides in contact with the reinforcing steel will cause corrosion when
moisture and oxygen are present.
As the rust layer builds, tensile forces generated by expansion of the oxide cause the concrete to
crack and delaminate.
Spalling of the delamination occurs if the natural forces of gravity or traffic wheel loads act on the
loose concrete.
When cracking and delamination progress, accelerated corrosion takes place because of easy access
of corrosive salts, oxygen, and moisture.
Corrosion then begins to affect rebars buried further within the concrete.
The concentration of chlorides necessary to promote corrosion, among other factors, is greatly
affected by the concrete's pH.
It was demonstrated that a threshold level of 8,000 ppm of chloride ions was required to initiate
corrosion when the pH was 13.2. As the pH was lowered to 11.6, corrosion was initiated with only 71
ppm of chloride ions.
THERMAL CHANGES
Temperature gradients exist in many structures. The temperature of the deck slab exposed to direct sunlight
may reach 48 °C , while the underside of the deck slab may be only 26 °C.
A 22 °C difference known as diurnal solar heating. This causes the top surface to have a tendency to
expand more than the bottom surface. This results in a upward movement during heating and downward
movement during cooling
Diurnal solar heating affects structures differently depending on the configuration. Simple span structures
deflect up and down and are free to rotate at end supports. Continuous spans behave differently because
they are not free to rotate at end supports. If enough thermal gradient exists along with insufficient tensile
capacity in the bottom of the member, a hinge may form. Hinges forms randomly in newly formed cracks or
near construction joints of the columns. Hinges open and close with daily temperature changes.
Restrain to volume changes:-
If a structural member is free to deform as a result of changes in temperature, moisture or loads, there is no
build-up of internal stress. If the structure is restrained, stress build-up occurs and can be very significant.
The stress may result in tension cracks, shear cracks, and buckling.
BAD DESIGN
Bad design includes not only errors of computation, but failure to take into account all
the loads the structure should be able to carry for the building's intended use.
Prudent design is based on established theories, reliance on accurate data,
cognizance of the effects of repeated or impulsive stresses, and proper choice of
materials based on in-depth understanding of their properties.
Failures many a time enters a building project at the drawing board itself due to lack
of due diligence by the engineer. A case in point is the Singapore New World Hotel
collapse cited where the structural engineer blundered by forgetting to consider the
dead load of building itself in the 'design loads'!
FAULTY
CONSTRUCTION
Faulty construction perhaps is the most important cause of structural failure.
The lack of proper construction supervision and timely inspection by engineer &
architect is a key contributor.
Some faulty practices to be firmly checked and stopped are the use of salty sand to
make concrete, the substitution of inferior steel for that specified, bad riveting,
improper tightening torque on nuts, excessive use of the drift pin to make holes line
up, bad welds, and all such practices well known as taboo in construction field.
FOUNDATION
FAILURE
Houses and commercial buildings usually look very solid. Built SIGNS:-
with concrete, and beams, it’s hard to imagine what could cause Cracks in walls and floors;
them to crack and shift other than an earth quake. Doors and windows that won’t open;
A foundation rightly designed is a pre-requisite for every Stairs that come away from porches,
structure to stand on, with ability to bear loads that the Chimneys that separate from the house
structure is carrying. The earth beneath the building should be siding, and much more…..
(or made such) that structural loads can be sustained.
There are many causes of foundation failure, here are the five
main ones.
1. Soil type – especially expansive clay soil
2. Poorly compacted fill material
3. Slope failure, mass wasting
4. Erosion
5. Poor construction
FIRE ACCIDENTS
Fire affects concrete in extreme ways, some of which are listed below-
a) Uneven volume changes in affected members, resulted in DISTORTION, BUCKLING &
CRACKING.
b) Spalling of rapidly expanding concrete surfaces from extreme heat near the source of fire.
Some aggregates expand in bursts, spalling the adjacent matrix. Moisture rapidly changes to
steam, causing localized bursting of small pieces of concrete.
c) The cement mortar converts to quick lime at temperatures of 400oC, thereby causing
disintegration of the concrete.
d) Reinforcing steel loses tensile capacity as temperature rises.
e) Once the reinforcing steel is exposed to the spalling action, steel expands more rapidly
than the surrounding concrete, causing buckling and loss of bond to adjacent concrete where
the reinforcement is fully encased.
DECAY
Decay in old buildings is the progressive deterioration of a structure, which occurs
over time due to various factors. Natural aging is a primary contributor, as materials
used in construction may weaken or degrade over decades or centuries. Exposure to
environmental elements such as sunlight, moisture, temperature fluctuations, and
pollution can accelerate this decay.
Decay can compromise the building's structural integrity and aesthetic appeal,
requiring maintenance and restoration efforts to preserve its historical and functional
value.
TYPES OF DECAY IN OLD BUILDINGS
[Link] Stain / Harmful Growth
[Link] of Mortar Joints
[Link] Paint
[Link] Installation of Air-Conditioning Units
[Link] Plastered Rendering
[Link] of Walls / Leaning Walls
[Link] Rainwater Goods
[Link] Floorboards
[Link] or Termite Attacks
[Link] Defects
[Link] Penetration Through Walls
[Link] Foundations
[Link] stain / harmful growth:
• Fungal stain or mould usually occurs when there is
a presence of water or high moisture content in
masonry walls.
• It can easily flourish in environmental conditions
of high humidity and lack of ventilation.
• Fungal stain can be seen on wall surfaces of a
bathroom, kitchen, near rainwater goods including
down pipes and gutters; and at washing areas.
[Link] of mortar joints:
•The main function of a mortar joint is to even out
irregularities of individual blocks, whether they be
of stones or bricks.
•At the same time it provides some adhesion
between the blocks.
•Causes to the erosion of mortar joints include a
presence of salt crystallization, scouring action of
winds; and disintegrating effects of plant growing
on a wall or water penetration leading to the
concentrations of moisture and dampness.
[Link] paint:
• Peeling paint usually occurs on building facades,
mainly on plastered walls, columns and other areas
which are exposed to excessive rain and dampness.
•This is because the amount of constant wind, rain and
sun received can easily turn the surfaces of the paint to
be chalky and wrinkled or blistered.
•In many historic buildings, there are layers of paints
being applied on plastered walls.
•Apart from lime wash, there are many types of paints
used on wall surfaces including emulsion, oil-based, tar,
bituminous and oil-bound water paint. All of these
require different methods of removing depending on
the nature and conditions of the paints.
[Link] installation of air-conditioning units:
•Depending on the building function, structures and
the effects on building fabric, one should consider
three main aspects before deciding to install the
air-conditioning units in any historic buildings-
•Firstly, the cooler and drier air produced by the
air-conditioning systems may possibly cause
shrinkage of building materials.
•Secondly, there will be a possibility of
condensation either on the surfaces or within the
structure of the fabric. This allows the build-up of
mould or fungal stains.
•Thirdly, there may be problems of installation
which include difficulties in installing the units.
[Link] plastered rendering:
•In many historic buildings, defective plastered
rendering occurs mostly on external walls, columns
and ceiling.
•The defects are normally caused by biological
attacks due to rain, evaporation, condensation, air
pollution, dehydration and thermal stress.
•Other causes may come from mould or harmful
growth, insects, animals and traffic vibration.
[Link] of walls / leaning walls:
•Cracks in wall, either vertical or diagonal, are
common symptoms of structural instability.
•Diagonal cracks --- widest at the foundations and
may end at the corner of a building - often occur
when shallow foundations are laid on shrinkable
sub-soil that is drier than normal or when there is
a physical uplifting action of main roots of a
large tree close to the walls.
[Link] rainwater goods:
•Common problems associated with the defective
rainwater goods include sagging or missing eaves
gutters, corroded or broken galvanized iron down
pipes or leaking rainwater heads.
•Lack of proper fixings of the wall, particularly by
means of projecting lead ears or lugs can cause
instability to the down pipes.
[Link] floorboards:
•Timber floorboards are widely used in many
historic buildings
•The main causes to the deterioration are insect
and termite attacks, careless lifting of weakened
boards by occupants, electricians or plumbers;
lack of natural seasoning and preservatives, and
corroded nails.
[Link] or termite attacks:
•Timber has been widely used in many historic
buildings. It can deteriorate easily if it is exposed
to water penetration, high moisture content and
loading beyond its capacity.
•Insect or termite attacks usually happen in a
damp and digestible timber which can be found in
elements such as wall plates, the feet of rafters
and bearing ends of beams and trusses and in all
timbers which are placed against or built into
damp walling.
[Link] defects:
•Common defects of roof tiles include the corrosion
of nails fixing the tiles to battens and rafters, the
decay of battens; cracking of tiles which may be
caused by harmful growth or walk upon.
•The harmful growth is quite dangerous to the tiles
because it may lift the tiles and create leaks.
[Link] penetration through walls:
•Dampness penetration through walls can be a serious
matter, particularly to the buildings which are located
close to water sources.
•It can cause not only deterioration to the building
structures but damages to furnishings and contents as
well.
•Water penetration occurs commonly through walls
exposed to prevailing wet wind or rain.
•Dampness may also occur in walls because of other
factors such as leaking gutters or down pipes, defective
drains, burst plumbing and condensation due to
inadequate ventilation.
•Dampness may also enter a building from the ground
through cracks or mortar joints in the foundation walls.
[Link] foundations:
•Foundations are a part of a building which distributes
loads from roofs, walls and floors on to the earth below.
•Most of the common problems occured in the
foundations depend on the geology of the ground upon
which a building stands and is surrounded by, structural
failures; and presence and height of a water table.
•Unstable foundations may occur because of several
reasons including --- shrinking clay soil(occurs when sub
soil is drying and water table is low) ---penetration of
dampness and water that may decay walls and
foundations ---presence of large trees near the building
--- the undertaking of extensive excavations or mining
nearby ---landslides caused by heavy rain, heavy
construction near a historic building --- traffic
vibrations, deteriorating of building materials and the
increased loads, particularly when there are changes in
building function.
FACTORS THAT GOVERN BUILDING DECAYS
There are 5 factors that govern building defects or problems:
[Link] Conditions
[Link] of Building
[Link] Type and Change in Use
[Link] of Building
[Link] Age
[Link] Conditions:
Fungal stain, harmful growth, peeling paint, erosion of mortar joints and defective plastered rendering
are a few examples associated with this factor.
[Link] of Building
• Buildings that are located near the sea or rivers tend to have common building defects. This is
because the water coming from the ground causes dampness penetration and structural instability.
• For example, during the conservation work of the Sultan Abdul Samad Building in Kuala Lumpur,
damp-proof courses had to be installed in order to prevent rising water coming from nearby Gombak
River
[Link] Type and Change in Use
• Most historic buildings that maintain their original functions or uses appear to have less problem
internally, even though there were symptoms of building defects found on the external fabric.
• Buildings that change their use and spaces should consider the effect of the new use on the existing
structure. This is because historic buildings were built to only hold certain loads and sometimes may not
withstand additional loads.
[Link] of Building
• Historic buildings that neglect building maintenance may fall into several defects which may lead to
structural failures.
• To secure the general structural stability and life of a building, it is important to regularly inspect not
only the main structural elements including foundations, walls and roofs; but other common building
problems.

[Link] Age
• All elements of historic buildings tend to deteriorate at a lesser or greater rate depending upon their
location and function.
• Aging building materials, particularly timber should be checked once there are signs of fungal and
termite attacks
STEPS FOR PRELIMINARY INSPECTION
1. Climate surroundings
2. Location of structure
3. Building type
4. Age of the building
5. Physical inspection
DAMAGE
Physical harm that impairs the value, usefulness, or normal function of something
Damage can take various forms depending on its cause and the affected object or structure.
Here are some common types of damages:
[Link] Damage: This includes any harm to the load-bearing elements of a building, such
as foundation cracks, damaged beams or columns, and structural instability.
[Link] Damage: Water infiltration can result in a range of issues, including leaks, mold
growth, and rot. It may affect walls, ceilings, floors, and the building's overall structure.
[Link] Damage: Fire can cause extensive damage to buildings, including charring of materials,
structural weakening, and smoke damage.
[Link] Damage: Environmental factors like UV radiation, temperature fluctuations,
pollution, and chemical exposure can lead to material degradation, fading, and corrosion
[Link] and Graffiti: Deliberate acts of vandalism, such as graffiti or destruction of
property, can damage a building's appearance and surfaces.
[Link] Damage: Pest infestations, fungi, and mold can harm building materials,
impacting both aesthetics and structural integrity.
[Link] and Tear: Over time, buildings naturally experience wear and tear from usage,
foot traffic, and aging materials. This can affect the appearance and functionality of the
structure.
[Link] Damage: Accidents like vehicle collisions, impacts, or falls can result in
damage to building components.
[Link] Preservation Damage: Damage and deterioration of historical buildings
require special attention and restoration techniques to preserve their historical and
architectural value.
[Link] Damage: Architects may consider sustainability-related damages, such
as energy inefficiency, inadequate insulation, or environmentally unfriendly building
materials, when designing or retrofitting buildings.
SEVERITIES OF DAMAGE
The kind of faults that can occur in building from the Cracks in walls Wall separation
manufacturing stage to the usage and maintenance stage include
the following:
1. Crushing of column.
2. Sagging of slabs panels,
3. staircases and beams
4. Cracks on structural elements,slabs, beams and columns
5. Even-settlement and differential settlement.
Roof collapse Multiple fractures
6. Collapse of part of the building.
7. Total collapse of the building.
 BAD DESIGN

FAULTY CONSTRUCTION

FAILURES SHEET-1A
CRACKS AND CORROSION THERMAL CHANGES

FAILURES SHEET-1
ASSIGNMENT 1
[Link] short notes on:
a)Decay and damage in buildings with neat sketches.
b)Preliminary inspection steps in detail
[Link] the differences between decay and damage
 THANK YOU

[Link] arru