MODULE 3

UNIT 2: DC MOTORS

Definition:

These machines convert d.c. electrical power into mechanical power. The construction of both the
types of d.c. machines basically remains same.

Principle of Operation of D.C. Motors:

The principle of operation of a d.c motor can be stated in a single statement as ‘when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. In a practical d.c. motor, field
winding produces a required magnetic field while armature conductors play a role of a current carrying
conductors and hence armature conductors experience a force.

Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in the Figure 1. Now this conductor
is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a particular direction.

Fig. 1: Conductor in a magnetic field Fig. 2: Flux produced by current carrying conductor

Consider that it carries a current away from an observer as shown in the Figure 2. Any current carrying
conductor produces its own magnetic field around it, hence this conductor also produces its own flux, around.
The direction of this flux can be determined by right hand thumb rule. (Flux around the conductor is in
clockwise direction.)

Now there are two fluxes present,

1. The flux produced by the permanent magnet called main flux.

2. The flux produced by the current carrying conductor. As shown in figure 3

Fig 3: Interaction of two fluxes

 From this, it is clear that on one side of the conductor, both the fluxes are in the same direction. In this
case, on the left of the conductor there is gathering of the flux lines as two fluxes help each other. As against
this, on the right of the conductor, the two fluxes are in opposite direction and hence try to cancel each other.
Due to this, the density of the flux lines in this area gets weakened. So, on the left, there exists high flux
density area while on the right of the conductor there exists low flux density area as shown in the Figure 4.

Fig 4: Force experienced by the conductor

This flux distribution around the conductor acts like a stretched rubber band under tension. This exerts
a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density area towards low flux density area, i.e.
from left to right for the case considered as shown in the Figure 4.

There are many conductors housed on the armature, all the armature conductors, mounted on the
periphery of the armature drum, get subjected to the mechanical force simultaneously. Due to this, overall
armature experiences a twisting force called torque and armature of the motor starts rotating.

The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor in a motor is given by,

F= B l I Newtons (N)

Where,B = Flux density due to the flux produced by the field winding.

l = Active length of the conductor.

I = Magnitude of the current passing through the conductor.

The direction of such force i.e. the direction of rotation of a motor can be determined by Fleming's
left-hand rule.

Back E.M.F in a DC Motor:

After motoring action there exists a generating action. Armature conductors cuts the flux, hence there
is an induced emf in the rotating armature conductors according to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic
induction. Such an induced e.m.f is always opposing the very cause for it, i.e. it opposes the supply voltage V
(according Lenz’s Law). Hence it is called as back e.m.f and it is denoted by 𝐸𝑏. The magnitude can be
determined by the e.m.f equation.

∅𝐏𝐍𝐙
𝐄𝐛 = 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬
𝟔𝟎𝐀
 The e.m.f is shown schematically in the figure 5. So if V is the supply voltage in volts Ra is the value
of the armature resistance, the equivalent electric circuit can be shown as in the figure 6.

Fig 5: Back emf in dc motor Fig 6: Equivalent Circuit

Significance of the Back E.M.F:

 Due to the presence of back emf the dc motor becomes a regulating machine i.e. motor adjusts itself
to draw the armature current just enough to satisfy the load demand.
 The basic principle of this fact is that the back emf is propotional to speed, Eb α N.
 When load is suddenly put on to the motor, motor tries to slow down. So speed of the motor reduces
due to which back emf also decreases. So the net voltage across the armature (V-Eb )increases and
motor draws more armature current.
 Due to increased armature current, force experienced by the conductors and hence the torque on the
armature increases. The increase in the torque is just sufficient to satisfy increased load demand.
 When load on the motor is decreased, the speed of the motor tries to increase. Hence back emf
increases. This cause (V-Eb ) to reduce which eventually reduces the current drawn by the armature.
The motor speed stops increasing when the armature current is just enough to produce the less torque
required by the new load.
 So back emf regulates the flow of armature current and it automatically alters the armature current to
meet the load requirement. This is the practical significance of back emf.
 At start the speed N of the motor is zero hence the back emf is also zero.

Voltage Equation of D.C Motor

In case of D.C Motor, supply voltage V has to overcome back e.m.f 𝐸𝑏 which opposes the supply
voltage and also various drops such as armature drop IaRa and brush drop Vbrush.

V = Eb + IaRa + Vbrush Volts

Expressing the above equation in terms of back e.m.f

Eb = V- IaRa - Vbrush Volts

The back e.m.f always less than supply voltage (Eb < V)
The armature current can be calculated as

V−Eb
Ia = Amps
Ra

Power Equation of a D.C Motor:

The voltage equation of D.C motor is given by (neglecting the brush drop)

Eb = V- IaRa

Multiplying both sides of the above equation by Ia

EbIa = VIa - Ia2 Ra

This Equation is called power equation of a d.c. motor

VIa = Net electrical power input to the armature measured in watts or kilo watts

Ia2 Ra = Armature copper loss or power loss due to armature resistance.

EbIa = Electrical equivalent of gross mechanical power developed by the armature. This is denoted by Pm.

Gross mechanical power developed Pm = EbIa Watts

Torque Equation of a D.C. Motor

Let us consider the circular wheel of radius R meters acted upon by a circumferential force F newton as shown
in the Figure.

The wheel is rotating at a speed of N R.P.M

2𝜋𝑁
The angular speed of the wheel is ω = rad/sec
60

60
Time required for one revolution = ----------(1)
𝑁

So, workdone is one revolution is,

W = Force X distance travelled in one revolution

W= F X 2πR Joules ------(2)

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
Power developed = P = ----------(3)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Substitute equation (1) and (2) in Equation (3)

𝐹∗2πR 2𝜋𝑁
P = 60 = (F X R) --------(4)
60
𝑁

WKT. T = F X R--------(5)

Substitute equation (5) in equation (4)

2𝜋𝑁
P=T X ---------(6)
60

Let Ta be the gross torque developed by the armature of the motor and it is also called as armature torque. The
gross mechanical power developed in the armature is EbIa .(from the power equation).

Power in armature = armature torque X ω

EbIa = Ta X ω -----------(7)

2𝜋𝑁 ∅𝑃𝑁𝑍
w.k.t ω = and 𝐸𝑏 =
60 60𝐴

∅𝑃𝑁𝑍 2𝜋𝑁
Therefore, X Ia = Ta X
60𝐴 60

1 𝑃𝑍
Ta = 2𝜋 ∅ Ia X Nm
𝐴

𝑃𝑍
Ta = 0.159∅ Ia X Nm
𝐴

This is the equation for torque developed in armature of [Link]

Types of Torque in the Motor:

 While transmitting the power through the shaft, there is a power loss due to the friction, windage and
the iron loss. The torque required to overcome these losses is called lost torque, denoted as Tf. These
losses are also called stray losses.
 The torque which is available at the shaft for doing the useful work is known as load torque or shaft
torque denoted as Tsh and it is also called as useful torque.

Ta = Tf + Tsh
  Shaft torque is always less than armature torque (Tsh < Ta ).
 Power available at the shaft i.e. net output of the motor generally expressed in H.P, given by

Net power output Pout = Tsh X ω

Types of D.C. Motors

D.C motors are classified depending upon the way of connecting the field winding with the armature winding.

Figure: Types of DC Motors

1. D.C Shunt Motor:

In this type, the field winding is connected across the armature winding and the combination
is connected across the supply, as shown in the figure.
Rsh = Shunt Resistance,
Ra= Armature Resistance

Figure: DC Shunt Motor

Voltage and current relationship is given by
 𝐈𝐋 = 𝐈𝐚 + 𝐈𝐬𝐡
𝐕
 𝐈𝐬𝐡 = 𝐑
𝐬𝐡

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑽

 𝐄𝐛 = 𝐕 − 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚 − 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡
2. DC Series Motor:
In this type of motor, the series field winding is connected in series with the armature and the
supply, as shown in the figure.
R se =Series Resistance
Ra= Armature Resistance

Figure: DC Series Motor

Voltage and current relationship is given by
 𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐋 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞
 𝐄𝐛 = 𝐕 − 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚 − 𝐈𝐬𝐞 𝐑 𝐬𝐞 − 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡 Volts
𝐄𝐛 = 𝐕 − 𝐈𝐚 (𝐑 𝐚 + 𝐑 𝐬𝐞 ) − 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡 Volts
3. DC Compound Motor:
The compound motor consists of part of the field winding connected in series and part of the
field winding connected in parallel with armature. It is further classified as short shunt compound and
long shunt compound motor.
i. Long shunt d.c. compound motor:
In this type, the shunt field winding is connected across the combination of armature and the
series field winding as shown in figure.

Figure: Long shunt d.c. compound motor

Voltage and current relationship is given by
 𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞
 𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐋 − 𝐈𝐬𝐡
 𝐕
 𝐈𝐬𝐡 = 𝐑
𝐬𝐡

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑽

 𝐄𝐛 = 𝐕 − 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚 − 𝐈𝐬𝐞 𝐑 𝐬𝐞 − 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡 Volts

𝐄𝐛 = 𝐕 − 𝐈𝐚 (𝐑 𝐚 + 𝐑 𝐬𝐞 ) − 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡 Volts
ii. Short shunt d.c. compound motor:
In this type, the shunt field is connected purely in parallel with armature and the series field is
connected in series with this combination shown in the Figure.

Figure: Short shunt d.c. compound motor

Voltage and current relationship is given by
 𝐈𝐋 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞
 𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐋 − 𝐈𝐬𝐡
𝐄𝐛 +𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚
 𝐈𝐬𝐡 =
𝐑 𝐬𝐡

 𝐄𝐛 = 𝐕 − 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚 − 𝐈𝐋 𝐑 𝐬𝐞 − 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡 Volts
𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚 = 𝐕 − 𝐈𝐋 𝐑 𝐬𝐞 Volts
𝐈𝐬𝐡 𝐑 𝐬𝐡= 𝐕 – 𝐈𝐋 𝐑 𝐬𝐞
𝐕 −𝐈𝐋 𝐑 𝐬𝐞
𝐈𝐬𝐡 = 𝐑 𝐬𝐡

Speed of a DC Motor:

Voltage equation is given by

Eb = V − Ia R a ----------(1)

∅𝑃𝑁𝑍
Wkt Eb = ----------------(2)
60𝐴

Equating equation (1) and (2)

∅𝑃𝑁𝑍
= V − Ia R a
60𝐴

V−Ia Ra 60𝐴
N= ( 𝑍𝑃 )
∅
 Eb 60𝐴
N= ( 𝑍𝑃 )
∅

As Z, A and P are constant for a particular machine, the quantities within the brackets above can be
considered as constant K

Eb
Therefore, N = 𝐾 ∅

Eb
Nα ∅

Thus speed is directly proportional to the back Eb and inversely proportional to the flux ∅.

V−Ia Ra 60𝐴
wkt N= ( 𝑍𝑃 )
∅

This implies three things:

 Speed of the motor is directly proportional to supply voltage.

 The Speed of the motor is inversely proportional to armature voltage drop.
 The motor speed is inversely proportional to the flux due to the field findings

Thus, the speed of a DC motor can control in three ways:

 By varying the flux, and by varying the current through field winding
 By varying the armature voltage, and the armature resistance
 Through the supply voltage

Speed Control of DC Motor:

1. DC Shunt Motor:
I) Flux Control Method:

 The speed of a dc motor is inversely proportional to the flux per pole. Thus by decreasing the
flux, speed can be increased and vice versa.
1
Nα∅
  To control the flux, a rheostat is added in series with the field winding, as shown in the circuit
diagram. Adding more resistance in series with the field winding will increase the speed as it
decreases the flux.
 In shunt motors, as field current is relatively very small, Ish2R loss is small. Therefore, this
method is quite efficient.
 Though speed can be increased above the rated value by reducing flux with this method, it
puts a limit to maximum speed as weakening of field flux beyond a limit will adversely affect
the commutation.
II) Armature control method:

 This method is used when the speed below the no-load speed are required.
 Speed of a dc motor is directly proportional to the back emf Eb and Eb = V - IaRa.
 That means, when supply voltage V and the armature resistance Ra are kept constant, then the
speed is directly proportional to armature current Ia.
 Thus, if we add resistance in series with the armature, Ia decreases and, hence, the speed also
decreases.
 Greater the resistance in series with the armature, greater the decrease in speed
2. DC Series Motor:
1. Flux Control method:
Variations in the flux of a series motor can be brought about in any one of the following ways:
a. Field Divertors:
 The series winding are shunted by a variable resistance known as field divertor. Any desired
amount of current can be passed through the divertor by adjusting its resistance. Hence the flux
can be decreased and consequently the speed of the motor increased.
b. Armature Divertor:

A divertor across the armature can be used for giving speeds lower than the normal speed. For
a given constant load torque, if Ia is reduced due to armature divertor, the ∅ must increase. This
results in an increase in current taken from the supply, which increases the flux and a fall in
speed. The variation in speed can be controlled by varying the divertor resistance.
c. Trapped Field Control Field:

This method is often used in electric traction. The number of series filed turns in the circuit can
be changed. With full field, the motor runs at its minimum speed which can be raised in steps
by cutting out some of the series turns.
d. Paralleling Field Coils:

In this method. Used for fan motors, several speeds can be obtained by regrouping the field
coils. It is seen that for a 4 pole motor, three speeds can be obtained easily.
Characteristics of D.C Motor:

The performance of a d.c. motor under various conditions can be judged by the following
characteristics.

1. Torque-Armature current characteristics (Ta Vs Ia):

The graph showing the relationship between the torque and the armature current is called a
torque-armature current characteristic. These are also called electrical characteristics.
2. Speed-Armature current characteristics (N Vs Ia):
The graph showing the relationship between the speed and armature current characteristics.
3. Speed-Torque characteristics (N Vs Ta) :
The graph showing the relationship between the speed and the torque of the motor is called
speed-torque characteristics of the motor. These are also called mechanical characteristics.

Characteristics of D.C. Shunt motor:

 In dc shunt motor, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature.
 The line current I divides into two paths.
 Ish flows in the shunt field circuit and
 Ia in the armature circuit.
 It is to be noted that the field current is constant, since the winding is directly connected to the supply
voltage V, which is assumed to be constant. Hence the flux in a shunt motor is approximately constant.
1. Torque-Armature current characteristics (Ta Vs Ia):

In case d.c shunt motors w.k.t

Ta α ∅ Ia

For a constant values of Rsh and supply voltage V, Ish is also

constant and hence flux is also constant. ϕ= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
Taα Ia
Since armature torque directly proportional to armature current the characteristic is linear in nature.
Now if shaft torque is plotted against armature current, it is known that shaft torque is less than the
armature torque and the difference between the two is loss torque Tf as shown. It is clear from the curve
 that a large armature current is required to start a heavy load. Therefore shunt motor should not be started
on heavy load.

2. Speed-Armature current characteristics (N Vs Ia):

From the speed equation we get,

𝐄𝐛 𝐕 − 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚
𝐍𝛂 𝛂
∅ ∅

since flux φ is constant 𝐍 𝛂 𝐕 − 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚

From the above relationship it is clear that variation of armature current Ia doesn’t directly affects
the speed of d.c shunt motor. But as Ia increases, Ia R a drop increases, hence speed of the d.c motor slightly
decreases from No load to full load. So, the characteristics are slightly drooping in nature. D.C shunt motor
characteristics are fairly constants.

3. Speed-Torque characteristics (N Vs Ta) :

These characteristics can be derived from the above two
characteristics. This graph is similar to speed-armature current
characteristics as torque is proportional to the armature current.
Ta α 𝐈𝐚
𝐍 𝛂 𝐕 − 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚
As the torque varies, armature current Ia also varies hence Ia R a drop causes decrease in speed. This
curve shows that the speed almost remains constant though torque changes from no load to full load
conditions.

Characteristics of D.C. Series motor:

1. Torque-Armature current characteristics (Ta Vs Ia):

In the case of a series motor, Ia = IL = Ise
Flux ϕ α Ise α Ia
Ta α ϕIa α Ia 2
The torque in the case of a series motor is proportional to the
square of the armature current. This relation is parabolic in
nature till saturation point, after that torque varies linear w.r.t Ia
 2. Speed-Armature current characteristics (N Vs Ia):
From the speed equation, we get
𝐄𝐛 𝐕−𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚
𝐍𝛂 𝛂
∅ ∅

The effect of 𝐕 − 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚 is very small on speed compared to effect of

Ia on speed. Hence in the speed equation, Eb ≈ V and can be
assumed constant
𝟏
𝐍 𝛂𝐈
𝐚

So speed – armature current characteristics is rectangular hyperbola

3. Speed-Torque characteristics (N Vs Ta) :
In case of D.C Series motor,
Ta α Ia 2
𝟏
𝐍𝛂
𝐈𝐚
𝟏
𝐍𝛂
√𝐈𝐚
Since speed is inversely proportional to square root of armature
torque. Thus, the nature of the speed-torque characteristics is
similar to the nature of the speed – armature characteristics.

Application of DC Motor: