Management Process and Organization Behavior Unit 6

Unit 6 Emotions
Structure:
6.1 Introduction
Learning Objectives
6.2 Theories of Emotion
6.3 Certain Issues
6.4 Emotional Intelligence
6.5 Summary
6.6 Terminal Questions
6.7 Answers

6.1 Introduction
In the earlier units you have gained an understanding of different aspects of
personality.
In our day to day life we all come across the word “emotions”. They are an
important part of the human behavior and the interplay of emotions has a
big impact on the organization behavior as well.
In general, the term ‟emotion‟ is used to designate "a state of consciousness
having to do with the arousal of feelings (Webster‟s New World Dictionary)."
It is "distinguished from other mental states, from cognition, volition, and
awareness of physical sensation." Feeling refers to "any of the subjective
reactions, pleasant or unpleasant" that one may experience in a situation.
An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide
variety of feelings, thoughts, and behavior. Emotions are subjective
experiences, often associated with mood, temperament, personality, and
disposition. The English word 'emotion' is derived from the French word
émouvoir. This is based on the Latin emovere, where e- (variant of ex-)
means 'out'.
1. A mental state that arises spontaneously rather than through conscious
effort and is often accompanied by physiological changes; a feeling: the
emotions of joy, sorrow, reverence, hate, and love.
2. A state of mental agitation or disturbance: spoke unsteadily in a voice
that betrayed his emotion. See synonyms at feeling.
3. The part of the consciousness that involves feeling; sensibility

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Learning objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
 State the theories of emotion
 Discuss certain issues related to emotions
 Explain Emotional intelligence

6.2 Theories of Emotion

The word emotion is a composite formed from two Latin words. e(x)/out,
outward + motion/movement, action, gesture. This classical formation refers
to the motivational aspect that causes one to begin, continue, or end bodily
movements from a source often hidden from conscious inspection though
necessary even for rational actions. The scientific community applies the
term to any creature's activity that exhibits complex response traits similar to
that of a human. Alternatively some consider the outward movement to refer
to immediacy of action rather than motivational source.
I) James-Lange Theory (1890) [cited in Taylor, 1999]: Subjective
emotional responses are the result of physiological changes within
human bodies. The brain perceives an event and, in turn, sends
messages down its neural circuitry to other areas of the brain. This
action ultimately produces motor, autonomic and endocrine responses.
These responses elicit an emotional response, which in turn, is
perceived by the brain. Therefore, it is a cyclical process. This theory
argues that physiological behaviors precede the emotion.
II) Cannon-Bard theory (1927) [cited in Taylor, 1999]: Emotion-provoking
events induce the subjective emotional experiences and physiological
arousal simultaneously. Through experiences, individuals begin to
acquire certain expectations for every given situation. These
expectations provide a filter and every situation is processed through
this filter. During this process, brain produces the emotion and
corresponding physiological behaviors at the same time.
III) Schachter-Singer theory (1962): Both feedback from peripheral
responses and a cognitive appraisal of what caused those responses
produce emotions. How one interprets the peripheral response will
determine the emotion he / she feels. Individuals label the emotional
response depending on what we think is causing the response. For

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example, when someone interprets a stimulus as dangerous, it leads

to physiological arousal. Then, this physiological arousal is interpreted
to a particular emotion. It can be fear, surprise, excitement, and
astonishment depending on how the arousal is labeled.
IV) Lazarus' appraisal theory (1980): An individual makes an initial and
sometimes unconscious cognitive appraisal of the situation to decide,
if there is a threat; coping action is taken if necessary; and the
individual takes a closer look and identifies the emotions he or she is
feeling.
V) Weiner's attribution theory (1986, 1992): Certain attributions
produce specific emotions. Once the initial evaluation has been made,
the individual looks at what caused the event. These attributions of
causality can modify the emotion felt. It is the interaction of the
perceived internal and external causes, controllability and outcome
that will determine the emotional responses. What are the basic
emotions? Ortony and Turner (1990) collated a wide range of research
as to what basic emotions are and the basis of including them as basic
emotions and proposed a comprehensive description of basic
emotions and corresponding reasons for inclusion :
A comprehensive description of basic emotions and corresponding
reasons for inclusion
1
Table 6.1: Ortony, A., & Turner, T. J. (What's basic about basic emotions?)

Basic Emotions Basis for Inclusion

Anger, aversion, courage,
dejection, desire, despair, Relation to action
Arnold fear, hate, hope, love, tendencies
sadness
Ekman, Friesen, and Anger, disgust, fear, joy, Universal facial
Ellsworth sadness, surprise expressions
Desire, happiness, interest, Forms of action
Frijda
surprise, wonder, sorrow readiness
Gray Rage and terror, anxiety, joy Hardwired

1
Source: Ortony, A., & Turner, T. J. (1990). What's basic about basic emotions? Psychological Review,
97, 3, July, 315-331

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Anger, contempt, disgust,

Izard distress, fear, guilt, interest, Hardwired
joy, shame, surprise
James Fear, grief, love, rage Bodily involvement
Anger, disgust, elation, fear,
McDougall subjection, tender-emotion, Relation to instincts
wonder
Unlearned emotional
Mowrer Pain, pleasure
states
Oatley and Johnson- Anger, disgust, anxiety, Do not require
Laird happiness, sadness propositional content
Expectancy, fear, rage,
Panksepp Hardwired
panic
Acceptance, anger,
Relation to adaptive
Plutchik anticipation, disgust, joy,
biological processes
fear, sadness, surprise
Anger, interest, contempt,
Density of neural
Tomkins disgust, distress, fear, joy,
firing
shame, surprise
Watson Fear, love, rage Hardwired
Attribution
Weiner and Graham Happiness, sadness
independent
Table 6.2: Parrot’s classification of emotions

Primary Secondary
Tertiary emotions
emotion emotion
Adoration, affection, love, fondness, liking,
Affection attraction, caring, tenderness, compassion,
Love sentimentality
Lust Arousal, desire, lust, passion, infatuation
Longing Longing
Amusement, bliss, cheerfulness, gaiety, glee,
jolliness, joviality, joy, delight, enjoyment,
Cheerfulness
gladness, happiness, jubilation, elation,
satisfaction, ecstasy, euphoria

Joy Enthusiasm, zeal, zest, excitement, thrill,

Zest
exhilaration
Contentment Contentment, pleasure
Pride Pride, triumph
Optimism Eagerness, hope, optimism

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Enthrallment Enthrallment, rapture

Relief Relief
Surprise Surprise Amazement, surprise, astonishment
Aggravation, irritation, agitation, annoyance,
Irritation
grouchiness, grumpiness
Exasperation Exasperation, frustration
Anger, rage, outrage, fury, wrath, hostility,
Anger Rage ferocity, bitterness, hate, loathing, scorn, spite,
vengefulness, dislike, resentment
Disgust Disgust, revulsion, contempt
Envy Envy, jealousy
Torment Torment
Suffering Agony, suffering, hurt, anguish
Depression, despair, hopelessness, gloom,
Sadness glumness, sadness, unhappiness, grief, sorrow,
woe, misery, melancholy
Disappointment Dismay, disappointment, displeasure
Sadness
Shame Guilt, shame, regret, remorse
Alienation, isolation, neglect, loneliness,
Neglect rejection, homesickness, defeat, dejection,
insecurity, embarrassment, humiliation, insult
Sympathy Pity, sympathy
Alarm, shock, fear, fright, horror, terror, panic,
Horror
hysteria, mortification
Fear
Anxiety, nervousness, tenseness, uneasiness,
Nervousness
apprehension, worry, distress, dread

Source: Parrott, W. (2001), Emotions in Social Psychology, Psychology

Press, Philadelphia
Felt vs. Displayed Emotions (Hochschild, 1979, 1983)
Felt emotions are an individual‟s actual emotions. Displayed emotions are
those that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a
given job. They are learned. Felt and displayed emotions may be different.
This is particularly true in organizations, where role demands and situations
often require people to exhibit emotional behaviors that mask their true
feelings.

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Activity 1

1. Make a list of five positive emotions.

2. Make a list of 5 negative emotions.

Self Assessment Questions

1. Subjective emotional responses are the result of __________ changes
within human bodies.
2. Both feedback from peripheral responses and a ___________ appraisal
of what caused those responses produce emotions.
3. _____________ emotions are an individual‟s actual emotions.

6.3 Certain Issues

Culture and emotion
There are two Views of Culture and Emotion:
Universality – Emotions are part of human nature and in all cultures
universally the same set of basic emotions. Based on his cross-cultural
research, Ekman (1999) has found six emotions which are universally
recognized and applicable. They are:
1. Anger
2. Fear
3. Sadness
4. Happiness
5. Disgust
6. Surprise.
Physical responses
Attached to the idea of primary emotions as innate is the notion that each
emotion causes a detectable physical response in the body. These
responses are often perceived as sensation in the body; for example:
1. Fear is felt as a heightened heartbeat, increased “flinch” response, and
increased muscle tension.
2. Anger, based on sensation, seems indistinguishable from fear.
3. Happiness is often felt as an expansive or swelling feeling in the chest
and the sensation of lightness or buoyancy, as if standing underwater.

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4. Sadness is often experienced as a feeling of tightness in the throat and

eyes, and relaxation in the arms and legs.
5. Shame can be felt as heat in the upper chest and face.
6. Desire can be accompanied by a dry throat, heavy breathing, and
increased heart rate.
In psychotherapy, practitioners of Re-evaluation Counselling propose that
distressing emotions are relieved by emotional “discharge”. Hence crying,
laughing, sweating, shaking, and trembling. These actions commonly
associated emotions, are thought to not be the original sensation, but
instead nearly automatic responses that dispel the discomfort of disturbing
feelings.
Cultural specificity – Human beings are like a tabula rasa (clean tablet) on
which society writes its script. In other words, culture and traditions,
normative patterns and value-orientations are responsible for not only our
personality development, but also appropriate social and emotional
development. This makes us functional entities in society. Each culture has
a unique set of emotions and emotional responses; the emotions shown in a
particular culture reflects the norms, values, practices, and language of that
culture.
Alexithymia – emotional disorder
Some people have difficulty in expressing their emotions and understanding
the emotions of others. Psychologists call this alexithymia. People who
suffer from alexithymia rarely cry and are often seen by others as bland and
cold. Their own feelings make them uncomfortable, and they are not able to
discriminate among their different emotions. People, suffering from
alexithymia, may be effective performers in jobs where little or no emotional
labor. Alexithymic symptoms may be seen in people who experience:
1. Post-traumatic stress disorder
2. Certain brain injuries
3. Eating disorders (i.e., bulimia, anorexia, or binge-eating disorder)
4. Substance use dependence
5. Depression
6. Other mental health conditions

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Relationship of gender with emotion

A number of research findings supports the view that women are more
emotional than men (e.g., Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, &
Rosenkrantz, 1972; Widiger & Settle, 1987). Women are assumed to
experience more frequent and intense emotions, whereas men are assumed
to be emotionally inexpressive and to have less intense emotional
experiences. However, researchers have argued that the stereotype of men
as unemotional is more accurate for adult targets than for child targets
because males learn to control their emotions as they get older (Fabes and
Martin, 1991). Likewise, women and men may experience happiness in a
similar way, but women have been taught that they can strongly express the
emotion of happiness, whereas men have been taught to control it. The
impact of socialization practices accumulate over time, and, thus, these
stereotypes are likely to apply more strongly to adult populations (Geer and
Shields, 1996).

Self Assessment Questions

4. Ekman (1999) has found _________ emotions which are universally
recognized and applicable.
5. People who suffer from _________ rarely cry and are often seen by
others as bland and cold

6.4 Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence - EI - is a relatively recent behavioural model, rising
to prominence with Daniel Goleman's 1995 Book called 'Emotional
Intelligence'. The early Emotional Intelligence theory was originally
developed during the 1970s and 80s by the work and writings of
psychologists Howard Gardner (Harvard), Peter Salovey (Yale) and John
'Jack' Mayer (New Hampshire). Emotional Intelligence is increasingly
relevant to organizational development and developing people, because the
EI principles provide a new way to understand and assess people's
behaviours, management styles, attitudes, interpersonal skills, and potential.
Emotional Intelligence is an important consideration in human resources
planning, job profiling, recruitment interviewing and selection, management
development, customer relations and customer service, and more.

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Ever since the publication of Daniel Goleman‟s first book on the topic in
1995, emotional intelligence has become one of the hottest buzzwords in
corporate America. For instance, when the Harvard Business Review
published an article on the topic two years ago, it attracted a higher
percentage of readers than any other article published in that periodical in
the last 40 years. When the CEO of Johnson & Johnson read that article, he
was so impressed that he had copies sent out to the 400 top executives in
the company worldwide.
"Emotional intelligence is the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and
those of others, for motivating ourselves, for managing emotions well in
ourselves and in our relationships." (Snow, 2001)
Vitello – Cicciu (2002)
“Emotional intelligence is the ability to manage ourselves and our
relationship effectively. Each capability is composed of a set of
competencies. Emotional intelligence skills and cognitive skills are
synergistic top performers have both? The more complex the job, the more
emotional intelligence matters… Emotional competencies cluster into
groups… each is based on a common underlying emotional intelligence
capacity. The underlying emotional intelligence capacities are vital if people
are to successfully learn the competencies necessary to succeed in the
workplace. (For example) if they are deficient in social skills, they will be
inept at persuading or inspiring others, at leading teams or catalyzing
change. If they have little self-awareness, they will be oblivious to their own
weaknesses and lack the self confidence that comes from certainty about
their strength. None of us is perfect in using all of the emotional
competencies. We inevitably have a profile of strengths and limits. However,
the ingredients for outstanding performance require only that we have
strengths in a given number of these competencies (at least six or so), and
that the strengths are spread across all four areas of emotional intelligence.”
History of Emotional Intelligence
When psychologists began to write and think about intelligence, they
focused on cognitive aspects, such as memory and problem-solving.
However, there were researchers who recognized early on that the non-
cognitive aspects were also important. For instance, David Wechsler
defined intelligence as "the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to

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act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his

environment". As early as 1940 he referred to "non-intellective" as well as
"intellective" elements, by which he meant affective, personal, and social
factors. Furthermore, as early as 1943 Wechsler was proposing that the
non-intellective abilities are essential for predicting one‟s ability to succeed
in life. He wrote:
The main question is whether non-intellective, that is affective and cognitive
abilities, are admissible as factors of general intelligence. The contention
has been that such factors are not only admissible but necessary. I have
tried to show that in addition to intellective there are also definite non-
intellective factors that determine intelligent behaviour. If the foregoing
observations are correct, it follows that we cannot expect to measure total
intelligence until our tests also include some measures of the non-
intellective factors [Wechsler, 1943)
Wechsler was not the only researcher who saw non-cognitive aspects of
intelligence to be important for adaptation and success. Robert Thorndike,
to take another example, was writing about "social intelligence" in the late
thirties. Unfortunately, the work of these early pioneers was largely forgotten
or overlooked until 1983 when Howard Gardner began to write about
"multiple intelligence." Gardner proposed that "intrapersonal" and
"interpersonal" intelligences are as important as the type of intelligence
typically measured by IQ and related tests.
Now let us switch our historical lens to I/O psychology. In the 1940s, under
the direction of Hemphill, the Ohio State Leadership Studies suggested that
"consideration" is an important aspect of effective leadership. More
specifically, this research suggested that leaders who are able to establish
"mutual trust, respect, and a certain warmth and rapport" with members of
their group will be more effective. At about the same time, the Office of
Strategic Services developed a process of assessment based on the earlier
work of Murray that included the evaluation of non-cognitive, as well as
cognitive, abilities. This process evolved into the "assessment center,"
which was first used in the private sector at AT&T in 1956. Many of the
dimensions measured in assessment centers then and now involve social
and emotional competencies such as communication, sensitivity, initiative,
and interpersonal skills.

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Emotional Intelligence in Organization

Based on Goleman's work, intelligence in business settings typically
manifests itself through four intertwined characteristics:
 A strong sense of self-empowerment and self-regulation, which together
helps employees to make decisions right on the spot if that should be
necessary
 A positive outlook, promoting constructive responses to the challenges
of work
 An awareness of your own and other people's feelings, creating
empathy and facilitating better conversations with customers
 A mastery of fear and anxiety and the ability to tap into selfless motives,
which make it possible for employees to express feelings of empathy
and caring
To no small degree, these can be intrinsic features of a human being's
personality. Even so, companies – particularly those with far-flung networks
of thousands or even tens of thousands of employees – can take practical
steps to encourage and enhance them.
Companies can begin by hiring emotionally intelligent frontline employees
in the first place: a business starts with an obvious advantage if it can attract
people born or brought up with the right emotional instincts for frontline
employment. Many companies can ride on the coattails of others with first-
rate customer-facing skills, since the latter have already identified the most
suitable type of employee for the work. More than half of the branch
managers hired by Bank of America in 2004, for instance, came from
retailers (such as Best Buy, The Gap, and Safeway) outside of financial
services. According to the bank, "They get the retail mind-set and we get
them to understand banking. They like being up on their feet and don't want
to sit behind a desk."
Emotional Intelligence: Indian Perspective:
The importance of both emotion and intelligence in making decisions and
achieving success in life was well-accepted in ancient India. A concept of
“Sthitha-prajna” (emotional stability), similar to the concept of emotional
intelligence, can be traced in the second chapter of „Srimad Bhagavad-Gita'.
Bhagavad Gita is a specific conversation between Lord Krishna and Arjuna
(third Pandava prince) in a specific situation of Kurukshetra battlefield.

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Pandavas were fighting against the Kauravas, the cousin brothers to restore
their kingdom from Kauravas in Kurukshetra. Before the battle started,
Arjuna, with deep sorrow and pity, found his close relatives, friends and
respected 'gurus' in enemy's side. To win the battle he was supposed to kill
those beloved ones. He got confused about his rightful duty. Due to this
hriday-durbalata (heart-non-strength), he refused to join the battle. In this
context, Lord Krishna who played the role as the driver of Arjuna's chariot,
enlightened him about the eternal truth of life.
According to Lord Krishna, as mentioned in Bhagavad Gita, Arjuna suffered
from indecisiveness resulting from confusion and a false sense of insecurity.
Lord Krishna advised Arjuna to become 'Sthitha-prajna' (the steady minded
person). He also told that an individual achieved his/her goal only when the
mind became steady, poised and balanced. Evidently, the concept of
“Sthitha-prajna” (the steady-minded person) talked about a unique
interdependence between emotion and intelligence for effective decision-
making which was most essential in excelling in every sphere of life. Gita,
as a whole, advises all to balance between intelligence and emotion.
Similar views on the role of emotional intelligence as a learning process for
achieving a balanced personality in different stages of life on an inter-
generational basis has been depicted in the Vedas. In particular, Dr.
Radhakrishnan, in his book, „The Hindu View of Life‟ (1927) opined that the
attitude of the Vedas is one of trust tempered by criticism. „Trust, because,
whatever the older generation hold, may be true, and criticism because,
however, plausible the testimonies of the old views may be, it cannot deny
the present of its right to enquire and sift the evidence‟. This view aptly
points out the need for emotional intelligence in everyday life to become
more emotionally balanced and functional individuals in society.
„Emotional intelligence is an aggregate of individuals‟ cognition of own and
others' emotions, feeling, interpretation and action as per environmental
demand to manipulate the consequence which in turn result in superior
performance and better human relationship‟ (Bhattacharya, 2003).
Emotional intelligence is a measure of the degree to which a person makes
use of his/her reasoning in the process of emotional responses (both
positive and negative) in a given situation. So having high emotional
intelligence doesn't mean that the person never panics or loses his/her
temper. It does mean that he / she brings own feelings under control and
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channels them into productive behaviors. The ability to bring out-of-control

emotions back into line results in what earlier generations called emotional
maturity.
Goleman’s Model of Emotional Intelligence
Daniel Goleman and the Hay Group have identified a set of competencies
that differentiate individuals with Emotional Intelligence. The competencies
fall into four clusters:
 Self-Awareness: Capacity for understanding one's emotions, one's
strengths, and one's weaknesses.
 Self-Management: Capacity for effectively managing one's motives and
regulating one's behavior.
 Social Awareness: Capacity for understanding what others are saying
and feeling and why they feel and act as they do.
 Relationship Management: Capacity for acting in such a way that one is
able to get desired results from others and reach personal goals.
The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is the
one proposed by Goleman (1995). He viewed emotional intelligence as a
total of personal and social competences. Personal competence determines
how we manage ourselves, whereas social competence determines how we
handle our interpersonal relationships.
Personal competence
It comprises of three dimensions of emotional intelligence, such as, self-
awareness, self-regulation and motivation. Self-awareness is the ability of
an individual to observe him/herself and to recognize 'a feeling as it
happens' (Goleman, 1995). The hallmarks of this ability are self-confidence,
self- assessment and openness to positive criticism. Self-regulation is the
ability to control emotions and to redirect those emotions that can have
negative impact. Trustworthiness, integrity, tolerance of ambiguity and
attitude to accept change are some characteristics of this ability. Motivation
is the ability to channelize emotion to achieve a goal through self-control
and by moderating impulses as per the requirement of the situation. The
people who have this ability are optimistic and committed towards
organizational as well as individual goals.

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Social competence
It comprises of two dimensions namely, empathy and social skills. Empathy
is the ability to feel and get concerned for others, take their perspective and
to treat people according to their emotional reactions. People with this ability
are experts in generating and motivating others. Social skills are the ability
to build rapport and to manage relationships with people. People having this
skill are very effective in persuasiveness and team management. „Social
skill‟ is the culmination of all other components of emotional intelligence
assuming that people can effectively manage social and work relationships
only when they can understand and control their own emotion and can
emphasize with the feelings of others.

Fig. 6.1: Goleman’s emotional intelligence model (1995)

The Assessment of Emotional Intelligence and Competence

Assuming that emotional intelligence is important, the question of
assessment and measurement becomes particularly pressing. What does
the research suggest about the measurement of emotional intelligence and
competence? In a paper published in 1998, Davies, Stankov, & Roberts
concluded that there was nothing empirically new in the idea of emotional
intelligence. This conclusion was based solely on a review of existing
measures purporting to measure emotional intelligence at the point in time
when they wrote that paper. However, most of those measures were new,
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and there was not yet much known about their psychometric properties.
Research now is emerging that suggests emotional intelligence, and
particularly the new measures that have been developed to assess it, is in
fact a distinct entity. However, there still is not much research on the
predictive validity of such measures, and this is a serious lack. Let me briefly
summarize what we really know about the most popular ones.
The oldest instrument is Bar-On‟s EQ-I, which has been around for over a
decade. This self-report instrument originally evolved not out of an
occupational context but rather a clinical one. It was designed to assess
those personal qualities that enabled some people to possess better
"emotional well-being" than others. The EQ-I has been used to assess
thousands of individuals, and we know quite a bit about its reliability and its
convergent and discriminant validity. Less is known about its predictive
validity in work situations. However, in one study the EQ-I was predictive of
success for U.S. Air Force recruiters.
A second instrument is the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale. The
MEIS is a test of ability rather than a self-report measure. The test-taker
performs a series of tasks that are designed to assess the person‟s ability to
perceive, identify, understand, and work with emotion. There is some
evidence of construct validity, convergent validity, and discriminant validity,
but none for predictive validity.
A third instrument is the Emotional Competence Inventory. The ECI is a 360
degree instrument. People who know the individual rate him or her on 20
competencies that Goleman‟s research suggests are linked to emotional
intelligence. Although the ECI is in its early stages of development, about 40
percent of the items come from an older instrument, the Self-Assessment
Questionnaire, that was developed by Boyatzis. These earlier items had
been "validated against performance in hundreds of competency studies of
managers, executives, and leaders in North America," Italy, and Brazil.
However, there currently is no research supporting the predictive validity of
the ECI.
Another measure that has been promoted commercially is the EQ Map.
Although there is some evidence for convergent and divergent validity, the
data have been reported in a rather ambiguous fashion.

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One other measure deserves mention, even though it is less well-known

than the others. Schutte, Malouff, Hall, Haggerty, Cooper, Golden, &
Dornheim have developed a 33-item self-report measure based on Salovey
and Mayer‟s (1990) early work. There is evidence for convergent and
divergent validity. Emotional intelligence scores on this measure were
positively associated with first-year college grades and supervisor ratings of
student counselors working at various mental health agencies. Also, scores
were higher for therapists than for therapy clients or prisoners.
Finally, it might be helpful to keep in mind that emotional intelligence
comprises a large set of abilities that have been studied by psychologists for
many years. Thus, another way to measure emotional intelligence or
competence is through tests of specific abilities. Some of these tests seem
rather strong. To name just one example, there is Seligman‟s SASQ, which
was designed to measure learned optimism and which has been impressive
in its ability to identify high performing students, salespeople, and athletes,
to name just a few (Schulman, 1995).

Self Assessment Questions

6. The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is
the one proposed by ____________.
7. Personal competence comprises of ______________ dimensions of
emotional intelligence.
8. Social competence comprises of _____________ dimensions

6.5 Summary
Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit
„Emotion‟ is used to designate "a state of consciousness having to do with
the arousal of feelings (Webster‟s New World Dictionary)." It is
"distinguished from other mental states, from cognition, volition, and
awareness of physical sensation." Feeling refers to "any of the subjective
reactions, pleasant or unpleasant" that one may experience in a situation.
There are many theories of emotion. James-Lange Theory proposes that
subjective emotional responses are the result of physiological changes
within human bodies. Cannon-Bard theory proposes that emotion-provoking

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events induce the subjective emotional experiences and physiological

arousal simultaneously. Schachter-Singer theory proposes that both
feedback from peripheral responses and a cognitive appraisal of what
caused those responses produce emotions. How one interprets the
peripheral response will determine the emotion he / she feels. According to
Lazarus' appraisal theory, an individual makes an initial and sometimes
unconscious cognitive appraisal of the situation to decide, if there is a threat;
coping action is taken if necessary; and the individual takes a closer look
and identifies the emotions he or she is feeling. Weiner, in his theory,
proposes that certain attributions produce specific emotions.
Once the initial evaluation has been made, the individual looks at what
caused the event. These attributions of causality can modify the emotion
felt. It is the interaction of the perceived internal and external causes,
controllability and outcome that will determine the emotional responses. Felt
emotions are an individual‟s actual emotions. Displayed emotions are those
that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job.
They are learned. Felt and displayed emotions may be different. This is
particularly true in organizations, where role demands and situations often
require people to exhibit emotional behaviors that mask their true feelings.
There are two Views of Culture and Emotion. In “Universality” view, it is
believed that emotions are part of human nature and in all cultures
universally the same set of basic emotions. Based on his cross-cultural
research, Ekman (1999) has found six emotions which are universally
recognized and applicable. They are: Anger, Fear, Sadness, Happiness,
Disgust, and Surprise. Women are assumed to experience more frequent
and intense emotions, whereas men are assumed to be emotionally
inexpressive and to have less intense emotional experiences. However,
researchers have argued that the stereotype of men as unemotional is more
accurate for adult targets than for child targets because males learn to
control their emotions as they get older.
Emotional intelligence is an aggregate of individuals‟ cognition of own and
others' emotions, feeling, interpretation and action as per environmental
demand to manipulate the consequence, which in turn, results in superior
performance and better human relationship. The most popular and accepted
mixed model of emotional intelligence is the one proposed by Goleman. He

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viewed emotional intelligence as a total of personal and social

competences. Personal competence determines how we manage ourselves,
whereas social competence determines how we handle our interpersonal
relationships. Assuming that emotional intelligence is important, the
question of assessment and measurement becomes particularly pressing.

6.6 Terminal Questions

1. Briefly explain Lazarus' appraisal theory and Weiner's attribution theory.
2. What are universally recognized emotions?
3. What is Alexithymia? What are the symptoms of this disease?
4. What is the relationship of gender with emotion?
5. Explain Goleman‟s emotional intelligence model.

6.7 Answers

Answers to Self Assessment Questions

1. Physiological
2. Cognitive
3. Felt
4. Six
5. Alexithymia
6. Goleman
7. Three
8. Two
Answers to Terminal Questions
1. Refer section 6.2
2. Refer section 6.3
3. Refer section 6.3
4. Refer section 6.3
5. Refer section 6.4

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Management Process and Organization Behavior Unit 6

Glossary

Words Meaning
Attribution theory Suggests that we attribute causes to behavior based
on observations of certain
Emotions The feelings experienced towards an object, person or
event.
Emotional A form of intelligence relating to the emotional side of
intelligence life, such as the ability to recognize and manage one's
own and others' emotions, to motivate oneself and
restrain impulses, and to handle interpersonal
relationships effectively
Personal The set of individual personality traits which enable
competence individuals to manage themselves independently and
capably.
Social competence The ability to achieve personal goals in social
interaction while simultaneously maintaining positive
relationships with others over time and across
situations

Suggested Reading:
Read the book
Emotional Intelligence (Bantam Dell Pub Group) by Daniel Goleman. (2005)

Additional References
1. Emotional Intelligence in School: Alan McCluskey, St-Blaise, 28th
February 1997
2. Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence: Educational
Implications, by Peter Salovey and David Sluyter. 1997.
3. Financial Management for Nurse Managers: Merging the Heart with the
Dollar by Janne Dunham-Taylor, Joseph Z. Pinczuk.
4. [Link]

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