Name : ______________________________

Class : Sec 3 ( ) ___________________ Date : ___________

CHAPTER 2: KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY

2.1 How Are Solids, Liquids and Gases Different?

1 The kinetic particle theory states that all matter is made up of tiny particles and these particles are in
constant random motion.

2 Matter can be divided into 3 groups according to their general properties as shown in the table below.

Properties Solid Liquid Gas

Shape fixed not fixed not fixed

Volume fixed fixed not fixed

Compressibility no no yes

3 The properties of matter can be explained by the arrangement and movement of particles in the
different states.

Description Solids Liquids Gases

Diagrammatic
representation

Arrangement

-spacing particles are particles are particles are

__________________
closely packed less closely packed
__________________ far apart
__________________

-orderliness orderly
in _________ manner disorderly manner
in _________ disorderly manner
in _________

Movement vibrate
particles _________ slide
particles _________ at high speeds
particles move _________
and rotate about fixed past one another freely and randomly in
positions __________________
all directions

Forces of
attraction
strongest strong weak
between
particles

Page 1 of 5
 dry ice, iodine, ammonium chloride
4 Changes in States of Matter
SUBLIMATION
Energy increases

MELTING BOILING
Energy increases Energy increases
Solid Liquid Gas
FREEZING CONDENSATION
Energy decreases Energy decreases

VAPOUR DEPOSITION
Energy decreases

5 Heating curve

Melting Boiling and Evaporation

• Melting is the process by which a substance • Boiling is the process by which a substance
changes from a solid to a liquid. changes from a liquid to a gas.
• The temperature at which a solid becomes a • The temperature at which a liquid boils is called
liquid is called its melting point. its boiling point.
• The presence of impurities increases boiling
point and lowers melting point. Description at molecular level
➢ Thermal energy is converted into kinetic energy.
Description at molecular level ➢ Particles slide past one another with increasing
➢ Thermal energy is converted into kinetic energy. speed.
➢ Particles vibrate and rotate faster about their ➢ At boiling point, the particles with increased
fixed position. energy can overcome the forces of attraction
➢ At melting point, the particles with increased between them.
energy can overcome the forces of attraction ➢ The particles move further apart, quickly and
between them. randomly.
➢ The orderly packing arrangement of the
particles is disrupted. Note
➢ The substance is now a liquid. • Evaporation is the process by which a liquid
➢ Particles move freely throughout the liquid. changed to a gas at temperatures lower than its
boiling point.

Page 2 of 5
 • Evaporation occurs because some particles
have enough energy to escape as a gas from
the surface of the liquid.
• Liquids that evaporate quickly at room
temperature are called volatile (low boiling
points) liquids.
o E.g. Petrol and perfumes.

Cooling curve

Freezing Condensation

• Freezing is the process by which a substance • Condensation is the process by which a gas
changes from a liquid to a solid. changes to a liquid. ( gas → liquid)
• The temperature at which a liquid becomes a • When water vapour touches a cold surface,
solid is called its freezing point. condensation occurs and liquid water is
• The freezing point of a pure substance is equal obtained.
to its melting point.
eg. pure water freezes at 0°C and pure ice
melts at 0°C

Description at molecular level Description at molecular level

➢ Kinetic energy of the particles is converted to ➢ Kinetic energy of the particles is converted to
thermal energy which is transferred to the thermal energy which is transferred to the
surroundings. surroundings.
➢ With less kinetic energy, the particles slow ➢ With less kinetic energy, the particles slow
down. down.
➢ Particles with lesser energy are drawn closer ➢ Particles with lesser energy are drawn closer
together by forces of attraction between them. together by forces of attraction between them.
➢ The particle arrangement becomes more ➢ The particle arrangement becomes less
orderly. disorderly.

Page 3 of 5
 Sublimation

• Sublimation is the process by which a solid to a gas without melting.

• Examples of substances that sublime are:

- Ammonium chloride
- Dry Ice (solid carbon dioxide)
- Naphthalene
- Iodine (purple crystal)

6(a) The particles in the boxes below to show the different states being represented on a number line.

increasing
b.p temperature
m.p

(b) At temperatures
(i) above its boiling point, a substance exists as a gas
(ii) between its b.p and m.p, a substance exists as a liquid
(iii) below its melting point, a substance exists as a solid

(c) The table below gives the m.p and b.p of different substances.
Complete the table to show the states of the different substances at the reference temperatures
specified in the fourth column:

Substance Melting point Boiling point (oC) Reference State at reference

(oC) temperature (oC) temperature

water 0 100 45 liquid

nitrogen -210 -196 -200
oxygen -218 -183 35
copper 1085 2595 1000
alcohol -117 78 25
X 15 200 -5
Y -45 32 0

Page 4 of 5
2.2 How Do Particles Move?

7 Diffusion

➢ Diffusion is the _________________

net movement higher concentration to a region
of particles from a region of __________________
of _______________________.
lower concentration

Using Kinetic Particle theory to explain at the molecular level :

Air Air mixed with

bromine
Bromine

A cover initially placed A few minutes after the cover

between the 2 gas jars is removed, the gas in both
separate the gases gas jars looks the same.

➢ Both air and bromine are made up of tiny particles moving at random.
➢ The bromine particles diffuse (spread out) into the spaces between the air particles, vice
versa.
➢ When the gas looks the same in both gas jars, it means that the particles of both gases are
evenly spread.
➢ We say that a homogeneous mixture of air and bromine is formed.

Rate of diffusion

The rate of diffusion of gases depend on the following 2 factors.

1) particle mass - Liquids and gases with lower molecular masses diffuse faster than those with higher
molecular masses.

➢ The mass of a liquid or gas particle is called its relative molecular mass (Mr).
➢ The smaller the relative molecular mass of the gas, the lighter it is, and the faster it moves.

cotton wool soaked in concentrated cotton wool soaked in concentrated

ammonia solution hydrochloric acid

white fumes of ammonium chloride formed

closer to the hydrochloric acid
➢ The molecular mass of ammonia is 17. The molecular mass of hydrochloric acid is 36.5.
➢ Ammonia has a lower molecular mass than hydrogen chloride, and travels faster. Thus,
ammonium chloride is formed further from the ammonia solution.

2) Temperature - Increasing temperature increases the rate of diffusion

kinetic energy
➢ Particles have more ____________________ at higher temperatures. Hence they can move
faster.
➢ When temperature increases, the rate of diffusion increases.

Page 5 of 5
Name : ______________________________

Class : Sec 3 ( ) ___________________ Date : ___________

CHAPTER 1: EXPERIMENTAL CHEMISTRY (DETERMINING PURITY)

Chromatography

• Chromatography is used to separate a mixture of substances which have different solubilities in a

given solvent.

• Example: separating dyes found in purple food colouring

Draw a start line with a pencil at about 1cm from the bottom of
a strip of filter paper or chromatography paper.

What do you think would happen to the start line if it

was marked using an ink that is soluble in the
solvent?

Ink is soluble in the solvent and interferes with the

chromatogram.

1. Place a drop of purple food colouring on the start line. Allow the drop to dry.

2. Dip the paper into a solvent such as ethanol or water. Ensure that the coloured spot is above
the solvent level.

What do you think will happen if the purple food colouring goes below the solvent level?

The colouring will dissolve in the solvent instead of separating on the chromatogram.

3. The dyes will separate as the solvent travels up the paper. The more soluble a dye is in the
solvent, the faster and further it will move up the paper towards the solvent front.

Page 1 of 3
Interpretation of a Chromatogram

• Chromatograms show the separated substances on the paper after chromatography.

solvent
front

The sample consists of 1

component only.

Use of Retention Factor or Rf value

• Retention factor, or Rf value of a substance is a ratio of the distance travelled by a substance

compared to the solvent front.

• Solvent front is the final position of the solvent on the chromatogram.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• Rf value =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

• Rf value is the constant for the same substance regardless of run time if the chromatography
is carried out under the same conditions (temperature, solvent used).

Page 2 of 3
Using paper chromatography to analyse a sample

• Example: identifying a banned substance present in food colouring

(comparison with ‘known’ samples)

o Chromatography was performed on a sample of food colouring (‘X’) and 4 banned dyes (‘A’,
‘B’, ‘C’ and ‘D’).
o If X contains any of the 4 banned dyes, it is not safe to be consumed.

o Identical dye produces spots at the same height and in the same colour on the
chromatogram when the same solvent is used.

o Conclusions that can be drawn from the chromatogram:

▪ Dyes A and D are pure.
▪ Both dye B and dye C are mixtures of two different dyes.
▪ Sample X is a mixture of three dyes.

Identification of Colourless Substances

• Chromatography can also be used for colourless substances such as amino acids.
• To separate and analyse colourless substances, we apply a locating agent on a chromatogram.
• The locating agents are chemicals that react with the colourless substances to form coloured spots.

Applications of Chromatography
• Identify unauthorized substances like pesticides and poisons in food
• Detect small quantities of banned substances in an athlete’s urine or blood sample
• Separate components like DNA fragments in sample for forensic investigations

Page 3 of 3
Name : ______________________________

Class : Sec 3 ( ) ___________________ Date : ___________

CHAPTER 3: ATOMIC STRUCTURE

3.1 What Is an Atom Made Up Of?

An _______________ is the smallest particle that can still have the chemical characteristics of an
element.

_________________ that
contain _______________
and ________________.

Protons, neutrons and electrons are known as _________________________.

Location in the
Sub-atomic Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge
Atom
proton

neutron

electron

3.2 How Many Sub-atomic Particles Does an Atom Have?

Nuclide Notation

Nucleon number (also

known as ______________)
23 Proton number (also
represents the total number known as ____________)
of ___________ and represents the number of
___________ in an atom. ______________ in an
atom.

Note:
• All atoms are _______________________________ (i.e. no overall charge).
• In an atom, there is an __________ number of positively charged ______________ and negatively
charged ______________.

Page 1 of 7
Chapter 3: Atomic Structure
Think!

Nucleon number = p + n 23

Proton number = p 11

1. Given only the proton number and nucleon number, find the number of neutrons (n) in a sodium atom.

2. For a neutral sodium atom (i.e. no charge), find the number of electrons?
(Hint: Recall the relative charge of sub-atomic particles)

Let’s try!
By referring to the Periodic Table, complete the following table:

Element Nucleon Number of Number of Number of

number protons neutrons electrons
Hydrogen

Oxygen

Potassium

Iron

Argon

Page 2 of 7
Chapter 3: Atomic Structure
Sub-atomic Particles in Ions

An ___________ is the particle formed when an atom or group of atoms ______________ or ___________
electrons.

The number of ______________ and _______________ remains the same.

Think!
1. If an oxygen atom gains 2 electrons to form an oxygen ion,
(i) find the total number of electrons in this oxygen ion.
(ii) will this ion be positively or negatively charged?
(Hint: Recall the relative charges of sub-atomic particles)

2. If sodium atom loses 1 electron to form a sodium ion,

(i) find the total number of electrons in this sodium ion.
(ii) will this ion be positively or negatively charged?

Conclusion:
Atom gains electron(s) to form positively / negatively charged particles known as ____________ while
atom loses electron(s) to form positively / negatively charged particles known as ____________.

Let’s try!
Complete the following table:

Atom /
Element Number of Number of Number of
anion /
protons neutrons electrons
cation?
Ca2+

Fe3+

F-

S2-

Ar

Page 3 of 7
Chapter 3: Atomic Structure
Isotopes

Atoms of the same ________________ that have the same __________________________ but different
__________________________.

Most elements that commonly occur are made up of isotopes.

For example, hydrogen consists of 3 isotopes: hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3.

Isotope Hydrogen-1 Hydrogen-2 Hydrogen-3

no. of protons They have the same

number of protons
no. of electrons and electrons.
They have different
no. of neutrons
number of neutrons.

Let’s try!
Q1

Page 4 of 7
Chapter 3: Atomic Structure
Q2 A sample of magnesium had the following isotopic composition:

Calculate the relative atomic mass, A , of magnesium in the sample.

r

Express your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures.

3.3 How Are Sub-atomic Particles Distributed in an Atom?

Electronic structure or electronic configuration shows the electrons arrangement in an atom.

Example: Argon (2,8,8)

electron shells
1st shell: Maximum _________
2nd shell: Maximum _________
3rd shell: Maximum _________

Note:
Last shell is known as ________________________________.

Steps in drawing a full electronic structure

Step 1 Count the total number of electrons

Step 2 Write down the electronic configuration
Recall 1st shell – maximum 2 electrons; >2nd shell – maximum 8 electrons
Step 3 Draw the electronic structure
▪ Top, down, left, right
▪ Single seating first before pairing
Step 4 Include legend

**Some questions may require only the valence electrons.

Page 5 of 7
Practice:
Draw the electronic structure of the first 20 elements and state their electronic configurations.

1 2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

19 20

Page 6 of 7
Conclusion:
An element with electronic configuration (2,8,6) would means that it has
• _______ electron shells and
• _______ valence electrons.

Note:
• ___________ properties of an element depend on the number of valence electrons.
• Hence, elements in the same ________of the Periodic Table have similar chemical properties.

Let’s try!
1. The diagram shows the nuclei of four different atoms. Which two atoms are isotopes of each other?

A P and Q
B Q and R
C P and R
D Q and S

2. The diagram below shows the nuclei of five different atoms.

(a) Which atom has a nucleon number of 6? ______________

(b) Which two atoms have 3 electrons in the outermost shell? ______________
(c) Which two atoms are isotopes of the same element? ______________

Page 7 of 7
Name : ______________________________

Class : Sec 3 ( ) ___________________ Date : ___________

CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL BONDING (INTRODUCTION AND IONIC BONDING)

(A) Noble Gases

Think! How are the following atoms similar?

Think! How are the atoms below different from the noble gases?
Draw the electronic structure of the following:
Magnesium atom Chlorine atom

Think! How are these atoms different from the noble gases?

• An atom is ......................... if it has a ........................................................... (i.e. noble gas configuration)

• As noble gases have ........................................................, they do no need to gain, lose or share

valence electrons. Hence, they are ......................... .

• Atoms with an incomplete valence electron shell will ................................................................................

to achieve ........................................................

Page 1 of 8
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding
(B) Bonding in Ionic Compounds

Recap
Draw the electronic structure of the following:
Sodium ion Chloride ion

Complete the table below:

Sodium ion Chloride ion

Number of protons

Number of neutrons

Number of electrons

Charge

Think! Where does the electron from the sodium ion go?

• Ionic compounds are formed when a ......................... atom reacts with a .........................atom.

• This process involves ..................................................., resulting in the formation of positive ions

(cations) and negative ions (anions).

• The ionic bonds are the .......................................................................... between the .........................

charged ions, holding them together.

• In the above example, we see that both the sodium and chloride atoms have achieved

............................................................. by the transfer of electrons.

• An ionic compound is an ..................................................................... with ...........................................

The total charge of the positive ions must be equal to the total negative charge from the negative ions.

Page 2 of 8
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding
“Dot and Cross” diagrams of ionic compounds:
Checklist
1. Draw a “dot and cross” diagrams for the following compounds. Electrons of opposite ions are drawn
differently
Chemical symbols are written
(a) Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Number of electron shells is correct
Number of electrons is correct
Showing all electrons: Electrons are arranged correctly
Charge is written
Compound is electrically neutral

Showing only valence electrons:

Cation

Anion

(b) Magnesium chloride (MgCl2)

Showing all electrons:

Showing only valence electrons:

Cation

Anion

(c) Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)

Cation

Anion

Page 3 of 8
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding

2. Draw a “dot and cross” diagrams for the following compounds, showing all the electrons.

(a) Lithium fluoride (LiF)

Cation

Anion

(b) Calcium oxide (CaO)

Cation

Anion

3. Draw a “dot and cross” diagrams for the following compounds, showing only the valence electrons.

(a) Potassium oxide (K2O)

Cation
Anion

Page 4 of 8
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding
(C) Chemical Formulae of Ionic Compounds

General rule in naming ionic compounds

• A compound made from two elements has a name that ends with ‘–ide’. E.g. sodium chloride, zinc
oxide, carbon dioxide
• Compounds that contain the hydroxide ion (OH–) is named a hydroxide. E.g. potassium hydroxide,
calcium hydroxide
• Compounds containing negatively charged polyatomic ions (ions composed of two or more covalently
bonded atoms) usually have names ending with ‘–ate’. E.g. copper(II) sulfate, sodium nitrate

List of common ions and their charges:

o Periodic Groups: 1 2 3 14 15 16 17 18
1+ 2+ 3+ NA 3- 2- 1- No charge

o Common transition elements:

Copper (Cu): 2+ or 1+
Iron (Fe) 2+ or 3+
Lead (Pb) 2+ or 4+
Zinc (Zn) 2+
Silver (Ag) 1+

o Polyatomic ion (occur as a group):

Ammonium (NH4+) 1+
Hydroxide (OH- ) 1-
Nitrate (NO3-) 1-
Sulfate (SO42-) 2-
Carbonate (CO32-) 2-

Note:

General Rule Examples

• Sodium chloride
The symbol of the metallic element is written
first. • Magnesium carbonate

• Magnesium chloride
The number of atoms is written as a subscript
to the right of the atom’s symbol. • Magnesium carbonate

The subscripts are the simplest set of whole • Calcium oxide

numbers.

Do not write the subscript ‘1’. • Zinc oxide

If there is more than one polyatomic ion, the • Copper (II) hydroxide
formula of that ion is placed within brackets.

Page 5 of 8
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding

Deriving chemical formula

1. Balancing of charges

Example:
Magnesium chloride – Mg2+ and Cl –

Positive ( + ) Negative ( – )
One Mg2+ 2+ – One Cl–
One Mg2+ 2+ 2– Two Cl–

Since every one Mg2+ requires TWO Cl–, chemical formula = MgCl2

2. Cross method

o Write down the ions with the charges. E.g. Xm+ Yn−
o Move the values m and n diagonally (without the charges).
o The formula will be XnYm.

Example 1: Write the chemical formula of aluminium oxide.

Ions present: Al3+ and O2-

Al2O3

Example 2: Write the chemical formula of calcium carbonate.

Ions present: Ca2+ and CO3 2-

Ca2(CO3)2 CaCO3

Page 6 of 8
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding

1. Write down the chemical formula of the following substances.

(a) Sodium oxide (c) Calcium chloride

(b) Ammonium sulfate (d) Calcium sulfate

2. Write down the chemical formula of the following substances.

(a) Zinc carbonate (e) Potassium sulfate

(b) Aluminium oxide (f) Calcium hydroxide

(c) Lead (II) sulfate (g) Copper(II) nitrate

(d) Lithium oxide (h) Silver chloride

Page 7 of 8
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding

(D) Structure of Ionic Compounds

Structure

• An ionic compound forms a ......................................................................., which is a three dimensional

structure of alternating positive ions (cations) and negative ions (anions).

• Oppositely charged ions are held in regular and repeating pattern by ....................................................

Example:

Sodium Chloride

In a lattice, millions of sodium and chloride ions are arranged in an

orderly manner held by ionic bonds. In this case, each sodium ion is
surrounded by 6 chloride ions and each chloride ion is surrounded by 6
sodium ions, giving a ratio of sodium ions to chloride ions 1:1. Hence
the formula is NaCl

Page 8 of 8
Name : ______________________________

Class : Sec 3 ( ) ___________________ Date : ___________

(A) Covalent Bonding

Covalent bond is the chemical bond formed by the ........................................................ between

............................................................... to obtain ................................................................

Examples of covalent compounds

• Molecules of elements (O2, H2)
• Molecules of compounds (H2O, NH3)

Recap
Define a molecule.

...........................................................................................................................................................................
.

...........................................................................................................................................................................
.

Let’s try:
Determine whether the following substances contain ionic or covalent bond(s)?

(a) Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) ionic / covalent

(b) Sodium Oxide (Na2O) ionic / covalent
(c) Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) ionic / covalent
(d) Barium Iodide (BaCl2) ionic / covalent
(e) Ammonia gas (NH3) ionic / covalent
(f) Oxygen gas (O2) ionic / covalent

Chemical formulae of covalent compounds

Mono - 1
Di - 2
Tri - 3

Examples of diatomic molecules:

• Hydrogen (H2)
• Oxygen (O2)
• Nitrogen (N2)
• Group VII i.e. fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2)

Example of triatomic molecules:

• Ozone (O3)

Page 1 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials
Example

With reference to the names of the following covalent compounds, write down their chemical formula.

(a) Carbon monoxide (b) Liquid bromine

(c) Carbon dioxide (d) Nitrogen dioxide

(e) Nitrogen monoxide (f) Oxygen gas

(g) Sulfur trioxide (h) Nitrogen gas

(i) Sulfur dioxide (j) Chlorine gas

Page 2 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials
(B) “Dot and Cross” diagrams of covalent compounds:

Covalent compounds can be represented by different forms.

For the structural formula, each “-“ represents a .................................................. .

Each single covalent bond represents a pair of valence electrons.

Example

Draw a “dot and cross’ diagram for the following compounds, showing all electrons.

(a) Hydrogen gas (H2) Checklist

Electrons of adjacent atoms are drawn
differently
Chemical symbols are written
Number of electron shells is correct
Number of electrons is correct
Electrons are arranged correctly
All atoms have fully filled valence shells

(b) Ammonia gas (NH3)

(c) Carbon dioxide gas (CO2)

Page 3 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials

Draw the “dot and cross” diagram of the following substances (showing all the electrons):

(a) Oxygen gas (O2)

(b) Water (H2O)

Page 4 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials

To determine the chemical formula of covalent compounds, we can follow the steps below.

For example, a covalent compound consisting of nitrogen and hydrogen:

1. Determine the valency of the elements.

Element Valency
Nitrogen 3 → Forms 3 covalent bonds for each atom
Hydrogen 1 → Forms 1 covalent bond for each atom

2. Determine possible structure(s) to fulfil the valency of each atom.

Try it yourself!

The following substances are all covalent compounds. Draw the dot and cross diagram to show their
electronic structures. You only need to show the outer electrons.

(a) A compound of carbon and hydrogen (b) A compound of carbon and fluorine

Molecular formula : Molecular formula :

Structural formula : Structural formula :

(c) A compound of nitrogen and fluorine (d) A compound of phosphorus and chlorine

Molecular formula : Molecular formula :

Structural formula : Structural formula :

Page 5 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials

(C) Structures of Covalent Compounds

There are two types of structures for covalent compounds

1. ............................ molecular structure

2. ............................ molecular structure

Covalent compounds with Simple Molecular Structure

• Made up of ...................................................................

• Atoms in the molecules are held by ....................................................................

• Molecules are held together by ..........................................................................................................

Example: Oxygen gas (O2)

Covalent compounds with Giant Molecular Structure

1. Diamond

• Made up of ...................................................................

• ........................................................... is covalently bonded to ...................................................................

................................................................... in a three-dimensional network of tetrahedral arrangement.

Page 6 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials

2. Graphite

• Made up of layers of carbon atoms

• Within each layer:

o ................................................................... is covalently bonded to

................................................................... to form a continuous layer of hexagons.

• Between layers:

o Layers are held by ...................................................................

3. Silicon (IV) oxide

Aka silicon dioxide / silica / sand

• ................................................ is covalently bonded to ................................................

and ................................................ is covalently bonded to ................................................ in a three-

dimensional network of tetrahedral arrangement.

Page 7 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials

(D) Metallic Bonding

Metal atoms are held together by metallic bonding.

Positive metal ions

Free electrons from the valence

shell of metal atoms form a “sea
of delocalised electrons”

The metal atoms lose their ........................................... to become ..........................................................

The valence electrons of metal atoms can move freely throughout the metal, they are said to be
delocalised.

The metallic bond is the ............................................................................. between the .............................

...................................................... and the .............................................................................

Structure of metals

Metals have a giant metallic lattice structure.

Draw a diagram representing the structure below.

Checklist
Positive metal ions are closely packed in a
regular arrangement
Chemical symbols and charges are written
Sea of delocalised electrons is drawn

Page 8 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials

(E) Properties of ionic compounds

Structure
• Ionic substances have ................................................................................
• The lattice consists of ................................... of ........................ positive ions (cations) and negative ions
(anions) held together by .................................................................................

Example:
Sodium Chloride

In a lattice, millions of sodium and chloride ions are arranged in an

orderly manner held by ionic bonds. In this case, each sodium ion is
surrounded by 6 chloride ions and each chloride ion is surrounded by 6
sodium ions, giving a ratio of sodium ions to chloride ions 1:1. Hence
the formula is NaCl

Physical Properties

Properties Reason

Melting and Ionic compounds generally

boiling point
have ........................ melting and Ionic compounds
boiling points. have .......................................................
Strength and
Hence, ................................... is required
flexibility
Ionic compounds to ......................... the ............................................
are ........................ ........................between its positive ions and
but ......................... negative ions.

Solubility Ionic compounds Refer to solubility table for detailed information.

are ...........................................but • All Group I, ammonium and nitrate salts are
........................................... soluble
• All chlorides are soluble except silver chloride
(Mainly contain C, O and H e.g. and lead(II) chloride
oil and ethanol) • All sulfates are soluble except barium sulfate,
calcium sulfate and lead(II) sulfate
• All carbonates are insoluble except for Group
1 and ammonium carbonates (i.e. point 1)
Electrical Ionic compounds conduct
conductivity
electricity In solid state, ions are ...........................................
in ............................................ In molten or aqueous state, ions
They do not conduct electricity are ........................, acting as free mobile charged
in ............................................ carriers.

Page 9 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials

Let’s try

1. Which of the following substance is likely to be rubidium chloride? Ans: ________

Substance Melting Conducts electricity

point in solid state in molten state in aqueous
(OC) solution
A 1030 good good good
B 718 none good good
C -100 none none none
D 15 none none good
2. The incomplete diagram below represents the arrangement of the ions in crystals of either sodium
chloride or magnesium oxide.

(a) (i) Complete the diagram by adding the missing ions.

(ii) How does this crystal structure explain the fact that neither sodium chloride nor
magnesium oxide conduct an electric current when in the solid state?

.……………….............................……………………………………………….……………

.……………….............................……………………………………………….……………

.……………….............................……………………………………………….……………

Page 10 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials
(iii) What feature of the ions in the two compounds explains why the melting point of
magnesium oxide, 2 800 °C, is much higher than that of sodium chloride, 801 °C?

.……………….............................……………………………………………….……………

.……………….............................……………………………………………….……………

.……………….............................……………………………………………….……………

(b) Give a commercial use of magnesium oxide which depends on the high value for its melting
point.

..………………….............................……………………………………………….………………

..………………….............................……………………………………………….………………

3. This information comes from a website about salt.

Common Salt

Salt contains a compound sodium chloride. A single salt crystal consists of a vast ionic lattice sodium
and chloride ions.

This lattice structure means that the salt crystals are very hard and have regular shapes.

A very important use of salt is to provide the huge amounts of chlorine that are used everyday.
Chlorine is made industrially by the electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride. This
produces chlorine as an element.

Explain why the lattice structure of sodium chloride causes the crystals to be ‘very hard’ and have
‘regular shapes’.

…………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………

4. Explain why solid sodium chloride cannot conduct electricity but in molten or aqueous state, is a
conductor?

…………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………

Page 11 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials
(F) Properties of covalent compounds

Structure

Structure
Simple molecular The atoms in simple covalent molecules are held together by strong covalent
substances bonds.

The simple covalent molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces
of attraction.

Example: Oxygen gas (O2)

Giant covalent The atoms in giant covalent structures are connected to one another via strong
substances covalent bonds.

Example: Diamond, graphite and silicon dioxide (silica/sand)

Macromolecules A polymer consists of many covalent molecules joined into chains of much
larger molecules.

Example: Margarine, polyvinylchloride (PVC) plastic, styrofoam, nylon

Page 12 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials
Physical Properties

Properties Simple molecular substances Giant covalent substances

Melting Simple covalent molecules Giant covalent structures have ...................
and
have ................... melting and boiling melting and boiling points.
boiling
point points
Diamond has a giant covalent structure.
Simple covalent molecules Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to
have ........................................................... four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral
Hence, ……………………. is needed arrangement which is uniformly strong
to ………………… the …………………… throughout. …………………………. is
………………………… between molecules needed to …………………. the ……………
………………………………………………….
The intermolecular forces of attraction
become stronger as the molecule gets Silicon dioxide has a giant covalent
larger. structure. Each silicon atom is covalently
bonded to four other oxygen atoms and each
Larger molecules have higher melting and oxygen atom is covalently bonded to two
boiling points. silicon atom. ……………………………. is
needed to ………………………...………..
the ……………………………………………..
………………………………………………….

Graphite has a giant covalent structure.

Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to
three other carbon atoms arranged in
hexagonal rings in layer. …………………… is
required to …………………………………
the ……………………………………………..
………………………………………………….
Solubility Most simple covalent molecules Giant covalent molecules
are ……………………. in water are ………………………. in water and
but …………………… in organic solvents. organic solvents.

Page 13 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials
Electrical Most simple covalent molecules Giant covalent molecules
conductivity
are ……………………………………………. are …………………………………………….
due to due to the …………………………………….
the …………………………………….. ……………………………….. that can act as
………………………. that can act as mobile charge carriers e.g. diamond.
mobile charge carriers.
In diamond, ………………………………….
(Exceptions are acids e.g. HCl, which can of carbon are used for bonding hence there
–
+
dissociate in water to form H and Cl ions) is ……………………………………………..
to act as mobile charged carrier.

In silicon dioxide, ………………………….

of silicon and oxygen are used for bonding
hence there is ……………………………….
……………………………. to act as mobile
charged carrier.

Exception: Graphite is able to conduct

electricity. In graphite, each carbon atom is
bonded to three other carbon atoms. There
is …………………………….. in the carbon
atom that is not used in bonding. This
electron is …………………….. and able to
act as mobile charge carrier.

Page 14 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials
Hardness Diamond is ……………. due to
the …………………………………………….
……………………………….. in the giant
molecular structure where 1 carbon atom is
covalently bonded to 4 other carbon atoms thus
requiring ………………………………. to
overcome these strong covalent bonds.

Silicon dioxide is ……………… due to

the ……………………………………………..
……………………………………………….. in the
giant molecular structure where 1 silicon atom is
covalently bonded to 4 other oxygen atoms and
1 oxygen atom is covalently bonded to 2 silicon
atoms thus
requiring ………………………………. to
overcome these strong covalent bonds.

Graphite are ………………………………… as

layers of carbon atoms are held loosely by weak
intermolecular forces of attraction.
Layers ………………………………………..
when a force is applied.

Properties Macromolecules
Melting and boiling point Most polymers are solids are room temperatures due to their large size.
They do not have fixed melting or boiling points as they typically consist of
molecules of a range of sizes.
Solubility Most macromolecules are insoluble in water and soluble in organic
solvents.
Electrical conductivity Most macromolecules cannot conduct electricity in any states due to the
absence of mobile ions and electrons.

Page 15 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials

Let’s try

1. The melting points of oxides of the third period elements are given below.

Compound Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O6 SO2 Cl2O

Melting point /
*1275 2800 2045 1700 24 -73 -20
C
*sublime

(a) Using 'dot and cross' to represent the electrons, draw an electronic diagram to show the
bonding in Na2O.

(b) Using 'dot and cross' to represent the outermost electrons, draw an electronic diagram to
show the bonding in Cl2O.

(c) Explain in terms of structure, why the melting point of SiO2 and P4O6 are so different.

..………………….............................……………………………………………….………………

..………………….............................……………………………………………….………………

..………………….............................……………………………………………….………………

..………………….............................……………………………………………….………………

2. Explain in terms of bonding and structure, the differences between the melting point of ammonia gas
(NH3) and diamond.

…………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………

Page 16 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials

3. The structures of diamond and graphite is shown below.

Strong bonds

Weak
Intermolecular
forces of
attraction

Diamond
Graphite

(a) Name the type of strong bond shown on the diagram.

..………………….............................……………………………………………….………………

(b) Diamond has a melting point of 3700 oC and graphite has a melting point of 3300 oC.

Explain why both diamond and graphite have very high melting points.

..………………….............................……………………………………………….………………

..………………….............................……………………………………………….………………

..………………….............................……………………………………………….………………

(c) Compare the electrical conductivity of diamond and graphite. Explain your answer.

..………………….............................……………………………………………….………………

..………………….............................……………………………………………….………………

..………………….............................……………………………………………….………………

Page 17 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials

(G) Properties of metals

Metals are found mainly in Group 1, 2 and the middle block (known as transition elements) of the Periodic
Table.

Structure

• Metals have a ........................................................ structure.

• Atoms in pure metals arranged in a ............................ manner.

Page 18 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials

Physical properties

Properties Reason

Melting and
boiling point Metals have ................
melting and boiling points. Metals have ..................................................................

(hence, they typically exist Hence, .................................................... is required

as solids at r.t.p.)
to ........................... the ................................................

.................. between its positively charged metal ions

and sea of delocalised electrons.

Malleable and Metals are malleable and Malleable: Can be bent or flattened into a thin sheet
Ductile ductile Ductile: Can be drawn into wires without breaking

Atoms in pure metals are in

a ..................................................... If enough force is

applied, the ........................... of atoms

can ..................................................................................

Solubility Metals are insoluble in

water or organic solvents

Electrical Metals conduct electricity

conductivity in ............................. There are ....................................... electrons, acting as
and ............................ free mobile charged carriers.
state.

Thermal Metals are also good The sea of delocalised electrons that move freely
conductivity conductors of heat around the metallic structure can transfer energy
quickly.

Page 19 of 20
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Chapter 5: Structure and Properties of Materials
(H) Properties of alloys

Pure metals are often soft and have a limited range of uses. As such, we often mix the metals with other
elements to form a mixture called an alloy.

An alloy is a mixture of a metal with ........................................................................................

e.g. brass (copper and zinc), bronze (copper and tin), steel (iron and carbon), etc.

Properties of alloys
• Stronger and harder than pure metals
Reason:
- Atoms of different elements are made up of different sizes,
- regular arrangement of atoms om pure metal is disrupted.
- Hence, atoms cannot slide over each other easily when a force is applied.

• Improve appearance of metals e.g. pewter (tin, antimony, copper)

• Lower melting points of metals e.g. solder (tin and lead)
• Resistant to corrosion e.g. stainless steel (iron, carbon, chromium, nickel), cupronickel (copper and
nickel)

Different types of steel

• Mild steel: Low carbon steel having 0.25% carbon; strong but malleable; used for car bodies, ships,
bridges, railway lines and steel rods.
• Hard steel: High carbon steel having about 1% carbon. Stronger than mild steel but brittle [too much
disruption of layers, when a force is applied the metal fractures]; used to make cutting tools such as
knives, hammers, saws, etc.
• Stainless steel: iron with large amount of chromium and nickel added; hard, shiny and does not
rush; used to make cutlery, medical instruments.

Page 20 of 20
Name : ______________________________

Class : Sec 3 ( ) ___________________ Date : ___________

CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS

Periodic Groups: 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 0
1+ 2+ 3+ NA 3- 2- 1- No charge
Common elements between Group 2 and 13:
Copper (Cu): 2+ or 1+
Iron (Fe) 2+ or 3+
*Lead (Pb) 2+ or 4+
Zinc (Zn) 2+
Silver (Ag) 1+
Others:
Ammonium (NH4) 1+ Carbonate (CO3) 2-
Hydroxide (OH) 1- Sulfate (SO4) 2-
Nitrate (NO3) 1- Phosphate (PO4) 3-
Mono - 1
Di - 2 (H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2 etc are all diatomic)
Tri - 3
Tetra - 4

Acid / Alkali:
• Hydrochloric acid HCl
• Nitric acid HNO3
• Sulfuric acid H2SO4
• Phosphoric acid H3PO4
• Ammonia gas: NH3
• Aqueous ammonia / ammonia solution: NH3.H2O

Page 1 of 6
Chapter 6: Chemical Formulae and Equations
Let’s try:

1. Write the chemical formulae for the following ionic compounds:

(a) sodium nitrate: ……………………………. (f) ammonium sulfate: ………………………

(b) magnesium nitrate: ................................... (g) copper(II) sulfate: ...............................

(c) barium hydroxide: .................................. (h) aluminium carbonate: .............................

(d) sodium sulfate : …………………………… (i) zinc carbonate: …………………………..

(e) calcium sulfide: ..................................... (j) iron(II) hydroxide: ..................................

2. Write the chemical formulae for the following compounds:

(a) (i) nitric acid: …………………………………..

hydrogen gas: ……………………………..

(b) (j) sulfuric acid: ………………………………

oxygen gas: ………………………………..

(c) (k) nitrogen dioxide gas: ……………………

nitrogen gas: ………………………………..

(d) (l) hydrogen chloride: ...............................

chlorine gas: ………………………………..

(e) (m) methane gas: ........................................

fluorine gas: …………………………..……

(f) (n) sulfur dioxide gas: ………………………

iodine crystals: ……………………………..

(g) (o) ammonia gas: …………………………

bromine liquid: ……………………………..

(h) hydrochloric acid: ..................................... (p) carbon monoxide: ..................................

3. Write the chemical name for the following compounds:

(a) Cu2CO3 : …………………………….. (d) PbSO4: ……………………

(b) NH4Cl: ..................................... (e) AgF: ...............................

(c) Fe(OH)3: .................................... (h) Ca3N2: …………………………………..

Page 2 of 6
Chapter 6: Chemical Formulae and Equations
(A) Chemical Equations

Balance the following chemical equations

1. …….H2 (g) + ……. Cl2 (g) → …….. HCl (g)

2. …….Fe (s) + ……. Cl2 (g) → …….. FeCl3 (aq)

State Physical
Symbol state
3. …….Al (s) + ……. O2 (g) → …….. Al2O3 (s) (s) solid
(l) liquid
(g) gas
4. …….CaO (s) → …….. Ca (s) + …….. O2 (g) (aq) aqueous

5. …….AgNO3 (aq) → …….. Ag (s) + ……. NO2 (g) + ……. O2 (g)

6. ……. CuCO3 (s) + ……. HNO3 (aq) → ……. Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + ……. CO2 (g) + ……. H2O (l)

7. ……. KI (aq) + ……. Pb(NO3)2 (aq) → ……. PbI2 (s) + ……. KNO3 (aq)

8. ……. CaCO3 (s) + ……. HCl (aq) → ……. CaCl2 (aq) + ……. CO2 (g) + …….H2O (l)

Including state symbols

Soluble salt: ______________

Solid (e.g. metal / powder) or insoluble salt: ______________

Liquid (usually H2O or “molten”): ______________

Gas / Vapour (e.g. O2, CO2, N2, H2, F2, Cl2): ______________

Solubility Rules
• All Group I, ammonium and nitrate salts are soluble
• All chlorides salts are soluble except lead and silver
• All sulfates salts are soluble except calcium, barium and lead
• All carbonate / phosphate salts are insoluble except Group I and Ammonium
• All hydroxides / oxides salts are insoluble except Group I, Ammonium, Calcium and Barium

Page 3 of 6
Chapter 6: Chemical Formulae and Equations
Let’s try
Circle the correct state symbol for the following substances:

(a) carbon dioxide (s) / (l) / (g) / (aq)

(b) zinc (s) / (l) / (g) / (aq)

(c) hydrochloric acid (s) / (l) / (g) / (aq)

(d) lead(II) carbonate (s) / (l) / (g) / (aq)

(e) silver chloride (s) / (l) / (g) / (aq)

(f) water (s) / (l) / (g) / (aq)

(g) water vapour (s) / (l) / (g) / (aq)

(h) calcium (s) / (l) / (g) / (aq)

Example:
Write a balanced chemical equation (with state symbols) for the following word equations:

(a) sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water

(b) magnesium + sulfuric acid → magnesium sulfate + hydrogen gas

Let’s try:
Write a balanced chemical equations (with state symbols) for the following word equations:

(a) zinc + hydrochloric acid → zinc chloride + hydrogen

(b) potassium bromide + chlorine gas → potassium chloride + aqueous bromine

(c) sodium carbonate + sulfuric acid → sodium sulfate + carbon dioxide gas + water

Page 4 of 6
Chapter 6: Chemical Formulae and Equations
(B) Ionic equations

Example 1:
When aqueous sodium chloride is added to aqueous silver nitrate, a white precipitate of silver chloride is
formed.
Step
1 Construct a balanced
chemical equation with AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
state symbols.
2 Split substances in the
aqueous state into their
constituent ions.

3 Cancel out the ions that

appear on both sides of
the equation.

4 Rewrite as ionic
equation.

Example 2:
When sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid are reacted, sodium chloride and water are formed.
Step
1 Construct a balanced
chemical equation with NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
state symbols.
2 Split substances in the
aqueous state into their
constituent ions.

3 Cancel out the ions that

appear on both sides of
the equation.

4 Rewrite as ionic
equation.

Page 5 of 6
Chapter 6: Chemical Formulae and Equations
Let’s try:
Write a balanced ionic equation for the following reactions:

(a) HNO3 (aq) + NaOH (aq) → Na NO3 (aq) + H2O (l)

(b) H2SO4 (aq) + 2KOH (aq) → K2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

(c) Na2CO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

(d) Na2SO4 (aq) + Ba(NO3)2 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

(e) O2 (g) + H2 (g) →2H2O (l)

Page 6 of 6