CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

EMERGING ADULTS

Emerging adulthood, which is usually considered to be the years between 18 and 25, is
recognized as a special stage of development between adolescence and adulthood. The theory
of emerging adulthood, as put forward by Arnett (2000), highlights the significance of this
stage as a time of exploration and transition, where there is a gradual progression towards
adulthood. In this regard, emerging adulthood is different from adolescence, where the role of
parents and society plays a dominant part. In contrast, this stage allows for more freedom and
independence for individuals to take their own life choices in matters related to education,
career, relationships, and values. This stage of development is recognized as being special and
distinct from the rest of the developmental process. This is because, at this stage, individuals
are neither adolescents nor adults but are in a state of being “in between,” as described by
Arnett (2001) and Nelson & Barry (2005).

One of the most defining characteristics of emerging adulthood is identity exploration.

During this phase in life, people explore different possibilities in terms of education, career,
relationships, and belief systems. Erikson proposed that identity formation is one of the major
developmental tasks in adolescence. However, Arnett proposed that identity formation is
more pronounced in emerging adulthood due to the numerous opportunities provided in this
phase. This is because emerging adults explore different possibilities in terms of goals and
values through experimentation and reconsideration before making any long-term
commitment in life. This phase in life is significant because it allows people to form a sense
of self, which is essential in ensuring their psychological well-being in the future. However,
identity exploration in emerging adulthood may also be characterized by confusion and
ambiguity in cases where people encounter conflicting views from their family members,
society, and personal goals.

Another major feature of emerging adulthood is the instability in all aspects of life. This is the
period when individuals experience a series of changes in all aspects of life, such as living
location, educational pursuits, employment, and interpersonal relationships (Arnett, 2004).
For example, many young people change their living locations in search of better educational
and job opportunities. This, in one way, affects their lives significantly. However, it is
considered a normative developmental experience in life, and it helps individuals become
adaptable and flexible in life (Schulenberg et al., 2004). This experience is also linked to the
development of individual resilience and self-regulation (Masten, 2001). Finally, emerging
adulthood is characterized by the gradual development of independence. This is the period
when young people gradually begin to take responsibility for their own lives and decisions.
However, support from family members is still very important in life, especially during this
period (Arnett, 2000; Fingerman et al., 2012).

Significant changes also take place in social, cognitive, and emotional development domains
in emerging adulthood. Social development in this period includes changes in social
relationships from family-oriented relationships to peer- and romance-oriented relationships,
which enhance emotional intimacy, mutual support, and social competency (Collins & van
Dulmen, 2006; Furman & Shaffer, 2003). Cognitive development in this period includes
significant progress in higher-order thinking skills, abstract reasoning, problem-solving, and
decision-making capabilities, which facilitate an individual’s ability to cope with the
complexities of adult life (Keating, 2004). Emotional development in this period includes
changes in emotions ranging from positive emotions like optimism and thrill to negative
emotions like stress, anxiety, and self-doubts (Arnett, 2004; Tanner, 2006). Such changes in
emotions facilitate the development of coping skills in an individual that are essential for
adjustment in life. Moreover, culture also plays an important role in shaping emerging
adulthood in an individual’s life. In collectivistic societies like India, family obligations,
social norms, and cultural values play an important role in influencing an individual’s
decisions in terms of education, career choices, and romance (Kagitcibasi, 2007; Sinha,
2014).

In this context of modern times, it is seen that emerging adults are facing an environment
where there is an increasing rate of technological changes on one hand, and academic and
professional pressures on the other. With the advent of digital technologies, social media
platforms have become an essential part of people’s daily life, affecting communication
styles, information accessibility, and lifestyle habits (Pew Research Centre, 2019; Kaur &
Kaur, 2019). On the other hand, academic and professional pressures require effective time
management skills, attention, and self-regulation capabilities. In this context, it is seen that
behavioural patterns such as excessive engagement in online activities and procrastination
have become an increasing concern among emerging adults. This may have significant
implications on their psychological well-being, defined as an individual’s positive
functioning, emotional stability, self-acceptance, and a sense of purpose in life (Ryff, 1989;
Keyes et al., 2002). Thus, it is imperative to gain an in-depth understanding of emerging
adults as a developmental group to analyse how social media usage and procrastination act as
a predictor of their psychological well-being in this critical period of life.

1.1 Social Media Usage

1.1.1 Phenomenology of Social Media Usage

Social media is defined as the digital platforms that provide people the ability to create, share,
and exchange information, ideas, and content in virtual environments. Social media is derived
from the more general term computer mediated communication, which is characterized by the
importance of interaction and the role of digital technology in the process. Social media
platforms such as Instagram, WhatsApp, Facebook, YouTube, and Snapchat provide people
the ability to interact and communicate through text, images, audio, and video formats,
thereby transforming the traditional forms of interaction into dynamic, interactive, and
participatory forms of interaction (American Psychological Association, 2022). Social media
is distinguished from other forms of media in that it is user-driven and interactive, providing
people the ability to engage in the creation of content, the sharing of information, and social
interaction. Social media is an essential part of the lives of people in contemporary society,
particularly young and emerging adult populations.

1.1.2 Social Media Usage – An Overview

In terms of psychological studies, social media usage is defined as “the degree to which
people use social media in their daily life in terms of quantity, quality, and manner”
(Andreassen, 2015; Montag et al., 2021). Social media usage is a multifaceted construct that
includes quantitative and qualitative aspects of social media usage. Quantitative aspects
include time spent on social media usage and how often it is used, while qualitative aspects
include the nature and purposes of social media usage and the emotions associated with it.
Social media usage among emerging adults is an integral part of academic, social, and
personal life and is used as a medium for communication, entertainment, information
searching, self-expression, and social validation (APA, 2022).

[Link] Definition

Social media usage can be defined as the degree to which individuals engage with digital
platforms for communication, content creation, information exchange, and social interaction,
measured in terms of frequency, duration, intensity, and type of use (Andreassen, 2015;
Montag et al., 2021). It includes both active usages, such as creating and sharing content or
interacting with others, and passive usage, such as browsing and observing others’ content
without direct interaction (Verduyn et al., 2017). In the present study, social media usage is
conceptualized as a behavioural and psychological construct that influences individuals’
interaction with their environment, as well as their emotional regulation and cognitive
processes.

1.1.3 Dimensions of Social Media Usage

Social media usage is multifaceted in nature and includes different dimensions in terms of its
usage. One dimension is related to the quantity of social media usage, including the time
spent on social media and its usage frequency. Another dimension is related to the nature of
social media usage, where it is differentiated into active engagement and passive engagement
in terms of communication and content creation, and observation and content consumption,
respectively (Verduyn et al., 2017). Social media usage is also differentiated in terms of its
purposes, including social relations, information search, entertainment, self-presentation, and
emotional regulation (Whiting & Williams, 2013). Another dimension is related to the
diversity of social media usage in terms of the usage of multiple social media platforms at
one time due to multiple purposes. Social media usage is also differentiated into balanced and
problematic usage in terms of excessive usage, preoccupation with usage, difficulty in
controlling usage, and continued usage despite negative consequences (Andreassen, 2015;
Griffiths, 2005).

1.1.4 Differentiation of Social Media Usage

It is important to differentiate social media usage from other related behaviours. Balanced or
normative social media usage is characterized by controlled and intentional usage that does
not impact daily functioning. On the other hand, excessive social media usage is
characterized by compulsive usage, difficulty in controlling usage, and neglecting academic,
professional, or personal responsibilities (Montag et al., 2021). Social media usage may also
be differentiated into low, moderate, or heavy usage in terms of the degree and duration of
usage (Andreassen, 2015). Another differentiation is that social media usage may be termed
active or passive usage, where active usage is more related to social interaction and building
relationships compared to passive usage, which is more related to social comparison and is
linked more with negative emotions and poor emotional well-being (Verduyn et al., 2017).
This shows that social media usage effects vary not just in terms of the volume but also in
terms of nature and intent of usage.

1.1.5 Effects of Social Media Usage on Human Life and Well-Being

Social media usage has both positive and negative effects on human life and well-being. The
positive effects include improved communication, enhanced social relationships, and access
to information and social support networks, which can lead to social capital formation and a
sense of belonging (Ellison et al., 2007; Burke & Kraut, 2016). Social media usage also
allows for self-expression, identity formation, and professional networking, which is
particularly important in emerging adulthood (Rosenthal et al., 2016; APA, 2022). However,
problematic social media usage has been consistently associated with increased levels of
anxiety, depression, loneliness, and stress (Kross et al., 2013; Primack et al., 2017; Aalbers et
al., 2019). It has also been associated with sleep problems, low levels of physical activity, and
poor academic performance (Woods & Scott, 2016; Orben, 2020). Moreover, excessive
exposure to unrealistic images of other people’s lives can result in increased social
comparisons, body image concerns, and low self-esteem (Vogel et al., 2014; Fardouly &
Vartanian, 2016). Bad online experiences, including cyberbullying and fear of missing out
(FoMO), are associated with emotional distress and poor psychological well-being (Kowalski
et al., 2014; Przybylski et al., 2013).

1.1.6 Theoretical Foundations of Social Media Usage

[Link] Uses and Gratifications Theory

The Uses and Gratifications Theory, developed by (Katz, Blumler, Gurevitch, 1973) and
further developed by (Ruggiero, 2000), assumes that the individual is an active agent and that
media use is a function of the individual's needs and desires. The needs and desires that are
usually fulfilled by the media include the need for information, the need for entertainment,
the need to form an identity, the need for social interaction, and the need for emotional
catharsis. The Uses and Gratifications Theory is particularly relevant in the case of social
media because it is intended to fulfill all the needs and desires of the individual at the same
time. Young people in the emerging adult stage often turn to social media to maintain social
relationships, gain social validation, express themselves, and cope with stress and boredom
(Quan Haase & Young, 2010; Whiting & Williams, 2013). The instant satisfaction that social
media provides encourages the individual to indulge in social media use repeatedly. However,
the over-reliance of the individual on social media for instant gratification and emotional
satisfaction could lead to the development of bad habits.

[Link] Social Comparison Theory

Social Comparison Theory, as presented by Festinger in 1954, implies that humans have an
innate need to evaluate themselves by comparing their abilities, looks, and achievements with
those of other people, especially in the absence of objective measures. The proliferation of
social media has heightened this phenomenon, with users constantly exposed to perfect
representations of other people’s lives. For example, Instagram and Facebook may feature
selected highlights of other people’s lives, which may not necessarily be representative of the
true nature of their lives. Emerging adults, who are still in the process of developing their
self-concept, may be adversely affected by upward social comparison, which may result in
feelings of inadequacy, low self-esteem, and discontentment (Vogel et al., 2014; Fardouly &
Vartanian, 2016). This may have a detrimental effect on their self-esteem and mental health,
although positive feedback and validation may have a positive impact on their self-esteem.

[Link] Social Capital Theory

The theory of Social Capital Theory is primarily concerned with the advantages that people
receive from their relationships with others (Ellison et al., 2007). Social capital can be
divided into two sub-theories, namely bonding social capital, which is characterized by close
relationships with people who offer emotional support, and bridging social capital, which
refers to relationships that offer access to new information (Ellison et al., 2007). Social media
helps people to achieve both bonding and bridging social capital by providing an opportunity
for people to maintain their existing relationships while at the same time creating new ones
despite their geographical distance. For emerging adults, social media is an essential tool for
networking, cooperating, and gaining access to academic and professional opportunities,
while at the same time providing emotional support through interactions with their peers
(Burke & Kraut, 2016). Despite the advantages offered by social media, the quality of social
capital that people receive from their interactions with others is dependent on the nature of
their interactions, which can sometimes lead to loneliness despite their high connectivity
(Verduyn et al., 2017).

[Link] Fear of Missing Out (FoMO)

Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) is described as an “ubiquitous fear that others may be having an
enjoyable experience that one is missing” (Przybylski et al., 2013). This construct is also
related to the need to belong socially and is more significant in emerging adulthood due to its
sensitivity to peer inclusion. Social media also fuels this fear because it provides users with
updates on other people’s experiences and accomplishments, making it compulsive to check
and engage on social media sites. High levels of Fear of Missing Out have been associated
with increased levels of stress, anxiety, low life satisfaction, and poor psychological well-
being (Tandon et al., 2021). Fear of Missing Out also disrupts sleep patterns, attention, and
productivity, creating an imbalance in online engagement and real-life activities.

[Link] Behavioural Addiction Model

The Behavioural Addiction Model, developed by Griffiths (2005) and used to describe social
media usage in Andreassen (2015), suggests that problematic social media usage is a form of
related non-substance addiction. Behaviours become addictive when they display a set of
characteristics including salience, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, and relapse. Social media
usage is an inherently rewarding experience because it provides instant feedback, social
validation, and constant stimulation through features like notifications and algorithmic
content delivery. Emerging adults are more prone to developing problematic social media
usage due to their inherent characteristics, including heightened emotional sensitivity, self-
exploration, and a high need for peer approval (Kuss & Griffiths, 2017). Problematic social
media usage is linked to a range of negative consequences including anxiety, depression,
academic underperformance, and poor psychological well-being (Bányai et al., 2017; Montag
et al., 2021). The Behavioural Addiction Model offers a complete aetiological explanation for
how social media usage may progress from normal usage to addictive and disordered usage.

Contextualizing Social Media Usage in Emerging Adulthood

In terms of developmental context, social media usage is of great importance in the context of
emerging adulthood, especially in terms of increasing independence, exploration of identity,
and the need for social validation (Arnett, 2000; Arnett, 2004). Social media usage is a
common feature among emerging adults, and they often engage in self-expression,
relationship maintenance, and exploration of social roles. However, the sensitivity to peer
evaluation, social comparison, and the need for self-regulation make them susceptible to
problematic social media usage (Przybylski et al., 2013; Montag et al., 2021). Therefore,
social media usage is of great importance in terms of the psychological experience and
overall well-being of individuals.

1.2 Procrastination

1.2.1 Nature of Procrastination

Procrastination is a behavioural phenomenon observed in people, characterized by a delay in

executing intended goals despite being aware of negative outcomes. The term procrastination
has been derived from a Latin word, “procrastinate,” meaning “putting off till tomorrow.”
From a psychological perspective, procrastination is not just a matter of poor management of
time but a complex interplay of various psychological processes. People tend to avoid
executing important tasks and substitute them with activities that can provide them immediate
pleasure. Procrastination, unlike mere avoidance, is a form of irrational behaviour, as people
are aware of the possible negative outcomes of their delay but continue to exhibit such
behaviour (Steel, 2007). This phenomenon has been observed among people in professional
or academic environments where there is a need to exhibit discipline.

1.2.2 Conceptual Understanding of Procrastination

Procrastination is defined as a problem in self-regulation in which an individual is said to

face difficulties in the initiation and/or completion of a task within a given timeframe
(Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996). Procrastination is said to include behaviours such as the
avoidance of the initiation of a task, the inability to complete a task within the set deadline,
and the avoidance of responsibilities and duties. Procrastination is said to occur in various
forms and in all aspects of life, including the academic, working, and personal lives of
individuals. In the lives of students, for example, academic procrastination is said to be
highly prevalent and is characterized by the avoidance of study, the inability to complete
assignments, and the avoidance of examination preparations (Steel, 2007; Svartdal et al.,
2020).

[Link] Definition

Procrastination is defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite

expecting to be worse off as a result of that delay (Steel, 2007). It represents a maladaptive
behavioural pattern associated with difficulties in time management, emotional regulation,
and impulse control. Unlike planned delay, which is strategic and purposeful, procrastination
is unnecessary and frequently counterproductive. In the present study, procrastination is
regarded as a behavioural tendency that affects productivity, emotional well-being, and
overall functioning.

1.2.3 Forms and Characteristics of Procrastination

Procrastination has been described in various forms depending on the context and causes of
the behaviour. Academic procrastination entails delays in carrying out academic-related tasks.
Decisional procrastination entails delays in decision-making due to uncertainty and fear of
consequences. Behavioural procrastination entails delays in executing tasks, and emotional
procrastination entails delays in executing tasks that result in negative emotions such as
anxiety and boredom (Ferrari et al., 1995). Procrastination has also been described as either
active or passive. Active procrastination entails deliberately delaying tasks but still manages
to complete them on time, while passive procrastination entails inability to complete tasks
due to poor time management skills (Chu & Choi, 2005). This shows that procrastination is a
multidimensional construct that is influenced by individual and situational factors.

1.2.4 Differentiation of Procrastination

Procrastination must be differentiated from other constructs such as laziness, avoidance, and
planned delay. Laziness refers to a lack of motivation to act, but procrastination refers to
motivation to act but not acting. Avoidance may be caused by fear or anxiety, but
procrastination refers to intentionally delaying an activity with full knowledge of the negative
consequences of such behaviour (Steel, 2007). Planned delay refers to intentionally delaying
an activity to obtain better outcomes. Procrastination may also range from mild to severe.
This shows that procrastination is a distinct psychological construct.

1.2.5 Effects of Procrastination on Human Life and Well Being

Consequences of procrastination are significant, both with respect to performance and

psychological well-being. While it can provide temporary relief from unpleasant tasks, it can
have serious consequences if procrastination is practiced over time. It can lead to increased
stress, anxiety, guilt, and reduced productivity (Tice & Baumeister, 1997). Academic
achievement, failure to meet deadlines, and poor performance outcomes are the consequences
of chronic procrastination (Steel, 2007). In addition, it can affect an individual’s emotional
state, self-esteem, psychological distress, and their regular routine, thereby decreasing their
level of life satisfaction (Sirois, 2014). These consequences clearly indicate the need to
consider procrastination as an important factor.
1.2.6 Theoretical Perspectives of Procrastination

[Link] Temporal Motivation Theory

Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT), developed by Steel (2007), is an overarching theory

that explains procrastination by incorporating other theories, including expectancy theory,
hyperbolic discounting, and need theory. Based on TMT, motivation is influenced by four
factors: expectancy (self-confidence in the ability to complete the task), value (importance of
the task), impulsiveness (preference for instant gratification), and delay (time prior to the
receipt of rewards). This theory suggests that motivation is reduced when rewards are not
readily available, i.e., they are delayed, and it is increased when time is limited, i.e., when
deadlines are near. This explains why people often procrastinate until the last minute.
Difficult or less rewarding tasks are likely to be delayed, especially if they can be replaced
with instant gratifiers, e.g., using social media. This is, therefore, an example of the decision-
making process where instant gratifiers are considered over future rewards.

[Link] Self-Regulation Theory

According to Self-Regulation Theory, procrastination is defined as an inability to self-

regulate thoughts, emotions, and behaviours in relation to long-term goals (Baumeister &
Heatherton, 1996). Self-regulation includes processes like goal setting, planning, progress
monitoring, impulsivity control, and motivation maintenance. People with good self-
regulatory skills tend to be more effective in starting tasks and persevering despite
environmental barriers, while those with poor self-regulatory skills tend to procrastinate more
often. Such factors as cognitive overload, emotional upsets, and physical exhaustion also
undermine self-regulatory capabilities and make people more prone to procrastination,
especially in academic settings. This approach suggests that procrastination is not merely an
issue related to time management but also a behavioural issue.

[Link] Mood Repair Theory

Mood Repair Theory suggests that procrastination is an emotion-focused coping mechanism,

which is used to avoid negative emotions that occur when an individual is involved in task
performance (Sirois, 2014). For instance, if an individual is performing a task that makes him
or her anxious, bored, or doubtful, they will avoid the task by engaging in other activities that
can repair their mood, such as watching the media or using social media. This theory suggests
that procrastination is not due to cognitive or organisational difficulties. Instead, it is due to
the negative emotions associated with task performance. This theory, therefore, highlights the
emotional perspective of procrastination.

[Link] Expectancy-Value Theory

Expectancy Value Theory, as presented by Eccles and Wigfield (2002), states that motivation
to engage in a task is influenced by expectancy, or the belief in one’s ability to be successful
in the task, and by the value of the task, or how important and useful the task is. A decrease in
either of these factors will result in lower motivation, thus increasing the chances of
procrastination. The theory also considers the cost of the task, including how difficult it is,
how it will make one feel, and how afraid one is of failing. A task that is difficult, not
important, and not rewarding enough will likely be put off by an individual. For emerging
adults, changes in self-confidence and priorities may result in unbalanced expectancy and
value, thereby increasing the chances of procrastination.

[Link] Psychodynamic Perspective

The psychodynamic perspective considers procrastination to be a product of unconscious

conflicts and defence mechanisms, which help protect the person from psychological
discomfort (Ferrari et al., 1995). Procrastination can be a result of some fears, such as the fear
of failure, the fear of success, and the fear of evaluation. It helps in maintaining self-esteem
and reducing anxiety. Procrastination is also a result of perfectionism, as high standards lead
to avoidance. However, procrastination is not beneficial in the end, as it leads to negative
psychological and functional consequences.

[Link] Self-Determination Theory

According to Self Determination Theory (SDT) put forward by Deci and Ryan (1985),
procrastination is caused by unmet psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and
relatedness. If a task is perceived as externally controlled, imposed, or irrelevant, then there is
a decrease in intrinsic motivation, resulting in disengagement and procrastination. In addition,
if a task is perceived as a challenge to competence, then procrastination might result from a
fear of failure. In the life of an emerging adult, academic demands and expectations imposed
from the outside might decrease intrinsic motivation, resulting in procrastination.

Relevance to Emerging Adulthood

Procrastination is a very common phenomenon in the stage of emerging adulthood, especially
with increasing independence, academic pressure, and the need for self-directed behaviour. In
this stage, there are multiple responsibilities to be managed, along with the need for self-
regulation. In addition, emotional changes and constant exposure to digital distractions are
also contributing factors to procrastination. Although procrastination might be a normal part
of this stage, it does have a negative influence on academic performance, stress levels, and
psychological well-being. Therefore, procrastination is a crucial behavioural aspect of
emerging adulthood.

1.3 Psychological Well Being

1.3.1 Nature of Psychological Well Being

Psychological well-being is described as “the entire state of an individual’s mental,

emotional, and social functioning, with an emphasis not only on the absence of mental
illness, but also on the presence of positive psychological functioning and life satisfaction.”
Psychological well-being has developed over time from traditional hedonic approaches,
which centre on the attainment and avoidance of pain, to eudaimonic approaches, which
centre on self-realization, significant existence, and optimal functioning (Ryff, 1989; Ryan &
Deci, 2001). Psychological well-being is described as “the dynamic interplay of an
individual’s perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, which can function at different
levels of effectiveness as people cope with stress, relate to others, and satisfy life’s demands.”
Psychological well-being is described as “a dynamic process influenced by personal, social,
and environmental factors, not a static outcome or condition” (Diener, 1984; Keyes et al.,
2002).

1.3.2 Conceptual Understanding of Psychological Well Being

Psychological well-being includes both affective and cognitive aspects such as positive
emotions, life satisfaction, self-evaluation, and functioning (Diener, 1984; Ryff & Keyes,
1995). It can be defined as a global judgment or evaluation of one’s life by both emotional
and cognitive processes, such as a person’s capacity to manage stress, adapt to challenging
circumstances, and maintain a sense of purpose or meaning. Unlike subjective well-being,
which focuses on happiness and positive experiences, psychological well-being includes
deeper aspects such as autonomy, environmental mastery, and personal growth (Ryff, 1989).
It also includes emotional stability, hardness, and positive social functioning, allowing a
person to manage complex life circumstances. Studies indicate that psychological well-being
is closely related to personality, social support, and behaviour, confirming its
multidimensional nature (Keyes et al., 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2001).

[Link] Definition

Psychological well-being is defined as a state of optimal psychological functioning

characterized by self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental
mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth (Ryff, 1989). It reflects the presence of positive
mental states and the ability to function effectively in daily life. According to Keyes et al.
(2002), psychological well-being also incorporates the concept of flourishing, wherein
individuals experience high levels of emotional, psychological, and social well-being. In
contrast, low levels of well-being are associated with languishing, which involves reduced
functioning and increased vulnerability to mental health problems. Thus, psychological
well-being is regarded as a comprehensive indicator of overall mental health.

1.3.3 Dimensions of Psychological Well Being

The multidimensional theory of psychological well-being developed by Ryff (1989) proposes

six dimensions of psychological well-being. These dimensions capture the essence of optimal
psychological functioning. These dimensions are: “Self-Acceptance, which refers to the
presence of a positive attitude toward oneself, including both positive and negative aspects;
Positive Relations with Others, which refers to the ability to form warm, trusting, and
significant relationships with other people; Autonomy, which refers to independence and the
ability to control behaviour according to one’s values; Environmental Mastery, which refers
to competence in managing life circumstances and creating environments that are congruent
with one’s needs; Purpose in Life, which refers to having goals, direction, and motivation;
and Personal Growth, which refers to ongoing development, exploration, and the
actualization of one’s potential.” These dimensions capture the essence of psychological well-
being from a holistic perspective. (Ryff, 1989; Keyes et al., 2002)

1.3.4 Differentiation of Psychological Well Being

Psychological well must also be differentiated from other related constructs such as
subjective well-being and mental health. Subjective well-being is concerned mainly with
happiness, satisfaction, and positive affectivity (Diener, 1984), whereas psychological well-
being is concerned more with issues of meaning, self-realization, and effective functioning
(Ryff, 1989). Mental health is often described in terms of the absence of psychological
disorder, whereas psychological well-being is described in terms of the presence of positive
functioning and growth (Keyes et al., 2002). In addition, psychological well-being is
differentiated from emotional states in that it is a more enduring rather than a transitory
construct. Well-being is concerned not only with feeling good but also with functioning well
(Ryan & Deci, 2001).

1.3.5 Effects of Psychological Well Being on Human Life

Psychological well-being has profound implications for various areas of life, including
physical health, academic achievement, and interpersonal relationships. Persons who exhibit
high levels of psychological well-being have shown better coping, hardiness, and emotional
well-being, allowing them to deal more effectively with stress (Keyes et al., 2002; Ryff &
Singer, 2008). Persons who report high levels of well-being have also shown better health
outcomes, including lower rates of illness and better immune functioning (Pressman &
Cohen, 2005). In terms of academic and professional achievement, persons who report high
levels of well-being have shown increased motivation, productivity, and achievement. In
contrast, persons who report low levels of well-being have shown increased stress, anxiety,
depression, life unhappiness, and poor decision-making (Diener, 1984; Seligman, 2011).

1.3.6 Theoretical Perspectives of Psychological Well Being

[Link] Ryff’s Model of Psychological Well Being

Ryff’s Model of Psychological Well-Being (1989) describes well-being as a multidimensional

construct, which goes beyond happiness to include aspects such as optimal functioning and
self-realization. The six dimensions of this model include self-acceptance, positive relations,
autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth. This model also
focuses on eudaimonic well-being by giving importance to aspects such as meaning, growth,
and functioning rather than pleasure (Ryff, 1989; Ryff & Keyes, 1995). This has been widely
used to understand psychological adjustment, especially in emerging adulthood.

[Link] Hedonic and Eudaimonic Theories

The hedonic perspective, developed by Diener (1984), focuses on happiness, pleasures, and
satisfaction in life. The eudaimonic perspective, in turn, is more focused on living in
accordance with one’s true nature and finding meanings, growth, and self-realization in life
(Ryan & Deci, 2001). Psychological well-being is more in tune with the eudaimonic
perspective because people might find happiness in their lives but not necessarily find any
true purpose or fulfillment in life.

[Link] Self Determination Theory

Self Determination Theory (SDT) argues that psychological well-being is a result of the
satisfaction of three basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness
(Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Satisfaction of the psychological needs results in
intrinsic motivation, growth, and well-being. Conversely, frustration of the psychological
needs results in stress, disengagement, and poor well-being. SDT theory illustrates the role of
both internal and environmental factors in psychological functioning, especially in the life of
the emerging adult.

[Link] PERMA Model

The PERMA Model of psychological well-being was introduced by (Seligman 2011). It

argues that psychological well-being results from the satisfaction of five elements: Positive
emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment. The theory balances
emotional and functional aspects of psychological well-being. According to the theory,
optimal functioning results from the satisfaction of all five elements. The five elements of the
PERMA Model are crucial for the psychological well-being of the emerging adult.

Relevance to Emerging Adulthood

Psychological well-being is particularly significant during emerging adulthood, which is

marked by identity exploration, role transition, and increased independence (Arnett, 2000;
Arnett, 2004). Emerging adults encounter academic, social, and career difficulties that need
to be coped with. High psychological well-being is associated with positive outcomes, while
low psychological well-being is associated with negative outcomes. Variables such as the use
of social media and procrastination can affect psychological well-being. In conclusion,
psychological well-being is an outcome variable that is significant while examining the
adjustment and functioning of emerging adults.

1.4 Relationship Between Variables

1.4.1 Social Media Usage and Procrastination

Social media use and procrastination are similar behavioural constructs, especially in the
modern digital age, where people are constantly exposed to online platforms. Social media
offers instant gratification through entertainment, interaction, and constant content
consumption, which can divert people’s attention from productive tasks. According to
Temporal Motivation Theory, people are more inclined to engage in tasks that offer instant
gratification compared to tasks that require delayed gratification (Steel, 2007). This makes
social media a highly appealing option compared to other tasks. Research studies have shown
that excessive social media use is positively correlated with increased procrastination
tendencies, as people engage more in online content compared to other productive tasks
(Meier et al., 2016; Reinecke et al., 2018). Moreover, social media use is positively correlated
with decreased self-regulation and increased impulsiveness, which are the main factors of
procrastination (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996). In this case, people use social media as a
coping mechanism for stress avoidance, which can lead to increased procrastination
tendencies (Sirois, 2014; Svartdal et al., 2020). This relationship is more prominent among
emerging adults, who are more independent, exposed to more academic tasks, and constantly
exposed to online platforms.

1.4.2 Social Media Usage and Psychological Well Being

The relationship between social media use and psychological well-being is complex and
involves both positive and negative effects. The positive effects of social media use on
psychological well-being include the improvement of communication, social connectedness,
and emotional support, which contribute to psychological well-being (Ellison et al., 2007;
Burke & Kraut, 2016). Social media use allows people to connect with others, self-express,
and experience a sense of belonging, which are crucial for psychological well-being.

However, maladaptive social media use has been consistently linked with negative
psychological well-being. Studies have found that excessive social media use is associated
with anxiety, depression, loneliness, and life satisfaction (Kross et al., 2013; Primack et al.,
2017; Aalbers et al., 2019). One of the underlying mechanisms for this relationship is social
comparison, where people compare themselves with idealized images of others, resulting in
feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem (Vogel et al., 2014; Fardouly & Vartanian, 2016).

Another factor is the fear of missing out, where people feel obliged to always stay connected,
hence creating stress and emotional distress (Przybylski et al., 2013; Tandon et al., 2021). In
addition, excessive engagement with SNSs can result in reduced time for other productive
activities, such as school, exercise, and face-to-face interactions, hence having an impact on
overall well-being (Orben, 2020). Therefore, it is clear that SNSs can have a positive effect
on well-being, while excessive engagement with SNSs is likely to have negative effects on
psychological outcomes.

1.4.3 Procrastination and Psychological Well Being

Procrastination has been identified as an important predictor of poor psychological well-

being, affecting the emotional and functional aspects of the individual’s life. Although
procrastination might offer temporary reprieve from unpleasant or taxing activities, it results
in negative outcomes in the long run, such as increased stress levels, anxiety, and feelings of
guilt and regret (Tice & Baumeister, 1997; Steel, 2007). Severe procrastination is linked to
poor academic outcomes, productivity, and psychological distress (Sirois, 2014; Svartdal et
al., 2020).

From the perspective of self-regulation, procrastination is characterized by the inability to

effectively regulate one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours in accordance with long-term
goals (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996). This impacts the individual’s feeling of competence
and mastery, which are essential components of psychological well-being (Ryff, 1989).
Moreover, procrastination is associated with maladaptive coping mechanisms, where the
individual engages in the behaviour to cope with negative emotions, resulting in a vicious
cycle of negative outcomes (Sirois, 2014). Procrastination in emerging adults, where they are
increasingly exposed to academic and professional challenges and are in the process of
developing their self-regulation skills, is likely to have a negative influence on their growth
and success. Therefore, procrastination is detrimental to the individual’s psychological well-
being and satisfaction.

1.5 Causes of Variables

The occurrence of social media usage, procrastination, and changes in psychological well can
be explained by several underlying psychological, behavioural, and environmental factors.
These factors are not independent of each other, as they are the result of a combination of
individual, motivational, and environmental factors.

The underlying factor for the occurrence of social media usage is the need for
communication, entertainment, information, and validation. The rewarding nature of social
media sites promotes their frequent use, as individuals receive instant feedback through likes,
comments, and messages (Andreassen, 2015; Montag et al., 2021). The underlying
psychological need for belongingness, self-expression, and identity also promotes the use of
social media sites, especially during periods of increased independence and social orientation
(Ellison et al., 2007). The underlying factor of continuous notifications and the algorithm of
social media sites also promotes engagement and makes it difficult for individuals to
disengage from the sites, thereby promoting the occurrence of habituation (Kuss & Griffiths,
2017). The underlying emotional need for loneliness, boredom, and stress also promotes the
occurrence of social media usage as a coping mechanism for individuals (Przybylski et al.,
2013).

Procrastination is a behaviour influenced by a combination of cognitive, emotional, and

motivational processes. Among the key determinants of procrastination is poor self-
regulation, characterized by difficulty in controlling impulses and staying focused on long-
term goals (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996). Procrastination also occurs in tasks that are
challenging, boring, or emotionally challenging, as people seek to avoid associated aversive
emotions (Sirois, 2014). According to the temporal motivation theory, people are more
inclined to engage in activities associated with immediate gratification rather than delayed
rewards, leading to avoidance of important tasks (Steel, 2007). Procrastination is also
influenced by fear of failure, low self-efficacy, and perfectionism, as people may experience
increased anxiety and indecision about tasks (Ferrari et al., 1995). Environmental factors,
such as digital media, also contribute to procrastination by offering easily accessible
alternatives to tasks.

Psychological well-being is influenced by various personal and environmental factors. For

instance, positive well-being has been linked to meaningful relationships, a sense of purpose
in life, and effective coping mechanisms (Ryff, 1989; Keyes et al., 2002). On the other hand,
stress, lack of social support, and poor behavioural habits have been associated with lower
well-being (Diener, 1984). Excessive social media engagement may contribute to lower
psychological well-being via various pathways, including social comparison, fear of missing
out, and exposure to unrealistic social standards, which may have a detrimental impact on
self-esteem and emotional well-being (Vogel et al., 2014; Fardouly & Vartanian, 2016).
Likewise, procrastination has been linked to lower psychological well-being due to increased
stress, guilt, and dissatisfaction resulting from uncompleted tasks and unmet goals (Tice &
Baumeister, 1997).

These factors also tend to be related to one another in that they often impact more than one
variable at a time, as seen in emotional, cognitive, and behavioural factors. For example,
problems with self-regulation may impact social media usage and procrastination at the same
time, while emotional factors may impact social media usage and procrastination. As such, it
is evident that there is a combination of internal psychological factors and environmental
factors that impact these variables.

1.6 Ways to Manage Social Media Usage, Reduce Procrastination and Enhance
Psychological Well-Being

Social media use, procrastination, and mental well-being are all malleable and changeable
constructs that are amenable to systematic development and control. Past doubts and
reservations about the changeability of behavioural tendencies such as procrastination and
social media overuse have been addressed by research in the domains of self-regulation,
cognitive-behavioural interventions, and mindfulness-based interventions. Research in the
fields of psychotherapy (Barlow, 1985; Beck, 2011), behavioural modification (Baumeister &
Vohs, 2007; Baumeister, 2002), and executive function training programs (Duckworth, 2016;
Mrazek et al., 2013; Tang et al., 2007) strongly attest to the possibility of improving self-
regulation and behavioural tendencies and enhancing mental well-being in individuals.
Research conducted from the perspective of self-determination theory further underlines the
possibility of behavioural change by focusing on the development of intrinsic motivation and
autonomy in the individual (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Deci & Ryan, 2008).

Recent studies conducted to explore mindfulness and attention regulation techniques have
confirmed that training individuals to stay focused in the present moment can greatly reduce
digital distractions and procrastination. It has been found that mindfulness-based training
techniques can help individuals improve their attention, reduce stress, and enhance emotional
stability through neural mechanisms related to executive functions (Davidson & Kabat-Zinn,
2003; Tang, Hölzel, & Posner, 2015; Hölzel et al., 2011). Individuals who underwent
mindfulness training demonstrated reduced compulsive social media usage, enhanced
concentration, and greater psychological well-being (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Keng, Smoski, &
Robins, 2011; Garland et al., 2015). These studies confirm the possibility of creating healthy
behavioural habits through practice and awareness, and neuroplasticity studies confirm the
possibility of training the mind to change brain functioning (Davidson & McEwen, 2012).

1.6.1 Strategies to Manage Social Media Usage and Reduce Procrastination

Engage in controlled and purposeful social media practice:

The need to control or regulate the practice of SNSs through purposeful behaviour is vital in
controlling or limiting the negative consequences associated with SNSs. Studies have shown
that the lack of control or purposeful behaviour while practicing SNSs is associated with
increased procrastination or reduced productivity (Meier et al., 2016; Rozgonjuk et al., 2018;
Andreassen et al., 2017). The need to monitor or control screen time using applications is
vital in controlling or limiting screen time (Montag & Reuter, 2017).

Instead of reacting to digital distractions, respond to them:

The impulsive action of checking notifications is a major cause of task interruption and
procrastination. Training people to delay their actions and consciously choose whether to
react to digital distractions helps improve self-regulation and reduces impulsive action
(Baumeister et al., 2007; Hofmann, Schmeichel, & Baddeley, 2012; Hofmann et al., 2017).
This strategy is in line with dual-process theories, where controlled processing is prioritized
over impulsive action (Kahneman, 2011).

Utilize time management techniques:

Various time management techniques, such as the Pomodoro Technique and prioritization of
tasks, have been observed to minimize procrastination and increase the success rate of
completing tasks (Steel, 2007; Claessens et al., 2007; Macan, 1994). These techniques assist
individuals in managing their time in a better manner and minimize distractions from social
media sites to increase their sense of control over time (Aeon & Aguinis, 2017).

Develop active self-monitoring habits

Self-monitoring increases awareness of one’s behaviour and is a key component of behaviour

change. Studies indicate that individuals who track their screen time and productivity levels
are more likely to regulate their social media use and reduce procrastination (Zimmerman,
2002; Schunk & Greene, 2018; Carver & Scheier, 1982). Self-regulation models emphasize
monitoring as essential for effective goal attainment (Bandura, 1991).

Establish a daily routine:

A daily routine is essential in eliminating uncertainty and improving goal-directed behaviour.

Research indicates that having a routine reduces levels of procrastination and improves the
psychological outcomes of an individual (Tice & Baumeister, 1997; Sirois, 2014; Flett et al.,
2016).
Improve your level of self-awareness:

Self-awareness enables the individual to recognize the emotional responses that triggered the
overuse of social media, such as stress, boredom, or anxiety. Emotional awareness has been
proven to contribute to better self-regulation and minimize procrastination (Goleman, 1995;
Sirois & Pychyl, 2013; Morin, 2011).

Develop skills in dealing with feedback and failure:

The fear of failure and perfectionism are major predictors of procrastination. Developing
coping skills and dealing effectively with negative feedback are essential in eliminating
procrastination (Ferrari, 2001; Steel, 2007; Frost et al., 1990).

Learn from your mistakes:

Cognitive-behavioural theories emphasize the importance of viewing failure as an

1.6.2 Enhancing Psychological Well-Being

Psychological well-being is an essential construct that impacts social media usage and
procrastination. People with good levels of well-being are better at managing their emotions
and coping with stress. They are more resilient and better at coping with stress. Research has
proven that the more social media people engage in, the more they are likely to experience
anxiety, depression, and decreased satisfaction in life (Kross et al., 2013; Twenge &
Campbell, 2019; Lin et al., 2016).

However, engaging in positive activities such as physical exercise, social interactions, and
mindfulness reduces stress levels and improves well-being (Diener, 2000; Ryff & Keyes,
1995; Pressman et al., 2009).

Cognitive-behavioural techniques are essential in improving psychological well-being by

helping people change negative thought processes that are detrimental to their well-being.
Cognitive-behavioural interventions that involve gratitude, optimism, and emotional
regulation improve mental health outcomes (Seligman et al., 2005; Gross, 1998; Emmons &
McCullough, 2003). Positive psychology interventions also improve life satisfaction and
well-being (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005).

1.6.3 The Possibility of Change and Improvement

Behavioural traits, e.g., procrastination or excessive social media use, are influenced by both
genetic predispositions and environmental influences, though they are still relatively
malleable. Studies on the development of habits show that repeated behaviour in a stable
context can lead to lasting behavioural change (Lally et al., 2010; Wood & Rünger, 2016).
Moreover, the development of executive functions, which includes self-regulation, planning,
and decision-making, is still ongoing during young adulthood, making it an especially critical
period for intervention (Casey et al., 2008; Steinberg, 2013; Best & Miller, 2010).

Studies from neurosciences have shown that training executive control can improve
attentional capacities and decrease impulsiveness. This shows that it is possible to prevent
procrastination or control social media use by intervening with self-regulation (Diamond,
2013; Miyake et al., 2000).1.6.4 Intervention Strategies

Interventions designed to manage social media, minimize procrastination, and promote

psychological well-being have been classified into individual-focused, behavioural, and
combined interventions. Individual-focused interventions include mindfulness, stress
management, and cognitive restructuring techniques to promote better emotional
management strategies (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Gross, 1998; Hayes et al., 2006). Behavioural
interventions include time management, digital monitoring, and goal-setting interventions to
promote better productivity and minimize distractions in life (Steel, 2007; Claessens et al.,
2007).

Combined interventions using cognitive and behavioural strategies have been observed to be
the most effective in managing procrastination and promoting psychological well-being. For
instance, interventions using mindfulness and time management strategies have been
observed to minimize procrastination and enhance psychological well-being (van der Oord et
al., 2012; Mrazek et al., 2013; Reinecke et al., 2018). These strategies have been observed to
promote better behaviour and life satisfaction in the long run (Hofmann et al., 2012; Sin &
Lyubomirsky, 2009).
 CHAPTER – II

REVIW OF LITERATURE

SOCIAL MEDIA USAGE:

Wolfers et al., 2022, “Social Media Use, Stress, and Coping,” reviewed existing literature to
examine the role of social media in the stress-coping process. The study adopted a narrative
review methodology without a specific sample or standardized questionnaires, focusing on
conceptual and empirical findings. Results indicated that social media functions as a stressor,
a resource, and a coping tool depending on usage patterns and context. It highlighted that
while social media can both increase and reduce stress, the conditions under which it is
beneficial remain unclear. The study concluded that more context-specific and time-sensitive
research is needed to understand how social media can effectively support stress
management.

Chugh et al., 2021, “Social Media Usage by Higher Education Academics: A Scoping Review
of the Literature,” reviewed 24 empirical studies focusing on academics’ use of social media
across higher education contexts. A scoping review methodology was adopted, analysing
existing literature from the past five years without primary sample collection or standardized
questionnaires. Findings revealed that academics mainly use social media for research
dissemination, networking, and career development, with limited use for teaching due to lack
of skills and awareness. The study also highlighted benefits such as improved
communication, collaboration, and student engagement despite existing barriers. The study
concluded that increasing awareness and training can enhance effective integration of social
media in academic teaching and professional practices.

Farzana Parveen Tajudeen et al., 2018, “Understanding the Impact of Social Media Usage
among Organizations,” examined Malaysian organizations (sampling frame ≈ 9,918; usable
responses drawn from public-listed firms, SMEs, and MSC-status companies). The study
adopted a quantitative survey design based on the Technology–Organization–Environment
(TOE) framework, using structured questionnaires to assess purposes and determinants of
social media usage. Findings indicated that relative advantage significantly predicts
organizational social media adoption, highlighting perceived benefits as a key driver, along
with other contextual factors. The study concluded that social media usage provides strategic
value for organizations and offers a comprehensive model to guide effective adoption and
investment decisions.

Berryman et al., 2018, “Social Media Use and Mental Health among Young Adults,”
examined 467 young adults using a correlational research design. Self-report questionnaires
were used to measure time spent on social media, importance of usage, vaguebooking
behaviour, and mental health variables such as loneliness, social anxiety, and suicidal
ideation. Findings showed that general social media use was not a significant predictor of
poor mental health outcomes. However, vaguebooking behaviour was positively associated
with suicidal ideation, indicating it as a potential risk indicator. The study concluded that
overall social media use may not be harmful, but specific online behaviours require attention
for mental health risks.

Wilfred W.F. Lau, 2017, “Effects of Social Media Usage and Social Media Multitasking on
the Academic Performance of University Students,” examined 348 undergraduate students
from a Hong Kong university using a quantitative survey design. Structured questionnaires
were used to assess social media usage patterns, multitasking behaviour, and academic
performance (GPA). Findings revealed that non-academic social media use and social media
multitasking negatively predicted academic performance, while academic-related usage
showed no significant effect. The study concluded that excessive and multitasking use of
social media can hinder academic outcomes, highlighting the need for regulated and
purposeful usage among students.

Homero Gil de Zúñiga et al., 2017, “Personality Traits and Social Media Use in 20
Countries,” examined a large sample of 21,314 participants across 20 countries using a cross-
cultural survey design with stratified quota sampling. Standardized questionnaires measuring
Big Five personality traits and social media usage patterns (frequency, interaction, and news
use) were employed. Findings indicated that extraversion, agreeableness, and
conscientiousness positively predicted social media use, while emotional stability showed
negative associations, with variations across contexts. The study concluded that personality
traits play a consistent but moderate role in shaping global social media usage behaviours.

PROCRASTINATION:

Fuschia M. (2023) conducted a conceptual review titled Procrastination and Stress: A

Conceptual Review of Why Context Matters, synthesizing evidence from multiple
populations and contexts rather than a specific sample. The methodology involved theoretical
integration of mood regulation, coping, and emotion regulation theories to propose the stress
context vulnerability model of procrastination. Findings suggested that stressful environments
increase procrastination risk by depleting coping resources and lowering emotional tolerance,
concluding that contextual factors must be considered alongside individual traits to design
compassionate and effective interventions.

Axel Grund and Stefan Fries (2018) conducted a study titled Understanding Procrastination:
A Motivational Approach using multiple study samples examining value orientations, self-
determination, and perceptions of procrastination across contexts. The methodology involved
three empirical studies assessing motivational factors, activity completion, and normative
beliefs related to procrastination. Findings showed that low achievement values and low self-
determination predicted higher procrastination, and the study concluded that motivational
interventions (goal selection) may be more effective than purely volitional strategies in
reducing procrastination.

Humaira Jami (2018) conducted the study Prevalence of Academic Procrastination and
Reasons for Academic Procrastination in University Students with a sample of 200 public
university students from social and natural sciences. The methodology used the
Procrastination Assessment Scale for Students and backward linear regression analysis to
identify predictors. Findings indicated that academic procrastination was prevalent across
postgraduate levels, with task aversiveness as the strongest predictor along with fear of
failure, decision-making difficulty, and risk-taking, concluding that multiple psychological
and behavioral factors contribute to student procrastination.

Sowon Kim et al. (2017) conducted the study Procrastination, Personality Traits, and
Academic Performance: When Active and Passive Procrastination Tell a Different Story
using a sample of 178 university students in Switzerland. The methodology involved survey
measures assessing personality traits (Five Factor Model), active and passive procrastination,
and academic performance (GPA). Findings showed that extraversion and neuroticism
predicted active procrastination and that active procrastination was a stronger predictor of
academic performance than passive procrastination, concluding that different procrastination
types have distinct academic outcomes.
Piers Steel and Klingsieck (2016) conducted a study titled Academic Procrastination:
Psychological Antecedents Revisited using a sample of 167 undergraduate psychology
students enrolled in a self-directed computerized course. The methodology included Big Five
Inventory assessment and qualitative coding of students’ reported reasons and activities
related to procrastination to examine personality-based typology. Findings indicated that
conscientiousness was the core predictor of procrastination, while other personality traits
influenced its manifestation; the study concluded that interventions should primarily target
conscientiousness and then tailor strategies based on procrastination type.

Marcus Eckert et al. (2016) conducted the study Overcome Procrastination: Enhancing
Emotion Regulation Skills Reduce Procrastination using multiple samples across three
studies, including cross-sectional participants and an RCT intervention group. The
methodology involved cross-sectional analysis, cross-lagged panel analysis, and a two-arm
randomized controlled trial examining the role of emotion regulation skills in procrastination.
Findings showed that improving the ability to tolerate and modify aversive emotions
significantly reduced procrastination, concluding that emotion-focused interventions are
effective strategies to overcome procrastination.

PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING:

Agnieszka Bożek et al. (2020) examined the relationship between spirituality, health-related
behavior, and psychological well-being among 595 university students using a questionnaire
survey design. Path analysis and linear regression were applied, showing that spirituality and
health behaviors were positively associated with psychological well-being, with health
behaviors mediating the spirituality–well-being link. The study concluded that promoting
spiritual development and healthy lifestyles in educational settings can enhance students’
psychological well-being.

M. Pilar Matud et al. (2019) conducted the study Gender and Psychological Well-Being with
a sample of 3,400 adults (1,700 men and 1,700 women) from the Spanish population. A
cross-sectional methodology was used with Ryff’s Psychological Well-Being Scales and the
Bem Sex Role Inventory to assess gender differences. Findings showed gender variations
across well-being dimensions, with masculinity traits strongly predicting well-being in both
genders, concluding that individuals integrating both masculine and feminine characteristics
report higher psychological well-being.
Jean M. Twenge and W. Keith Campbell (2019) examined the association between digital
media use and psychological well-being using three large adolescent datasets (n = 221,096).
Secondary data analysis showed that light users (<1 hour/day) reported higher well-being
compared to heavy users (5+ hours/day). Heavy digital media use was linked with greater
risks of depression, unhappiness, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts. The study concluded
that excessive screen time negatively affects psychological well-being, highlighting the
importance of balanced media use among adolescents.

Sabrina Zeike et al. (2019) examined the relationship between digital leadership and
psychological well-being among 368 upper-level managers from a German ICT company. An
online survey design with a newly developed digital leadership scale was used, and stepwise
logistic regression analysis tested the associations. Findings revealed that stronger digital
leadership skills were significantly associated with higher psychological well-being, while
gender, age, and managerial experience showed no significant effects. The study concluded
that digital leadership competencies play an important role in enhancing managers’ well-
being, though further research is needed to validate the scale and confirm causal
relationships.

Rosalba Hernandez et al. (2017) conducted the study examining psychological well-being
and its links with physical health outcomes, drawing evidence from multiple population-
based studies and prior empirical research. A narrative review methodology was used to
synthesize findings on constructs such as positive effects, optimism, life meaning, and life
satisfaction in relation to mortality and chronic disease. The findings showed that higher
psychological well-being is associated with better physical health and longevity through
possible biobehavioral mechanisms, concluding that promoting psychological assets can
support public health despite measurement and evidence limitations.

Laura A. Weiss et al. (2016) conducted the study Can We Increase Psychological Well-
Being? The Effects of Interventions on Psychological Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis of
Randomized Controlled Trials using 27 RCTs with a total sample of 3,579 participants. A
meta-analytic methodology with a random effects model was applied, including interventions
measuring psychological well-being through Ryff’s scales or the Mental Health Continuum.
Findings indicated that behavioral interventions significantly improve psychological well-
being, especially face-to-face approaches, concluding that intervention-based enhancement of
well-being is feasible though more high-quality studies are needed.
SOCIAL MEDIA USAGE AND PROCRASTINATION:

The research by Zhang et al., 2026, “Social Jetlag and Insomnia in the Framework of
Personality Traits: The Mediating Roles of General Procrastination, Problematic Social
Media Use, and Bedtime Procrastination,” was quantitative research that involved 1,037
young adults in the UK. It was conducted through a survey design using standardized
measures that included HEXACO-60, Bedtime Procrastination Scale, and measures of
general procrastination and problematic social media use. It was established that personality
traits influenced procrastination and problematic social media use, which in turn influenced
bedtime procrastination and sleep issues. In addition, general procrastination influenced sleep
issues and bedtime procrastination. It was concluded that personality traits influenced sleep
issues through procrastination and problematic social media use. It was established that self-
control is essential in maintaining good sleep habits.

Huang et al., 2025, “Exploring the Interplay of Social Media’s Negative Effects, Academic
Pressure, and Procrastination among College Students” surveyed 456 college students using a
quantitative approach. In this study, questionnaires were used to measure negative effects of
social media, academic pressure, and academic procrastination. The results were analysed
using structural equation modelling. The results showed that negative effects of social media
increased academic pressure, which further increased procrastination. In addition, this study
also focused on the role of psychological strain in linking digital media usage and academic
behaviours. This study concluded that it is crucial to control social media usage and academic
pressure to reduce procrastination among students.

Köse et al., 2025, “The Effect of Professional Social Media Usage on Procrastination and
Work Engagement in the Face of the COVID-19 Pandemic,” used a quantitative research
design to examine the longitudinal data of Finnish employees (N=1,018) collected by the
researchers. Partial least squares path modelling with multi-group and longitudinal analysis
was used in the study. Standardized questionnaire measures were used to assess the variables
of professional social media usage, procrastination, work engagement, and work-leisure
boundary conflict. The results of the study showed that nonwork-related social media usage
was not a significant predictor of procrastination, whereas work-leisure boundary conflict had
a negative influence on work engagement and social media communication positively
influenced work engagement.
Kocak et al., 2023, “How Does Social Media Addiction Affect Decisional Procrastination?
Mediation Role of Work-Family Life Balance,” used a quantitative correlational research
design on a sample of 400 working individuals. They used a Social Media Addiction Scale
for Adults, a Work-Family Life Conflict Scale, a Decisional Procrastination Scale, and a
personal information scale. They used SPSS for all statistical analyses. They found that social
media addiction was a significant predictor of work-family life conflict and decisional
procrastination. They further found that work-family life conflict was a mediator, and
demographic factors were moderators. They concluded that too much engagement in social
media is a barrier to a good work-family life balance and decisional procrastination.

Wartberg et al., 2021, "The Relevance of Emotion Regulation, Procrastination, and Perceived
Stress for Problematic Social Media Use" investigated 1,221 children and adolescents aged
10 to 17 years using a representative sample. A quantitative correlational research design was
used, including multivariable regression analysis. Standardized questionnaires measured
problematic social media use, emotion regulation, procrastination, and perceived stress. The
research results showed that problematic social media use was significantly related to poor
emotion regulation, such as impulse control and goal-directed behavior, procrastination, and
perceived stress. The research concluded that emotion regulation skills could be used as a
preventive measure for problematic social media use in adolescents.

Muslikah et al., 2018, “Social Media User Students’ Academic Procrastination,” conducted
research among 419 university students using correlational research. The data collection
instrument for this study was the Social Media Usage Intensity Scale and Academic
Procrastination Scale. The researcher used product moment correlation to analyze the data.
The results revealed a significant positive correlation between social media usage intensity
and academic procrastination. The study concluded that controlling social media usage can
reduce procrastination and improve academic performance.

PROCRASTINATION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING:

In a study by Celik (2023) on the mediating role of flow experiences in the relationship
between academic procrastination and psychological well-being among a sample of 818
undergraduate students, a relational research design was employed. Standardized self-report
questionnaires were used to assess academic procrastination, flow experiences, and
psychological well-being. Results revealed that academic procrastination was related to lower
well-being and flow experiences, and flow experiences significantly mediated this
relationship. It was concluded that flow experiences could be used to minimize academic
procrastination and improve well-being.

Gundogan (2023) investigated the relationship between academic procrastination and school
burnout, psychological well-being, and academic achievement among a sample of 532
university students using a quantitative correlational research design and regression analysis.
Standardized scales measured academic procrastination, school burnout, psychological well-
being, and academic achievement. The results showed that academic procrastination
positively predicted school burnout and psychological well-being and academic achievement.
It was concluded that by controlling academic procrastination, well-being and academic
achievement can be enhanced and school burnout can be minimized.

Marvasti and Kheirkhah (2022) explored the role of emotional competence and life
satisfaction as a mediator in the relationship between academic procrastination and
psychological well-being among a sample of 326 university students. They used a descriptive
correlational research design with path analysis. They used the Academic Procrastination
Questionnaire developed by Solomon and Rothblum, the Multidimensional Student
Satisfaction Scale, Ryff's Psychological Well-Being Scale, and Warr's Emotional
Competence Scale. They found that academic procrastination was negatively related to
emotional competence and psychological well-being, whereas emotional competence and life
satisfaction were positively related to well-being and mediated the relationship. They
concluded that by enhancing emotional competence and life satisfaction, it is possible to
minimize the negative effects of academic procrastination on university students’
psychological well-being.

Woo and Lee (2022) investigated the moderate mediation role of mediation effect of hope on
the relationship between academic procrastination, psychological well-being, and problem
behaviors among 579 middle and high school students. They used a survey research design
and employed a convenience sampling technique. Paper-based questionnaires were used to
collect data on academic procrastination, hope, psychological well-being, and problem
behaviors. According to the study, hope has a significant positive relationship with
psychological well-being and problem behaviors. The study concluded that hope plays a
significant role in mitigating academic procrastination, enhancing psychological well-being,
and reducing problem behaviors. Therefore, it is essential to develop hope among adolescents
to mitigate academic procrastination.

Narges et al. (2021) explored the role of emotion regulation in the relationship between
procrastination, psychological well-being and life satisfaction among 260 elderly individuals
using a quantitative approach and structural equation modeling. The authors used Satisfaction
with Life Scale (SWLS), Ryff’s Psychological Well-being Scale, Tuckman’s Procrastination
Scale, and Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ). The results revealed that emotion
regulation played a significant role in mediating the relationship between procrastination and
psychological well-being and life satisfaction. The authors concluded that improving emotion
regulation skills can help reduce procrastination and enhance life satisfaction among the
elderly.

Jayaraja et al. (2017) conducted a study on the predicting role of mindfulness and
procrastination on psychological well-being of 449 university students using a quantitative
correlational research approach with convenience sampling. In the study, the researchers
utilized the Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale, the General Procrastination Scale, and
Ryff’s Psychological Well-Being Scale as tools in collecting the necessary data. Results of
the study indicated significant relationships between mindfulness, procrastination, and
psychological well-being, with procrastination being the strongest predictor. It was
established that mindfulness and procrastination can improve the psychological well-being of
students.

SOCIAL MEDIA USAGE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING:

Elsayed, 2025, “Fear of Missing Out and its Impact: Exploring Relationships with Social
Media Use, Psychological Well-Being, and Academic Performance among University
Students” investigated 521 university students using a cross-sectional design. It was
quantitative correlational research that employed a questionnaire-based design and included
the FOMO Scale, Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), and a social media questionnaire. It
found that FOMO was a strong predictor of social media use and had a positive relationship
with life satisfaction; social media use was positively related to academic performance, and
mediation and moderation effects were found to be non-significant, but moderation was
found. It concluded that FOMO and social media use interact at different levels and can have
positive and negative implications depending upon the context. The relationship between
FOMO and social media and well-being is complex and has positive and negative
implications.

The study by Yue et al., 2022, titled "Passive Social Media Use and Psychological Well-
Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Social Comparison and Emotion
Regulation," surveyed 1131 residents in Wuhan, China. The study was quantitative in nature,
using a questionnaire to collect data on passive social media usage, social comparison,
emotion regulation, and stress. The results showed that passive social media usage led to
higher levels of unhealthy social comparison, which in turn caused higher levels of stress.
However, the study also showed that emotion regulation can reduce the negative impacts of
social comparison. Quarantine status also caused higher levels of upward social comparison
for frequent social media users. The study showed that emotion regulation plays an important
role in reducing the negative psychological impacts of passive social media usage.

In a study by Hancock et al., 2022, “Psychological Well-Being and Social Media Use: A
Meta-Analysis of Associations between Social Media Use and Depression, Anxiety,
Loneliness, Eudaimonic, Hedonic, and Social Well-Being,” where researchers used a large
sample of 275,728 participants in a total of 226 studies, it was concluded that there was no
significant overall association between social media use and well-being, although small
positive associations were discovered for anxiety, depression, and social well-being. This
study was conducted by applying a meta-analytical methodology, a random-effects model,
without relying on questionnaires. Instead, it was based on a synthesis of existing research. It
was concluded that “social media has a complex, yet small, overall effect on well-being,
where both positive and negative effects coexist.”

The study by Ostić et al., 2021, “Effects of Social Media Use on Psychological Well-Being:
A Mediated Model,” used a quantitative study design to examine the social media behaviour
of 940 participants in Mexico. It used a structural equation modelling technique where a
questionnaire was used to assess the participants’ social media use, psychological well-being,
social capital, social isolation, and smartphone addiction. The study found that social media
has both positive and negative effects on psychological well-being, where bonding and
bridging social capital positively influenced psychological well-being, and smartphone
addiction and isolation negatively influenced psychological well-being.
Schønning et al., 2020, “Social Media Use and Mental Health and Well-Being Among
Adolescents – A Scoping Review,” reviewed 79 studies focusing on adolescents. The study
adopted a scoping review methodology, analysing existing literature from multiple databases
without primary data collection or standardized questionnaires. Findings showed that most
studies were quantitative and cross-sectional, primarily examining negative mental health
outcomes like depression, with social media use measured mainly by frequency and duration.
Results indicated a strong research focus on pathological outcomes, with limited attention to
positive aspects of social media use. The study concluded that future research should
differentiate types of social media interactions and explore both positive and negative impacts
on well-being.

SOCIAL MEDIA USAGE, PROCRASTINATION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-

BEING:

Kaya, 2024, “Smartphone Addiction and Psychological Wellbeing among Adolescents: The
Multiple Mediating Roles of Academic Procrastination and School Burnout,” is a quantitative
research study conducted on a sample of 409 adolescents in the age range of 13 to 19 years.
For this study, a correlational research methodology was used, and a multiple mediation
technique was employed. Standardized questionnaires were used for measuring smartphone
addiction, academic procrastination, school burnout, and psychological well-being. The study
concluded that smartphone addiction has a significant negative relationship with
psychological well-being. Academic procrastination and school burnout were identified as
serial mediators of smartphone addiction on psychological well-being. An increase in
smartphone addiction was related to high levels of academic procrastination and school
burnout, resulting in a negative relationship with psychological well-being.

Kurker et al., 2024, “Social Media Addiction Mediates the Relationship between Basic
Psychological Needs Satisfaction and Academic Procrastination,” explored a sample of 647
university students in Turkey. The study was quantitative in nature, employing a survey
research design. Correlational research, regression, and bootstrapping, and structural equation
modelling were used in this study. Standardized questionnaires were used to collect data on
basic psychological needs, social media addiction, and academic procrastination. The study
revealed that satisfaction of psychological needs was associated with a direct reduction in
academic procrastination. Satisfaction of psychological needs was associated with a reduction
in academic procrastination through its relationship with social media addiction. Social media
addiction was revealed to be a partial mediator of the relationship between satisfaction of
psychological needs and academic procrastination. It was revealed that satisfaction of
psychological needs could be used to combat academic procrastination by reducing social
media addiction.

Hammad, 2023, “The Use of Social Media and its Relationship to Psychological Alienation
and Academic Procrastination,” surveyed 345 university students from Najran University
using a cross-sectional survey design. This article used a quantitative correlational approach
with a structured questionnaire to measure social media usage, psychological alienation, and
academic procrastination. Results showed that university students using social media for
more than four hours a day experience higher levels of psychological alienation and academic
procrastination. Male students experience higher academic procrastination than female
students. A significant positive correlation exists between excessive social media usage and
academic procrastination. Excessive social media usage negatively affects university
students' psychological and academic performance. Therefore, social media usage must be
regulated.

Ekşi et al., 2019, in the study titled “The Mediating Role of General Procrastination
Behaviour in the Relationship between Self-Control and Social Media Addiction in
University Students,” the researchers aimed to investigate the relationship between self-
control, procrastination, and social media addiction in university students. The study was
based on a quantitative approach with a sample size of 394 university students. The study was
based on correlational research with structural equation modelling methodology. The results
showed that self-control had a significant effect on social media addiction, while
procrastination had a low mediating effect. The results showed that university students with
low self-control also experienced procrastination behaviours and social media addiction. The
study concluded that self-control can reduce procrastination behaviours in university
students.

Reinecke et al., 2018, "The Relationship Between Trait Procrastination, Internet Use, and
Psychological Functioning: Results from a Community Sample of German Adolescents,"
explored the phenomenon in a study involving 818 adolescents. The study was based on a
quantitative correlational approach with the use of questionnaires to collect data on trait
procrastination, internet multitasking, uncontrolled internet use, and psychological
functioning. The results revealed a positive link between trait procrastination, internet
multitasking, and uncontrolled internet use, with the latter mediating psychological
functioning. The study revealed negative outcomes in terms of stress, sleep quality, and
satisfaction with relationships. The study concluded that uncontrolled internet use intensifies
the negative psychological effects of procrastination in adolescents.

The study by Reinecke et al., 2016, titled "Permanently Online and Permanently
Procrastinating? The Mediating Role of Internet Use for the Effects of Trait Procrastination
on Psychological Health and Well-Being" used a sample of 1,577 German Internet users. The
study was based on a quantitative correlational research design with the use of standardized
questionnaires to measure trait procrastination, internet use, and psychological well-being.
The results showed that trait procrastination was associated with more leisure internet use and
poor self-regulation, which in turn was associated with poor psychological well-being.
Internet use partially mediated the link between procrastination and psychological health
outcomes. The study concluded that dysfunctional internet use acts as a mediator between
procrastination and psychological well- being.