Module 2 — Explosives & Gas Safety | Hazardous Materials Management

MODULE 2
Explosives & Gas Safety
Hazardous Materials Management

Duration: 06 Hours
Comprehensive Study Notes

1. Common Shipping Containers for Explosives

Explosives are transported in purpose-built containers designed to prevent accidental ignition, limit
sympathetic detonation, and comply with regulatory standards including the UN Model Regulations,
IMDG Code (sea), ADR/RID (road/rail), and India's Explosives Rules, 2008.

1.1 Types of Shipping Containers

a) Fibreboard & Wooden Boxes
Used for Division 1.4 items such as small arms cartridges and pyrotechnics. They are lightweight, UN
performance-tested, and fitted with internal cushioning material (sawdust, fibre padding). Metallic
fasteners must not be placed near explosive content to prevent spark hazards.

b) Metal / Steel Containers

Used for bulk high explosives (Div 1.1–1.3). Must be spark-proof, electrostatically bonded, grounded,
and fitted with tamper-evident locking mechanisms. Double-walled construction is standard for blast
containment.

c) Plastic / Polyethylene Drums

Used for liquid or sensitised explosives such as Nitroglycerin (NG). Must be anti-static, chemically inert
to the explosive contents, and sealed with a pressure-relief vent cap to prevent vapour accumulation.

d) Magazine Vans (Explosive Road Vehicles)

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Specially constructed road vehicles serving as mobile magazines. Required fittings include: lightning
conductors, spark-proof flooring, Class ABC fire extinguishers, and mandatory UN hazard placards on
all four sides.

e) Ammunition Boxes (Ammo Chests)

Standardised military-grade steel boxes with rubber gasket seals to prevent moisture ingress, carrying
handles for safe manual handling, and internal felt or foam lining to prevent friction between rounds.

1.2 Mandatory Markings on All Explosive Containers

Marking Element Details
UN Number 4-digit code (e.g., UN 0065 = Detonating cord)
Hazard Label Orange diamond — Class 1, Division (1.1–1.6), Compatibility
Group letter
Proper Shipping Name Full technical name per UN Model Regulations
Net Explosive Mass (NEM) Net Explosive Quantity in kilograms
Manufacturer Marking Name, batch/lot number, date of manufacture
Safety Instructions "EXPLOSIVE — KEEP AWAY FROM FIRE", "KEEP DRY",
"HANDLE WITH CARE"

2. Incident Response Plan for Explosives

An Incident Response Plan (IRP) for explosives governs the sequence of actions to be taken in the
event of an accident, theft, misfire, or fire involving explosive materials — whether in transit, storage, or
at a blast site.

2.1 Six-Step Response Sequence

Step Action Details
Step 1 Detect & Alert Identify the incident — fire, theft, accident, or
unauthorised access to magazine
Step 2 Evacuate & Isolate Clear a 300–500 m radius; stop all ignition sources;
prevent access to the area
Step 3 Notify Authorities Alert Police, Fire Brigade, PESO, DGMS (for mining),
and Bomb Disposal Squad
Step 4 Secure & Assess Establish cordon; identify explosive type, quantity, and
condition
Step 5 Render Safe / EOD/Bomb disposal team carries out controlled
Neutralise detonation or neutralisation
Step 6 Post-Incident Scene investigation, regulatory reporting, corrective
and preventive action

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2.2 Specific Incident Scenarios

Misfires & Hang-fires
A misfire is a failure of an explosive charge to detonate after initiation. A hang-fire is a delayed
detonation. Protocol: wait a minimum of 30 minutes before approaching; flood the borehole with water;
never attempt to re-drill a misfired hole.

Stolen or Lost Explosives

Immediately report to the nearest Police Station and PESO (Petroleum and Explosives Safety
Organisation). Trigger a full quantity reconciliation of the magazine. This is a statutory obligation under
the Explosives Act, 1884.

Fire Near Explosives Magazine

Under no circumstances attempt to fight the fire manually. Evacuate immediately to a safe distance and
allow the Fire Services to handle the incident from a protected position with water curtains.

KEY PRINCIPLE: Never re-enter an incident area until formally cleared by Explosive Ordnance
Disposal (EOD) personnel. All duds and misfires must be treated as live until confirmed safe.

3. Gas Emergencies
Gas emergencies arise from leaks, vessel ruptures, fire, or toxic releases involving compressed,
liquefied, or dissolved gases. The response strategy depends critically on the gas type — flammable,
toxic, or oxidising.

3.1 Emergency Response Sequence (IDLH Protocol)

1. Identify — Determine the gas from its placard, UN number, colour code, or MSDS/SDS
2. Isolate — Close sectional valves; isolate pipeline segments; shut off supply
3. Notify — Alert Fire Brigade, utility company/pipeline operator, and hazmat team
4. Evacuate — Move upwind and uphill; gases heavier than air accumulate in low-lying areas
5. Control ignition sources — No sparks, open flame, or mobile phones within the danger zone
6. Ventilate — Natural ventilation or explosion-proof fans to dilute vapour concentration below LEL
7. Neutralise/Contain — Deploy water curtain or foam for toxic gases; allow controlled burn rather
than accumulation for flammable gases

3.2 Vapour Density and Evacuation Strategy

Vapour density (VD) determines whether a gas rises or sinks relative to air (VD of air = 1.0).

Gas Vapour Behaviour & Implication

Density
Hydrogen (H2) 0.07 Very light — rises rapidly; accumulates at roof level
Ammonia (NH3) 0.59 Lighter than air; rises; pungent odour warning
Carbon Monoxide 0.97 Nearly same as air; distributes evenly; odourless — very

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(CO) dangerous
LPG (Propane) 1.55 Heavier than air; sinks to ground/basements
Chlorine (Cl2) 2.5 Heavy; hugs ground; infiltrates confined spaces

4. Physical & Chemical Properties of Gases

Understanding the physical and chemical properties of gases is fundamental to hazard assessment,
storage design, and emergency response planning.

4.1 Key Properties

Property Definition Significance
Boiling Point Temp at which liquid converts Determines if gas is liquefied at ambient
to gas at 1 atm temperature
Vapour Density Density relative to air (air = 1) Dictates dispersion behaviour in
open/confined spaces
LEL / UEL Lower/Upper Explosive Limits Defines the concentration range that will
in air (%) sustain combustion
Flash Point Lowest temp at which vapour Relevant for liquefied flammable gases
ignites
Auto-ignition Temp Temperature at which gas self- Critical for hot-surface and compression
ignites ignition scenarios
TLV / IDLH Threshold Limit Value; Used to determine safe exposure limits
Immediately Dangerous and evacuation triggers
concentration
Reactivity Tendency to react with air, Governs storage incompatibilities and
water, or other substances handling precautions

4.2 Properties of Common Industrial Gases

Gas LEL (%) UEL (%) VD TLV-TWA Key Hazard
LPG 1.8 9.5 1.55 1000 ppm Flammable;
(Propane) accumulates in low
spaces
Hydrogen 4.0 75.0 0.07 — Wide flammability
(H2) range; invisible flame
Ammonia 15.0 28.0 0.59 25 ppm Toxic + flammable;
(NH3) corrosive to
respiratory tract
Chlorine — — 2.5 0.5 ppm Highly toxic; forms
(Cl2) HCl with moisture
H2S 4.3 46.0 1.19 1 ppm Toxic; desensitises
olfactory nerve at high
conc.

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Oxygen (O2) — — 1.1 — Oxidiser; intensifies

burning of all
materials

5. Shipping Containers for Gases

Gases are transported in containers matched to their pressure, phase state, temperature, and chemical
nature — all governed by the UN/IMDG/ADR frameworks.

5.1 Types of Gas Containers

a) High-Pressure Cylinders
Used for compressed gases (O2, N2, H2, Ar, CO2). Operating pressure ranges from 150 to 300 bar.
Constructed from seamless alloy steel. Fitted with a brass or stainless-steel valve and a protective steel
collar around the valve head.

b) Cryogenic Dewars
Used for gases liquefied at very low temperatures: Liquid Nitrogen (LN2), Liquid Oxygen (LOX), Liquid
Natural Gas (LNG). Double-walled construction with vacuum-perlite insulation. Not pressure-sealed —
must be kept vented to prevent pressure build-up from natural boil-off.

c) LPG Cylinders
Used for gases liquefied under moderate pressure (propane, butane). Working pressure 5–20 bar. Steel
construction with foot ring and valve guard. Fusible plug safety device melts at approximately 70°C to
prevent BLEVE in fire conditions.

d) Tube Trailers
A bundle of high-pressure cylinders mounted on a road trailer. Used for bulk transport of industrial
gases (H2, O2). Each cylinder is manifolded and valved independently. Typical capacity: 12–32
cylinders at 200–300 bar.

e) ISO Tank Containers

International intermodal tank containers for bulk transport of liquefied gases (LPG, NH3, Cl2). Designed
to the ISO 1496 standard; compatible with road, rail, and sea transport. Fitted with safety relief valves,
pressure gauges, level gauges, and rupture discs.

f) Acetylene Cylinders
Acetylene cannot be stored as a free gas above 1.5 bar (risk of explosive decomposition). It is dissolved
in liquid acetone absorbed in a porous mass (charcoal or calcium silicate) inside the cylinder. Must
always be stored and transported upright — if laid horizontal, acetone migrates to the valve, making the
cylinder unstable.

5.2 Cylinder Colour Code — Indian Standards (BIS)

Gas Cylinder Colour Notes

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Oxygen (O2) Black body White shoulder; medical O2 has white body
Nitrogen (N2) Grey body Black shoulder
Hydrogen (H2) Red body Red shoulder
CO2 Black (aluminium) Aluminium cylinders; fire extinguisher type
Chlorine (Cl2) Yellow body Yellow shoulder; toxic gas warning
Ammonia (NH3) White body White shoulder
Acetylene (C2H2) Maroon body Never horizontal; porous mass inside
LPG Unpainted / coated Red body in some states; red cap
steel

6. Fixed Site Storage Vessels

Fixed storage vessels hold gases at the point of production, distribution, or consumption. They are
engineered for specific design pressures, temperatures, and chemical compatibility.

6.1 Types of Fixed Vessels

a) Above-Ground Storage Tanks (AST)
Used for LPG, LNG, Ammonia, and other liquefied gases. Horizontal or vertical cylindrical design.
Required safety fittings: safety relief valves (SRV), pressure gauges, high-level alarms, and temperature
sensors. Must be surrounded by a bund wall (secondary containment dyke) sized to hold 110% of the
largest tank volume.

b) Mounded / Buried LPG Storage

LPG bullets (horizontal pressure vessels) buried under a compacted earthen mound. The mound
provides thermal protection, reducing BLEVE risk in external fire scenarios. Standard in refineries and
large LPG bottling plants. Requires cathodic protection for underground sections.

c) Spherical Tanks (Hortonspheres)

Used for large-volume storage of LPG and other pressure gases. The spherical shape provides uniform
stress distribution across the vessel wall, allowing larger capacities than cylinders. Typical capacities
range from 100 kL to 10,000 kL. Must be painted reflective white or aluminium to minimise solar heat
gain.

d) Cryogenic Storage Tanks

Used for LNG, LOX, and LN2. Constructed with a double-walled shell: inner vessel (austenitic stainless
steel or aluminium) and outer carbon steel shell with vacuum-perlite or foam insulation. Boil-off gas
(BOG) is continuously vented or re-liquefied through a BOG management system.

e) Gas Holders / Gasometers

Large low-pressure storage structures used in town gas and natural gas distribution networks.
Telescoping cylindrical sections expand or contract to accommodate volume changes as gas is drawn
or supplied. Modern designs are dry-sealed (instead of water-sealed) for better safety and lower
maintenance.

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7. Pipelines for Gases

Pipelines are the primary means of gas transmission over long distances. They are classified by
operating pressure, pipe material, and application type.

7.1 Pipeline Classification

Type Pressure Diameter Application
Transmission / Trunk 50–100 bar 600–1200 mm Long-distance natural gas
transport
Distribution Mains 0.1–7 bar 100–600 mm City/urban gas distribution
network
Service Pipes < 0.1 bar 25–100 mm Final connection to consumer
premises

7.2 Pipeline Safety Features

• Cathodic Protection — Prevents electrochemical corrosion of buried steel pipes using sacrificial
anodes (zinc/magnesium) or impressed current systems
• Sectionalising Valves — Remotely operated block valves that isolate pipeline sections during
emergencies or maintenance
• SCADA Systems — Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition systems provide real-time
monitoring of pressure, flow rate, temperature, and leak detection across the network
• Marker Tapes / Warning Strips — Brightly coloured (yellow) detection tapes buried 300 mm
above the pipeline alert excavation contractors
• Pipeline Right of Way (RoW) — A legally protected corridor along the pipeline route where
construction, digging, and encroachment are prohibited by law
• Pigging — Mechanical devices (pigs) driven through the pipeline to inspect wall thickness,
detect corrosion, and clean internal deposits

8. Label Requirements for Gases

Labels on gas cylinders and containers are mandatory regulatory requirements under the GHS (Globally
Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals), UN Model Regulations, and BIS/IS
standards in India.

8.1 Mandatory Label Elements

Label Element Content Required
Product Identity Chemical name, trade name, CAS number, and UN number
Hazard Pictogram GHS pictogram(s) — flame, skull, exclamation, gas cylinder, oxidiser
Signal Word "Danger" (Category 1–2) or "Warning" (Category 3+)
H-Statements Hazard statements: e.g. H220 = Extremely flammable gas; H280 =

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Contains gas under pressure

P-Statements Precautionary statements: e.g. P210 = Keep away from
heat/sparks/open flames
Supplier Information Manufacturer/supplier name, address, and 24-hour emergency
telephone number
Cylinder Data Tare weight, working pressure, hydrostatic test date, cylinder serial
number
Physical State Compressed gas / Liquefied gas / Dissolved gas / Refrigerated
liquefied gas
SDS Reference Direction to consult Safety Data Sheet (SDS) before use

8.2 Key GHS Hazard Codes for Gases

• H220 — Extremely flammable gas (e.g., Hydrogen, Acetylene, LPG)
• H221 — Flammable gas (e.g., Methane, Ethane)
• H270 — May cause or intensify fire; oxidiser (e.g., Oxygen, Fluorine)
• H280 — Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated (all compressed gases)
• H281 — Contains refrigerated gas; may cause cryogenic burns or injury (LN2, LOX)
• H330 — Fatal if inhaled (Chlorine, Hydrogen Cyanide, high-concentration H2S)
• H331 — Toxic if inhaled (Ammonia, Hydrogen Sulphide at moderate concentrations)

9. Tank & Cylinder Safety Devices

Safety devices are engineering controls that protect gas containers from catastrophic failure due to
overpressure, overtemperature, or mechanical damage. Every cylinder and storage tank must be
equipped with appropriate devices matched to its design specifications.

9.1 Safety Relief Valve (SRV / PRV)

The most critical pressure protection device. It opens automatically at a pre-set pressure (typically 10%
above the maximum allowable working pressure — MAWP) to vent excess gas, and reseats
automatically once pressure drops to a safe level. Types:
• Spring-loaded SRV — Standard type for most compressed gas cylinders and vessels
• Pilot-operated PRV — Used on large storage tanks where tighter set-point accuracy is required
Must be inspected, tested, and recertified at prescribed intervals (typically every 5 years per IS/IBR
codes).

9.2 Bursting Disc (Rupture Disc)

A non-reclosing, single-use pressure relief device. Made from a thin metal disc calibrated to rupture at a
specific differential pressure. Once ruptured, the entire cylinder content is vented. Used:
• In corrosive gas service where an SRV might stick or corrode
• In combination with an SRV to provide dual-layer protection
• Where zero leakage is required upstream of the SRV

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9.3 Fusible Plug

A temperature-sensitive plug made from a low-melting bismuth-based alloy (melting point approximately
65–70°C). Installed in LPG cylinders, acetylene cylinders, and chlorine containers. When external
temperature rises (e.g., due to fire exposure), the plug melts and vents the cylinder contents to prevent
a BLEVE.
NOTE: Fusible plugs provide fire protection but do not protect against purely mechanical
overpressure.

9.4 Excess Flow Valve (EFV)

Installed on the outlet of storage vessels and cylinders. Closes automatically when the downstream flow
rate exceeds a preset safe value — as would occur in the event of a broken downstream pipe or hose.
Critical in LPG bulk installations and piped natural gas consumer connections.

9.5 Non-Return / Check Valve

Allows gas flow in one direction only. Prevents backflow of process gases or contaminants into the
cylinder. Particularly important in:
• Welding sets (prevents flame flashback into the acetylene/oxygen cylinders)
• Multi-gas manifold systems
• Liquefied gas pump discharge lines

9.6 Pressure Gauge

Monitors the internal pressure of the cylinder or vessel continuously. The Bourdon tube type is standard
for high-pressure cylinders. Must be:
• Calibrated to read at least 1.5× the working pressure (full scale)
• Protected by a snubber or pulsation damper in pulsating service
• Recalibrated at specified intervals

9.7 Valve Cap / Protective Collar

A threaded metal cap or welded collar that protects the cylinder valve from mechanical damage during
handling and transport. Prevents the single most dangerous cylinder accident: a sheared valve, which
causes the cylinder to become an unguided projectile propelled by its own escaping pressurised gas.

9.8 BLEVE Prevention Systems

BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion) is one of the most catastrophic failures possible
with pressurised storage vessels. It occurs when:
• An LPG or other liquefied gas tank is exposed to external fire
• The fire weakens the tank shell above the liquid level (where cooling is absent)
• The weakened shell fails catastrophically, causing instantaneous flash vaporisation of the entire
liquid contents and a massive fireball

Prevention systems for above-ground LPG storage:

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System Function
Water deluge / spray Automated fire-detection-triggered water spray keeps vessel shell
system cool; prevents steel weakening
Fireproof insulation Passive protection: intumescent or cementitious coatings maintain
coating structural integrity for 2+ hours
Earthen mounding Physical earth cover acts as thermal insulation and blast shield for
buried/mounded vessels
Remote-operated isolation Shut off gas supply to the burning tank from a safe distance
valves
High-pressure water Water curtain around the perimeter dilutes vapour cloud and absorbs
curtain radiated heat

CRITICAL: BLEVE can occur within minutes of a tank being engulfed in fire. The initial
explosion is followed by a fireball radius of 30–300 metres depending on tank size. Firefighters
must never approach an LPG tank fire directly — water cooling from maximum safe distance
only.

10. Summary
Module 2 covers the complete safety framework for explosives and gas handling — from the containers
used in transport to the safety devices that prevent catastrophic failures in storage. Key themes
connecting all nine sections are:

• Proper containers ensure explosives and gases remain stable and secure during transport and
storage
• Correct labelling (UN, GHS, BIS) ensures immediate hazard identification and guides
emergency response
• Understanding physical and chemical properties (vapour density, LEL/UEL, TLV) underpins
every evacuation and containment decision
• Safety devices — SRV, fusible plug, EFV, BLEVE systems — form the engineered last line of
defence
• Incident Response Plans provide the procedural framework to protect life, limit damage, and
ensure regulatory compliance when incidents occur

Regulatory Reference: Explosives Act, 1884 | Explosives Rules, 2008 | Gas Cylinder Rules,
2016 | PESO Guidelines | GHS (UN) | IS/BIS Standards | IMDG Code | ADR/RID (International)

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