INSTRUMENTS Characteristics

Classification Based On Signal Type 1. Accuracy

1. Electrical Instruments Closeness of measured value to the true value
Measure electrical quantities directly Accuracy=(1−Error/True value)×100%
Example: Ammeter, Voltmeter 2. Precision
2. Electronic Instruments Degree of agreement between repeated measurements
Use electronic circuits for measurement Instrument may be precise but not accurate
Example: CRO, DSO 3. Sensitivity
3. Mechanical Instruments Ability to detect small changes in input
Unable to respond rapidly Ratio of output change to input change
Accuracy: Electronics > Electrical > Mechanical Higher sensitivity → detects tiny variations
4. Resolution
Classification Based On Purpose
Smallest change in input that can be detected
1. Absolute Instruments
Depends on scale divisions or digital count
Measure quantity in terms of instrument constants
Eg: Digital meter showing 0.01 V has higher resolution than 0.1 V
No comparison required
5. Linearity
Used in laboratories
Degree to which output is directly proportional to input
Example: Tangent galvanometer
Ideal instrument → straight-line calibration curve
2. Secondary Instruments
Non-linearity causes measurement error
Directly indicate measured value
6. Hysteresis
Require calibration
Difference in readings for increasing vs decreasing input
Used in practical measurements
Caused by friction, magnetic effects, mechanical lag
Types of Secondary Instruments:
Important in analog instruments
Indicating Instruments (Voltmeter, Ammeter)
7. Repeatability
Recording Instruments (Chart recorder)
Ability to give same output under identical conditions
Integrating Instruments (Energy meter)
Related to precision
Null Detectors (Potentiometer, AC-DC Bridges)
8. Reproducibility
Gross Error: By Human mistakes Ability to give same results under changed conditions
Creeping Error: Creeping is the slow continuous rotation of the (different operator, environment, time)
disc in an induction-type energy meter even when there is no 9. Drift
load (no current) Gradual change in output over time without input change
Types of Drift:
Types of systematic Errors
Zero drift → entire calibration shifts
a) Instrumental Errors: Caused by defects in instrument
Sensitivity drift → slope changes
✔ Reduced by proper calibration.
Zonal drift → change in part of range
(b) Environmental Errors: Due to surroundings
10. Threshold
✔ Reduced by controlled lab conditions. Minimum input required to produce output
(c) Observational Errors: Due to wrong observation Below this value → no response
✔ Reduced by correct eye positioning like parallax error 11. Dead Zone (Dead Band)
Static Error Range of input for which output does not change
Error when the measured quantity is constant (steady) Common in mechanical instruments
Static Error = True Value − Indicated Value 12. Fidelity
✔ Can be corrected by calibration Ability of an instrument to reproduce the input exactly
Dynamic Error in the output without distortion
Error when the measured quantity is changing with time

Instrument PMMC Moving Iron (MI) EMMC Induction Type Hot-Wire Thermocouple
Measures DC AC & DC Power Energy (kWh) Current HF current
Works On DC only AC & DC AC & DC AC only AC & DC Mainly AC
Principle Lorentz Force Magnetic Magnetic fields Induction Heating effect Seebeck effect
Scale Type Uniform Non-uniform Uniform Uniform Non-uniform Uniform
Controlling Spring Spring / Gravity Spring Spring Spring Spring
Damping Type Eddy current Air friction Air friction Eddy current Air friction Eddy current
Moving Element Copper coil Soft iron Copper coil Aluminum disc Platinum wire Heater + Thermocouple
Spring Phosphor bronze Phosphor bronze Phosphor bronze ---- Phosphor bronze Phosphor bronze
Magnet Used Alnico Electromagnet Electromagnet Electromagnet No magnet No magnet
Deflecting I   I2   I2   Irms2   I2   I2
Sensitivity Highest Moderate Moderate Good Low High
Accuracy Highest Moderate High Good Moderate High
Frequency DC only 50–60 Hz 50–60 Hz 50–60 Hz High frequency Very HF
Major Errors Temperature Hysteresis Frequency Frequency Temp variation Temp drift
Special Feature Most accurate DC instrument Cheap & rugged lab instrument as energy meter True RMS
 Seebeck effect: It is the generation of an electromotive force (EMF) when two dissimilar metals form a closed circuit with their junctions
maintained at different temperatures.
Shunt Method (For Ammeters) Multiplier Method (For Voltmeters)
To extend range of PMMC DC ammeter To extend range of voltmeter
A low resistance (shunt) is connected in parallel with the meter. A high resistance (multiplier) is connected in series with the meter.
 Swamp Resistance used in above methods: to eliminate the effect of the temperature made of Manganin(DC) and Contantan(AC)
Current Transformer (CT) Potential Transformer (PT) CT and PT together are called
Range extension of AC ammeters Range extension of AC voltmeters Instrument Transformers.

Instrument / Method Resistance Principle Key Components Advantages

Kelvin Double Bridge Very Low Modified Wheatstone Ratio arms, standard Accurate for
(< 1 milliohm Ω) eliminating lead resistance resistor, galvanometer low resistance
Wheatstone Bridge Medium (Unknown) Null deflection Four resistors, Very accurate
(1 Ω – 1 MΩ) (bridge balance) galvanometer, source
Megger Very High High-voltage Hand-cranked generator, Measures
(MΩ to GΩ) DC test moving-coil meter insulation

AC Bridge Quantity Measured Principle Key Components Advantages

Maxwell–Wien Bridge Low Inductance Uses capacitor & Fixed capacitor, No variable inductor
resistors for balance variable resistors required
Maxwell Bridge (L–C Type) Medium Inductance Unknown L compared Unknown inductor, Simple calculations
with standard C capacitor, resistors
Hay’s Bridge High Q Inductance Modified Maxwell bridge Standard capacitor, Accurate for high
for high Q coils resistors Q inductors
Anderson Bridge Precise Inductance Uses standard capacitor Standard capacitor, Highly inductance
with additional arm resistors, extra branch measurement
Owen Bridge Inductance Balance using RC Capacitor and resistors Simple balance
Combination equations
Schering Bridge Capacitance & Compares unknown Standard capacitor, Measures insulation
Dielectric Loss capacitor with standard resistors properties
capacitor
Wien Bridge Capacitance / Frequency RC network balance Resistors and capacitors Also used in oscillator
Condition circuits
De Sauty Bridge Capacitance (Loss-free) Compares two capacitors Two capacitors, resistors Simple and quick
Directly measurement
Campbell Bridge Mutual Inductance Based on mutual coupling Coupled inductors, Measures mutual
Balance resistors inductance

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

An oscilloscope is an electronic instrument used to display and measure time-varying electrical signals (voltage vs time) on a screen.
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): It is the heart of an analog CRO. It converts electrical signals into a visible waveform on the screen.
(a) Heater: Heats cathode, Causes thermionic emission
(b) Cathode: Emits electrons when heated (uses Nickel cylinder)
(c) Control Grid: Controls brightness (intensity control knob), More negative → less brightness
(d) Focusing Anode: Focuses beam into sharp spot
(e) Accelerating Anode: Accelerates electrons toward screen, Typical voltage: 1kV–5kV
[Link] Amplifier 4. Horizontal Amplifier
Amplifies input signal Amplifies sweep signal
Controls vertical deflection
5. Trigger Circuit
3. Time Base Generator (Sweep Circuit) Produces sawtooth waveform
Stabilizes waveform display
Moves beam horizontally with uniform speed 6. Screen: the wall of CRT is coated with Phosphor
Aquadag: Conductive graphite coating applied inside a CRT to absord secondary emitted electrons

LCR meter
It is a type of electronic test equipment used to measure the inductance (L), capacitance (C), and resistance (R) of an electronic
component. It can measures impedance, current, voltage, and phase angle
Function Generator:
It is a type of electronic equipment that generates different types of electronic waveforms over a wide range of frequencies.
Types of Oscilloscopes
Analog CRO Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) Sampling Oscilloscope
Uses CRT Converts signal to digital form For very high-frequency signals
Continuous display Stores waveform
Time multiplexing: In a multiple-trace oscilloscope, the technique commonly used to display two (or more) signals on the screen
simultaneously is time multiplexing.
Voltage division: Used for attenuating signal amplitude, not for displaying multiple signals.
Transducer: It converts one form of energy into other, It is also called Pickup
(A) Active Transducer (Self-generating) (B) Passive Transducer
Examples: Thermocouple, Piezoelectric crystal Examples: Strain gauge, LVDT, RTD
Thermistor (NTC): It is a temperature-sensitive resistor whose resistance changes significantly with temperature.