TechTrends (2023) 67:977–989

[Link]

ORIGINAL PAPER

Understanding Learners’ Experiences of Using ePortfolio in a High

School Physics Course
Daniel Carroll1 · Lida J. Uribe‑Flórez2 · Yu‑Hui Ching2 · Ross Perkins2 · Elizabeth Figus3

Accepted: 10 October 2023 / Published online: 3 November 2023

© Association for Educational Communications & Technology 2023

Abstract
There has been a move toward personalized learning and alternative types of authentic assessment in K-12 education. This
shift has been partly driven by increases in the available technology that can support those types of changes. This qualita-
tive study aimed at understanding the experience of learners in a first-year physics class working with an ePortfolio as the
primary method of assessment for that class. This research took place in a school that fully implemented a 1:1 program and
has been piloting personalized learning strategies for the past five years, and the use of ePortfolios in some physics classes
was one of those initiatives. Data consisted of student written responses to reflective prompts in ePortfolios and individual
semi-structured interviews of seventeen students. Results suggest that student experiences with ePortfolios include aspects
of the development of academic self-efficacy and self-regulation along with a self-reported reduction in academic stress.

Keywords Academic Self-Efficacy · ePortfolio · Science Education · Self-Regulation · Qualitative Research

In K-12 Education there is a shift away from traditional research focus, and educational policy shift (Dockterman,
models of instruction toward learner-centered and inquiry- 2018; Friend et al., 2017; Rickabaugh, 2016).
based models (Miller, 2013; National Research Council, The increased prevalence of technology in schools has
2000). One model has been described as personalized had a meaningful influence on the shift (Grant & Basye,
learning (Friend et al., 2017; Rickabaugh, 2016). Aspects 2014). Access to technology and digital resources supports
of personalized learning are rooted in earlier pedagogical the personalization of learning and creates opportunities that
theories of the need for individualized attention to learn- did not exist before (Friend et al., 2017; USDOE, 2016). To
ers (Bartolomé et al., 2018; Dockterman, 2018;). While not facilitate the movement toward personalized learning, the
new, it has become established as a form of school change, way learning is assessed must also change (Marzano, 1992;
Rickabaugh, 2016). Assessment is, therefore, changing from
* Lida J. Uribe‑Flórez traditional types of assessment such as multiple-choice tests
lidauribeflorez@[Link] to more authentic assessment such as open-ended questions
Daniel Carroll and project-based assessment (Gulikers et al., 2007; Mar-
[Link]@[Link] zano et al., 1993). Portfolio assessment has been recognized
Yu‑Hui Ching as an effective type of authentic assessment that is support-
Yu-huiching@[Link] ive of personalized learning (Mabry, 1999; Rate, 2008).
Ross Perkins An ePortfolio is a digital development of a standard paper
rossperkins@[Link] portfolio. A portfolio used as assessment, is a collection of
Elizabeth Figus learner-curated artifacts and associated reflections to rep-
ecfigus@[Link] resent the process and progress of learning (Rate, 2008).
The ePortfolio has been defined as a learner-centered and
1
Arlington Public Schools, 4300 37th Rd N, Arlington, learner-defined electronic product that would be a record
VA 22207, USA
of ongoing learning experiences (Jensen & Treuer, 2014).
2
Boise State University, 1910 University Drive, Boise, In an ePortfolio, students can use interactive and dynamic
ID 83725‑17479239, USA
features not available in paper-based portfolios (Jensen &
3
University of Alaska Fairbanks, 9350 View Drive, Juneau, Treuer, 2014; Scully et al., 2018).
AK 99801, USA

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978 TechTrends (2023) 67:977–989

As with portfolio assessment, the use of ePortfolio has basic tenet of self-efficacy is that it is a belief system that an
not been widely adopted by educational institutions or individual maintains about their capability for performance
individual instructors (Jensen & Treuer, 2014; Rossi et al., (Bandura, 1986a, b, 1997, 2012; Pajares, 1996; Zimmerman,
2008). Even in institutions where the ePortfolio is a sug- 2000). The self-efficacy influences the types of goals learn-
gested requirement for graduation, students tend not to use ers set, the courses and course directions they choose, the
them unless explicitly told to do so and their use tends to be amount of effort they exert in pursuing the goals, and how
more directed than spontaneous (Rossi, et al., 2008). Rea- well they can persevere when they encounter roadblocks
sons for not using ePortfolios in a more spontaneous way (Pajares, 1996; Zimmerman, et al., 1992).
or students’ experiences using these assessment tools are Self-efficacy pertains to individuals’ perceived capa-
not clear. bilities and ability to apply those capabilities to achieve
The purpose of this qualitative study is to understand the a certain result or level of success (Pajares, 1996), and is
experience of learners in a first-year physics class working an expectancy of performance that is task and concept-
with an ePortfolio as the primary method of assessment for specific (Bandura, 2012; Bong & Skaalvik, 2003; Pajares,
that class. The central question guiding this study is about 1996; Zimmerman, 2000).
the learner’s ePortfolio experience and the two sub-questions
(SQ) on academic self-efficacy and academic self-regulatory
behaviors describe the lens used to understand that experi- Self‑Regulation
ence (Creswell, 2015).
Self-regulation is the set of behaviors that would reason-
• Central Question (CQ): How do learners in a physics ably be expected to lead to the successful fulfillment of
class describe the experience of using an ePortfolio as self-efficacy beliefs (Zimmerman, 1990). Self-regulative
the major assessment tool of that class? behaviors are the skills that enable a person to be able to
organize, prioritize, and process the demand and actions
necessary for success (Zimmerman, 1990). There are three
– SQ1: What aspects of academic self-efficacy do stu- features of self-regulated learning discussed by Zimmer-
dents include in their descriptions of their experi- man (1990). They are (1) use of strategies, (2) respon-
ences of ePortfolio practice? siveness to feedback, and (3) motivation to succeed. He
– SQ2: What self-regulative behaviors do students points out that these features are necessary for students to
refer to in their description of their use of the ePort- be successful. Bandura (1997) reasons that building self-
folio assessment? regulative behaviors should be an important consideration
of educational systems because it has a significant role in
forming self-efficacy beliefs.
Theoretical Foundations Baumeister and Heatherton (1996) identify self-regu-
lation as a feedback loop in academic environments: set-
Social cognitive theory is a way of thinking about how ting standards, monitoring (self and standards), operating
people act and react within their environment. This action- to achieve standards. Zimmerman (1990) defines the set
reaction relationship has been described as a triadic recip- of self-regulated processes as a cycle that includes: self-
rocal model between personal determinants, behavioral evaluation and monitoring, goal setting and planning,
determinants, and environmental determinants to represent strategy implementation, and outcome monitoring. In this
that relationship (Bandura, 2012). Self-efficacy is part of self-regulated cycle, there is a cognitive self-awareness of
that theory in that it describes a person’s belief about their how their effort results in learning outcomes and a self-
own self-agency and ability to interact with the environment awareness of their ability to change their work or use of
(Bandura, 2012). However, having the capability to perform strategies to improve outcomes. Zimmerman (1990) posits
a task is not enough to be able to perform it. One must also that a learner will improve outcome by analyzing how their
possess self-regulatory behaviors to be able to apply those self-efficacy beliefs compare to the actual outcome they
capabilities. Judgments about self-regulatory skills are part achieved and then determining how to adjust strategies to
of self-efficacy judgments (Bandura, 1997). achieve improved results.
As the link between self-efficacy and actual performance
Self‑Efficacy improves a positive feedback loop is created. This loop is
defined by an improvement in performance resulting from
Self-efficacy is one of several self-beliefs or self-referential effective self-regulation. The improved performance and rec-
constructs that are a part of social cognitive theory. The ognition that the improvement resulted from a successful

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TechTrends (2023) 67:977–989 979

capability to change strategies to improve performance how the artifacts are selected, and what the purpose of
will result in an increase in self-efficacy (Zimmerman, the portfolio is. Each of these types of portfolios could
1990). That belief system will enhance both self-regula- also fall under two main descriptors, static and dynamic.
tion and self-efficacy which will result in improved future The traditional paper portfolio is a static portfolio. A good
performance. portion of the early literature about established portfolio
Essentially, self-regulatory skills are the task specific practice discusses the use of portfolios in language arts
behaviors that are necessary to complete tasks success- or art classes. Even when used by other disciplines the
fully. Having high self-efficacy for a domain-specific task traditional portfolio tends to be a static representation of
would not only require a belief that one has the intellec- what the learner has completed (Rate, 2008). The use of
tual ability to accomplish the task, but that one also has technology can extend the reach of the portfolio to include
the self-regulatory skills and the ability to apply those audio, video, external sources, and other types of products
skills successfully (Greene, 2018; Zimmerman, et al., (Jensen & Treuer, 2014; Love et al., 2004; Rossi, et al.,
1992, 1996). 2008) to make it dynamic. One of these types of portfolios
is the ePortfolio.

Portfolio and ePortfolio ePortfolio

Portfolio assessment is used in a variety of ways. Very gen- An ePortfolio is a digital extension of a physical portfo-
erally, a portfolio used for assessment would be a collec- lio that is web-based and is a student-curated collection of
tion of evidence that indicates a learner’s mastery of the artifacts and related reflections (Enynon & Gambino, 2017;
learning objectives. Portfolio assessment is identified as a Stefani & Mason, 2007). The ePortfolio is claimed as hav-
form of authentic assessment (Keefe & Jenkins, 2002) where ing been first defined and proposed for use by Treuer at the
students select and discuss products to submit as evidence University of Minnesota Duluth in 1994 (Jensen & Treuer,
for progress. This is compared to the way in which artists 2014). That proposal went beyond a course-based assess-
including actors and architects might compile a portfolio ment tool and suggested an ePortfolio be used by learners
showing the type of work they typically do in order to high- as a way of documenting their learning across and between
light their capabilities. events (Jensen & Treuer, 2014).
There are different ways that portfolios can be classi- An ePortfolio should include reflective annotations and
fied. One way, according to Renwick (2017), is by the pur- commentary about the artifacts and the ongoing work of
pose. In this classification, there are three basic types of the learner (Stefani & Mason, 2007). The reflective piece
portfolios as assessment tools: performance, process, and of the ePortfolio is an important aspect that is facilitated by
progress. He defines a performance portfolio as a student- the dynamic nature of a web-based repository of work. As
selected collection of work. That work is presented as evi- artifacts are added to an ePortfolio they can easily be linked
dence of accomplishment and includes student discussion to earlier artifacts for a particular study, external resources,
and reflection about the learning. The process portfolio is or even with events from a different course. The electronic
a collection of work that includes versions of drafts of the nature of the portfolio means that it is much easier to change
work. The intent is to show how the student has processed and curate (Jensen & Treuer, 2014; Stefani & Mason, 2007;
through the learning to arrive at the final product. The pro- Yancey, 2001).
gress portfolio is a teacher-managed collection of student However, as with other implementations of technology,
work. This portfolio is used to show student development the adoption of ePortfolio has not been widespread. Even
in a course over time. more than two decades after Treuer defined the ePortfo-
Portfolios can also be classified by best-work portfolios lio and designated its potential as an ongoing record of
which are student-driven or growth portfolios which are learning and progress, ePortfolios remain a minor influ-
teacher-driven (Renwick, 2017). The best-work portfolio is ence. The field of ePortfolio pedagogy is still in its early
a compilation of work that the learner selects to represent phases (Nichol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006; Rhodes et al.,
their achievement. This type of portfolio is student-centered 2014). The path to widespread adoption and cross-curric-
because the student has determined what products show their ular implementation is through the learners. Instructors
achievement. A growth portfolio would be a sequence of and learners will only adopt ePortfolios if they see some
longitudinal products that the teacher uses to determine pro- advantage to doing so. Learners often only use an ePort-
gress (Renwick, 2017). folio when instructed and only use the aspects they are
Renwick (2017) and McMillan (2008) define the types instructed to use (Appling et al., 2015; Rossi, et al, 2008;
of portfolios as based on the type of artifact placed there, Siu, 2013; Stefani & Mason, 2007).

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The general content of an ePortfolio used to assess and no students were identified as gifted in science. One
students’ progress in a course is artifacts, feedback, and student was receiving special education services as pre-
reflection (Lewis, 2017; Mabry, 1999). In this format, scribed by a 504 plan. There were four levels of mathemati-
reflection is a significant aspect of academic self-regula- cal ability represented by the math courses the students
tion (Zimmerman, 2000). A student creating an ePortfolio were enrolled in Algebra II, Algebra III, Precalculus, and
is being asked to reflect on aspects of their progress, suc- AP Calculus (BC). Thirteen of the students identified as
cess, and difficulty. Purposefully practicing self-reflection white and one of those students was an English language
supports the development of that aspect of self-regulation learner. One student identified as Hispanic, one student
and students who use self-reflection in developing ePort- identified as multiracial, one student identified as Asian,
folios are practicing that skill (Ayres & Paris, 1994; Cheng and one student identified as American Indian.
& Chau, 2009; Enynon & Gambino, 2017; Slepcevic-Zach
& Stock, 2018). ePortfolio
Aspects of the learner experience using ePortfolio have
been studied by some researchers, specifically the use of The ePortfolio for this study is defined as a web-based
ePortfolio as an assessment tool focusing on feedback and learner-centered assessment portfolio (Love et al., 2004,
reflection (Lewis, 2017; Mabry, 1999). Some research stud- Rate, 2008; Scully et al., 2018). It was an assessment
ies have approached specific tasks or aspects of self-regu- ePortfolio which indicates that the purpose of using it
lation and self-efficacy to see if these attributes were influ- was to assess students’ progress in the course. The course
enced by ePortfolio practice. Yastibas and Yastibas (2015) was divided into units. These units followed a typical tra-
analyzed studies about self-regulation and ePortfolio assess- ditional physics course and were aligned with the Stand-
ment. They found that ePortfolios specifically designed to ards of Learning of the state Department of Education.
increase aspects of self-regulation like goal setting would Each one had the typical types of learning activities for
result in learners developing those skills. a physics course: Laboratory work; inquiry activities;
problem-solving; independent and group projects; assess-
ments; and class. Students engaged in these activities on
Methodology an ongoing basis.
The aspect of the course that was different was that
This study used a basic qualitative design (Merriam, 2009; instead of receiving the grade from the day-to-day work,
Merriam & Tisdell, 2015) to establish an understanding of the students selected examples from that work to include
the experience of learners creating an ePortfolio to receive a in their ePortfolio. That process allows for the day-to-day
grade for a course. Merriam & Tisdell (2015) have suggested work to be used as a method for giving feedback about
that basic qualitative design fits to studies where researchers their progress. Each assignment completed resulted in feed-
are interested in how people interact, in how they construct back from the teacher. Regardless of the feedback, students
their worlds, and in what meaning they attribute to these could use the assignment as an ‘artifact’. Sometimes stu-
experiences. The qualitative analysis considers whether dents would use an assignment they had been unsuccessful
themes related to academic self-efficacy emerge from writ- on to show progress.
ten responses and semi-structured interviews. Data was col- Students could use any aspect of their work as an artifact
lected from regular activities that take place in the physics and could present it in the way that worked best for them.
classroom. The most common ways to submit an ePortfolio were on
Canvas (LMS), GoogleDocs, or on LabArchives. Each of
Participants these had advantages and disadvantages for the student and
all were equally accessible for the teacher. The types of arti-
This study was completed in a large high school facts students would submit were spreadsheets and graphs,
(2000 + students) in a suburban school district in the North- text documents, pictures of work, digital drawings, screen-
east area of the United States. Seventeen first-year high shots, and videos. Each of the artifacts was accompanied by
school students out of twenty-seven students in a Regular a description of why the work was used and a reflection on
Physics course, where ePortfolio was the major assessment what it showed about the seven science practices that were
tool, participated in this study. This group of volunteers the assessment standards used for the class.
included nine females and eight males, ages from 16 to 17. Students in the course started using ePortfolio on the first
Sixteen of the students were in grade 11 and one student day of classes. Data for this study was collected from the
was in grade 12. Four of the students were identified as completed third-quarter ePortfolio. This was done to allow
gifted in English, one was identified as gifted in art, one students to get used to the course, instructor, and assessment
was identified as gifted in math and English combined, method.

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TechTrends (2023) 67:977–989 981

Data Collection and Analysis the student experience focused on the process of produc-
ing the ePortfolio. Learner-based includes the experience
The data for the study included the written responses to focused on the student as a learner. The coded data were
reflective prompts contained in the ePortfolio and verbal defined and regrouped based on whether it was process-
responses to teacher-student interviews, activities that all based or learner-based.
students participated as part of their physics course. Only After further analysis of the coded data, it was deter-
the interviews and ePortfolio reflections from the seventeen mined the original a priori codes were sub-themes and
students who agreed to take part of the study were analyzed the categories would be placed within each of those sub-
for this study. themes. It was also determined that the themes should be
The data analysis started with an initial set of a priori designated using the lenses of the study as Self-Regulation
codes (Miles et al., 2014; Saldaña, 2016) from the literature and Academic Self-Efficacy. The process of making the
on self-efficacy and self-regulation. The codes for self-effi- ePortfolio was identified as self-regulation because the
cacy were modeling, mastery experience, use of feedback, data showed that students made statements about being
and outcome expectancy. The codes for self-regulation were involved in the process of learning and using the skills nec-
engagement in the task, planning, motivation, and reflec- essary to engage in that process. The student description
tion. These codes are a partial list of aspects that may be of themselves as learners could be interpreted as academic
influential in the development of self-efficacy in adoles- self-efficacy because those items included how the student
cents (Pajares, 2006). To capture the experience or voice perceived themselves as a learner and how they perceived
of the students, in vivo coding was used to analyze the ver- their level of success or mastery. There was a third emer-
bal responses to the interviews as well as for the written gent theme, different than what was thought originally,
responses. which is the affective-based theme of academic stress. It is
During the data analysis process, it was evident that distinct from the other two themes, and students discussed
some changes were needed. After a portion of both data sets it separately.
was coded with the preliminary a priori codes by the first
author, the codebook and samples of the coding overview
were shared with two of the other experienced researchers Findings
as suggested by Saldaña (2016). From the feedback, it was
apparent that the a priori codes may have been too restric- We will present the findings for the two sub-questions and
tive. The first cycle coding was maintained as a preliminary then focus on the central question in the discussion section.
analysis and alternative methods suggested by the advisors
were considered. SubQuestion 1: What aspects of academic self-efficacy
The data was then analyzed first by each participant and do students talk about when relaying their experiences
then analysis by the data set (reflections and interviews). of ePortfolio practice?
To begin, descriptive coding was used for two participants
with the goal of trying to use their responses to create an Participants talked about multiple aspects of their
experience profile about the learner’s experience based on experience using ePortfolio that are associated with Self-
their words. The tone and cadence of the student’s voice was Efficacy. Four themes emerged from the data analysis and
taken into account in the analysis of the interview data while matched the codes identified a priori based on the literature
creating the profiles. After reviewing the works the research- (Bandura, 1997, 2006, 2012; Bong, 2006; Pajares, 1996,
ers agreed that this process was capturing the essence of the 2006; Schunk & Ertmer, 2000; Schunk, 1994; Usher,
experience of each participant and all data were analyzed in 2009). Below, we present our definition of each one and
the same manner. the categories found in the data analysis process. Table 1
After the profiles were completed the learner experi- presents a more detailed definition of the sub-themes
ence sections were analyzed and additional codes were pro- and examples of quotes from students that relate to each
duced which included in vivo coding. The coded data were category.
reviewed and organized using NVivo 12. The third cycle of
coding was in vivo, which specifically used the interview Theme Mastery Having the experience of success. Being
transcripts and written responses to highlight the voice of successful in a particular task or in gaining an understand-
the participants (Saldaña, 2016). After the second and third ing of a concept. Categories: feeling of good work, focus on
cycles of coding, the codes were analyzed to see if themes learning, learning process, and confidence. These categories
emerged. There were two overarching categories of codes: were related to Mastery because they represented statements
process-based and learner-based. Process-based refers to about the students' self-perceived level of success in learning

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 Table 1  Self-efficacy theme
982

Theme Definition Categories Example Learner Statements

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Mastery The perception of having been successful in domain specific tasks and Feeling of good work I see work that I’m proud of rather than just looking at tests.
learning. The student expresses feeling successful or that they feel Focus on learning You can see yourself doing the work and see yourself connecting the
successful in the physics course. They are confident in their learning ideas and making it look good
and that the work in their ePortfolio shows they were successful. The
Learning process It shows the aspect of knowing how to do the equations. I know how to
student reports being a successful learner and talks about learning
do this, and it means I understand.
specifically. Students present their knowledge in holistic terms and
describe how they demonstrated success in multiple ways. Confidence It reflects on how good I am as a student in physics doing the ePortfolio
Modeling Using examples of successful task completion to gauge progress. The Collaboration Part of that was working in groups and helping to explain stuff to other
use of observation of others or observation of self in order to modify people. I think a lot of the time I felt like I understood the content well
performance. This includes discussions of collaboration and group enough to explain it to other people which I feel is a good indicator for
work. Students report using the example of other students or their own me.
example to facilitate learning. Students describe using the artifacts in Informs learning The portfolio gives you one place where you could go to and see if it'll
their ePortfolio to help them on new tasks and challenging concepts. help… it'll help you later on
Opportunity to show success One of the assignments I really liked was where you would solve a prob-
lem on the board and take a video of it. I think that it shows I can solve
a problem and I can prove I understand it.
Observation I did like when we did the videos and shared them on canvas, I thought
that was interesting. Because again, my way of doing it might be differ-
ent than someone else's way. I think that's helpful.
Outcome Expectancy The expectation of a particular result based on personal effort or activ- Learning means success I mean you knew the information. You show whether or not you can do
ity. Student discussion of expectation of course outcome based on it and you get your grade based on how well you try and how well you
the specific work they have done. The student states that since they show an example of it
have demonstrated the necessary skills, they have been successful and Engaged in process I will do my work in the future because if you don't do any of the labs,
their ePortfolio will demonstrate that success. The student has made a you won't have anything to put into your portfolio, therefore you don't
personal investment and expresses a responsibility for the assessment have any proof that you learned the standard
or outcome. Through self-assessment the student may identify areas
Choose easy path When I slacked off on a lab you are held accountable and you have to fix
to improve and spend time working on those areas. Learners have
it.
some control over which artifacts are included in the ePortfolio to be
used for the grade. Feeling of control I do my best on or that show more fully demonstrate my knowledge more
than other things. I definitely choose things that represent my capabili-
ties and knowledge more. I definitely use assignments that demonstrate
my knowledge.
Use of Feedback Getting feedback from multiple sources and using the feedback to adjust What worked I was going back and … I was relearning the content I already learned.
behavior. Feedback could be self-generated or externally given by The part where I look back at all the work I did and remind myself of
peers or the teacher. The student specifically discusses using feedback what I have had learned
given on particular tasks. Self-feedback recognizes that improvements Self-Correcting I wish that I had been more proactive and created my portfolio as the
to an artifact or to the general portfolio. Student expresses an under- quarter went on, but that is something I can fix.
standing for when things are well done and that they will attempt
Self-Assessment I was not afraid to fail or ask for help and everything doesn't have to be
to replicate the efforts. Discusses using the feedback to improve
perfect all of the time. You can do like do more to show you know it, if
performance.
the first thing doesn't work out for you there are always more opportuni-
ties and chances to show you learned something
Areas for Improvement It again showed me what areas I needed to work on for the rest of the quarter
TechTrends (2023) 67:977–989
TechTrends (2023) 67:977–989 983

physics. For example, Bria, her written responses, wrote, “I students talked about the types of feedback they received and
feel that the work I have done this quarter displays my under- how they used that feedback in their learning. For example,
standing of all the topics we have discussed in class. I have Chuck stated in his written response, “I should have stayed
a great understanding”. Shania, while describing how the on task more at the beginning of this quarter because that
ePortfolio requires a focus on learning, commented “in tradi- would have allowed me to understand certain things like the
tional regular classes that are just graded on assignments… math parts better. I will continue to work and I will stay on
it’s not as much focus on the learning process. This is… This task more”. Tina wrote in her reflective responses, “It shows
way of doing it makes you think about yourself as a student me what areas I need to work on and what areas I have dem-
more as opposed to well I am doing this assignment to get a onstrated full knowledge in”.
good grade and just move on. In this, I am going to reflect on
what I used. Thinking about how you learn best”. SubQuestion 2: What self-regulative behaviors do
students discuss when talking about their use of the
Theme Modeling Using information from watching an ePortfolio assessment?
expert, peer, or self to gain an understanding of how to
solve problems or engage in problem-solving. Categories: Participants talked about behaviors that led them to be
collaboration, informs learning, opportunity to show suc- successful in creating their ePortfolio, and these were found
cess, and observation. These categories were related to associated with self-regulatory behaviors. Four themes
modeling in that the students had discussed the process of emerged from the data analysis and matched the codes
using their work with others or through their own self-obser- identified a priori based on the literature (Bandura, 1997,
vation during the course of learning and engaging with the 2006, 2012; Bong, 2006; Pajares, 1996, 2006; Schunk, 1994;
ePortfolio. For example, Erin during the interview mention- Schunk & Ertmer, 2000; and Usher, 2009). They are engage-
Science Practicfed, “I feel like most people work together ment in tasks, motivation, planning, and reflection. After
a lot because labs give you the option to say I worked with the analysis, one new category was identified: awareness,
these people and the work is in their notebook. I still like and the initial category of engagement in tasks was included
to have the work, so we share…. so I can see what we did”. under this new one. Below, we present our definition of each
Jane, describing her experience on creating her portfolio, one and the categories found in the data analysis process.
mentioned “I have the explanations even if they're brief. It Table 2 below presents definitions and examples of quotes
really relates it back and it forces me to like think did this related to each category.
actually hit it (the objectives) and did I actually do anything
that (shows the objectives)”. Theme Awareness Understanding how concepts fit together
and how to apply standards to artifacts. Categories: con-
Theme Outcome Expectancy An expectation that the behav- nectedness, learner focus, engagement in tasks, and learn-
ior and efforts will lead to success. A feeling of self-deter- ing process. The participants talked about being aware of
mination. Categories: learning means success, engaged in the processes and behaviors necessary to be successful. For
process, choose easy path, and feeling of control. These cat- example, Bria, during the interview, expressed “I would say
egories were related to this theme because they represented oh I didn't know that math transferred to over here… Just
the ways that students would talk about how their actions making those different connections that I think are helpful”.
would contribute to their future or continued success. For Hakim described how he decided what artifacts to use in
example, Beth, in her response to the reflection prompts, his ePortfolio, “I make decisions by seeing how confident
wrote “I feel that the process of creating an ePortfolio is an I am finishing the work, how it shows I learned physics…”
excellent way of learning because it causes me to rethink and adding “yes, when I am doing the labs will that go into my
overview the material”. Jane said in her interview “It makes ePortfolio I think how confident I am doing these labs how
me feel better about what I'm doing… I don't know it makes are they helping me learn physics.”
me feel more competent. It makes me feel like I actually got
something done in a class”. Theme Motivation The desire to complete work and to
engage in [Link]: prioritization of work,
enjoyment, desire to do well, and internal/external. The
Theme Use of Feedback Getting feedback from several
focus is on thoughts and feelings behind the reasons for
sources including the results of problem-solving activi-
doing the work. For example, Bria, stated about needing to
ties, group work, or the instructor's feedback from submit-
be self-motivated during the interview “since I have phys-
ted assignments. Categories: what worked, self-correcting,
ics {during the] first period it takes me a little while to get
self-assessment, and areas of improvement. These catego-
the balls rolling… and start going at it. The majority of the
ries were linked to the theme in that they represented ways
time I feel like I do get started right away”. Donny, during

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Table 2  Self-regulatory behaviors themes
Theme Definition Categories Example Learner Statements

Awareness Being aware of the processes and behaviors necessary to be successful. The Connectedness I would say oh I didn't know that (math) also transferred to over here… Just
student expressed understanding their role in learning physics. They talked making those different connections that I think are helpful
about the actions they took and what they did to make progress. There Learner focus Holds me more accountable doing my work and making sure I actually under-
was discussion of the connections between their work and connections stand what I am doing
illustrated throughout the content. Students talked about using different
Engagement in task ePortfolio encourages me to pay attention to what I am doing.
methods or that they have included multiple or varied representations of
work. Learning process I had to have it in mind as I was writing it. I said ok this is what I have to talk
about.
Motivation Thoughts and feelings behind the reasons for doing the work. The student Prioritization of work The knowledge that I will be creating an ePortfolio serves as motivation to
discussed being motivated to produce work that will reflect well on them, do my best work so that it will be high enough quality to include in that
will show what they know, and show what they can do. The student also quarter's portfolio.
talked about thinking about prioritizing work that they felt was important Enjoyment Makes me more motivated to work on the topics that I enjoy and love doing.
or would have a positive result.
Desire to do well You see yourself doing the work and see yourself connecting the ideas and
making it look good.
Internal/External I like having hard deadlines and stuff so the ePortfolio is a little hard for me
(reducing motivation)
Planning Goal setting and creating the structure to accomplish tasks. This included Goal setting I found that it is easier to be putting things in during the quarter instead of just
discussion of actively thinking about what experiences will enhance waiting until the last week.
their ePortfolio. Students talked about the organization necessary or have Flexibility It gives you more time to space things out… you can still know maybe I
developed in order to be successful creating an ePortfolio. They discussed can plan this out where I have to put one or two things in every one or two
setting goals for completing or compiling work and how they used the weeks so I have something in there.
learning standards to make those decisions.
Revisiting Work The portfolio is helpful because I can also put something in where it’s like
I didn't understand this but then in the next lab oh but now I understand it
with this lab and I can fix it.
Use of standards I add the science practices in. I try to find an assignment for each one. I
thought how each activity would meet the seven practices and would add
things to the activities to include more standards.
Reflection Thought or consideration of the aspects and progress of learning. The Overview I got to reflect on like what parts of physics I was using on each lab and which
student used the ePortfolio to think critically about their work and their content related to it.
progress. They discussed making decisions about revising or revisiting Comfort in Challenge I have to explain how it relates to the concepts or how it relates to the stuff
assignments based on new experiences. The student talked about how the we're supposed to be learning in class. So, I really put a lot of work into it.
ePortfolio made them think about their successes and challenges learning
Rethink Going forward I am going to write them in a way that I am going to under-
physics.
stand them when I look at them later.
Arm’s Length I think it is very helpful for some people. I personally prefer getting graded on
the work that I do. So, the ePortfolio doesn't really work well for me.
TechTrends (2023) 67:977–989
TechTrends (2023) 67:977–989 985

his interview, “I think [the portfolio] helps kids learn a lot

stressful throughout the whole quarter. With this class and type of grading
All of my other classes use the regular grading system, and it is extremely
Academic Stress I like the ePortfolio because it is a less stressful way of dealing with grades.
more instead of just being in a class where you are like try-

system, I can take a deep breath and relax during the class because my
ing to get a grade in this we are trying to learn physics and
get knowledge about physics instead of a grade”.

Theme Planning Using the science standards to plan activi-

ties or time spent on activities. Categories: goal setting, flex-
ibility, revisiting work, and use of standards. This theme
encompasses goal setting and creating the structure to
accomplish tasks. For example, Donny, while talking about
science practices stated in his interview “organization is
probably the main thing. Makes you feel organized and get
organized…helps you stay organized and have a final plan
at the end of the year so when you are doing your work it is

Example Learner Statements

stress levels aren't so high.

not without a purpose, you still have your portfolio and you
want it to work well”. Also, Tina stated in her interview,
“So it’s less stressful and easier for me to like set goals like
okay I need to get this done and then I will put it in when I
am done. And then after that I should do that, it is definitely
easier to put things in as I go, and definitely easier if I set
goals…like by using the ePortfolio”.

Theme Reflection Engaging in thoughtful analysis of work

performed and strengths and weaknesses. Categories: over-
view, comfort in challenge, and rethink. The theme involves

Category
students' thoughts or consideration of the aspects and pro-
gress of learning. For example, Karen, while describing
her experience as a not very comfortable one, indicated “I

the ePortfolio or a specific comparison between this learning experience

academic stress or overall stress. This may be linked to direct aspects of
respect ePortfolio grading because it does allow you to do
the self-evaluation that you don't get with other types of Academic Stress The student specifically describes how using the ePortfolio impacts their
grading”. Another example is in Chuck's written response,
“It is helpful for seeing the work I have done and what I
could improve on for next time”.

Discussion

In this section, we are answering the central question: How

do learners in a physics class describe the experience of
and another learning experience.

using an ePortfolio as the major assessment tool of that

class?
After analyzing the data, themes that were identified as
more important to participants were: mastery and outcome
Table 3  New theme—academic stress

expectancy (Self-Efficacy) and awareness, reflection, and

planning (Self-Regulation). In addition to the initial themes,
academic stress was also identified as a theme in students’
Definition

descriptions of the experience. Table 3 provides information

about this theme.
Elements of self-efficacy were included in students'
descriptions of their experience using ePortfolio. Mastery
relates to how the students felt about themselves and their
progress in the course. They felt successful completing their
Theme

ePortfolios and recognized themselves as having done good

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986 TechTrends (2023) 67:977–989

work. Studies by Cheng and Chau (2009), Theodosiadou for use with AP science classes (College Board, n.d.). Stu-
and Konstantinidis (2015), and Williams (2013) supported dents discussed using science practices to help them decide
this finding and showed that student self-agency and self- what to focus on. They also used the ePortfolio to help them
concept were among the benefits of ePortfolio use. The see areas they needed to strengthen. This point was in line
students expressed how their self-evaluation contributed to with the findings of Chang et al. (2018) that goal setting for
their belief that they would be successful as they moved improving learning outcomes was supported by an ePort-
forward in the course and as they continued to work with the folio practice.
ePortfolio. Outcomes expectancy relates to students’ feelings Academic stress, a new theme presented in Table 3, indi-
of power or control in being able to make choices about what cates the positive influence of ePortfolio on the reduction
to work on and what to include in their ePortfolios. In aca- of stress. This theme was not necessarily related to the
demic settings, learner-centeredness is a primary goal of the sub-questions, but it was found to be an important part of
implementation of ePortfolios. The move of K-12 education the experience. Research indicates that academic stress is
in the direction of personalized learning or learner-centered negatively related to self-efficacy (Nihan, 2017; Zajacova
inquiry models requires a change in assessment (Gulikers et al., 2005) and self-efficacy is thought to help individuals
et al., 2007; Marzano, 2011; Rickabaugh, 2016). ePortfolios be less influenced by academic stress. However, academic
meet the goal of making learning and assessment focused on stress is a major concern for high school students and has
the learner through content, pace, method of learning, and been shown to have negative impacts on overall emotional
assessment (Lewis, 2017; Rate, 2008; Scully et al., 2018). health and academic performance (Pascoe et al., 2020).
In the same way, Lewis (2017) found that ePortfolios could It has also been shown to interfere with learning and the
enhance a constructivist approach to learning where the stu- development of academic interests (Jones & Hattie, 1991).
dents gained an understanding of their learning and how to The participants in the current study overwhelmingly
improve their learning. reported a reduction in stress and attributed the reduction
Self-regulatory behaviors were also included in students' to the absence of high-stakes testing and the alternative
descriptions of their experiences in the course. Awareness, assessment methods of the ePortfolio. This element of
reflection, and planning were included in their responses. the study is reinforced by the research of Jones and Hattie
Awareness is one of the central tenets of self-regulation (1991) and Davis and Compas (1986) which found some
(Efklides, 2011; Zimmerman, 2000). Students in the current of the major sources of academic stress were tests, grades,
study expressed thinking about what they were doing and teachers not recognizing hard work, and making academic
that using the ePortfolio resulted in them seeing connec- mistakes like studying the wrong material or forgetting to
tions in the material they might not necessarily have noticed complete assignments on time.
without it. Reflection was another theme identified. Being a
reflective learner creates the cognitive connection for self-
regulation (Zimmerman, 2000). Students who are reflec- Conclusion
tive learners can communicate how their work fits into the
learning and how the pieces of physics fit together. Using The purpose of this study was to understand the experi-
the ePortfolio requires students to frequently look back at ence of learners in first-year physics classes working with
their work and may provide opportunities for learning or to an ePortfolio as the primary method of assessment for that
connect to the current concepts. ePortfolio researchers state class. The data for this study were collected from the third
that reflection is an essential component of ePortfolio prac- quarter activities for the ePortfolio during the 2020–2021
tice and guidance must be given to help learners improve academic year. When students were writing responses to
their ability to be reflective (Lewis, 2017; Scully et al., reflective prompts and speaking about their experience dur-
2018). Planning is included in students’ descriptions. This ing the conferences, they were including their entire experi-
aspect involved using the information to set goals and self- ence from the beginning of the year. The findings show that
moderate day-to-day activities. A self-regulated learner has students described their experiences including elements of
the capability to set short- and long-term goals and to use academic self-efficacy and self-regulation.
feedback from multiple sources to adjust strategies (Greene, As a group, students discussed the ePortfolio in posi-
2018; Zimmerman, 2000). A main aspect of planning in tive terms. The one student who reported “not liking” the
this ePortfolio experience was the presence of established ePortfolio still discussed positive factors and effects of
standards. Having established standards and expectations engaging with the ePortfolio. The main points that stu-
for outcomes is important for the use of ePortfolios in learn- dents discussed in their experience reflected the themes
ing environments (Lewis, 2017; Scully et al., 2018). For this of mastery and outcome expectancy (Self Efficacy) and
class, the established standards were a modification of the awareness, planning, and reflection (Self Regulation). This
Seven Science Practices published by The College Board small group of students was a distinct sample engaged in a

13
TechTrends (2023) 67:977–989 987

particular academic elective course. The experience can- an ePortfolio and could serve as a starting point for future
not be generalized to other applications of the use of ePort- efforts to expand that understanding.
folio. There were particular aspects of the course design,
Acknowledgements This research is adapted from the first author’s
the instructor, and the use of the ePortfolio that might be doctoral dissertation, and is edited for the purposes of this publica-
different of other situations. tion. The first author wishes to thank all the participants that made
An unforeseen aspect of this research was the sudden this study possible.
shift in educational format when the school system was
suddenly closed because of Covid-19. This particular Declarations
group was already using an ePortfolio as the method of Research Involving Human Participants All procedures involving
assessment and easily shifted to learning remotely. The human participants for this study was approved by the Institutional
school system, like most across the county, was caught Review Board at Boise State University (101-SB20-008).
completely off guard. Although the school was in its 6­ th
year of a 1:1 program, the technological and pedagogical Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual
framework was not in place for a successful transition. participants included in the study.
With the new challenges and advantages of technology, it Conflicts of Interest The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare
is essential to find better ways to engage them in learning. relevant to the content of this article.
Shifting the focus from the teacher-delivered curriculum
to a learner-centered model is necessary.
“Personalized learning refers to instruction in which
the pace of learning and the instructional approach
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