Earthquake
related hazard
Earthquake damage in
Los Angeles, 1994
Earthquake damage in
Mexico City, 1985
Earthquake damage in
Kobe, Japan, 1995
Earthquake damage in
Bhuj, India, 2001
Earthquake damage in
Kashmir, 2005
Earthquake damage in
Kodhari, 2015 Nepal
Major Seismic events
in India Sub-continent 1885 Kashmir M>7.5
1555 Kashmir M>7.5 (??)
1905 Kangra M7.8
1934 Nepal-Bihar M>8
1950 Upper Assam M>8
2005 Kashmir M7.6
2015 Gorkha M7.8
Indian Plate
325 BC M>7 (?)
1945 M>7.8
893 M (?) 1679 M7.5
1668 M8 1762 M7.5
1819 M7.8 1847 Mw7.5
1845 M>7 1881 Mw7.9
1956 M6.1 1941 Mw7.7
2001 M7.6 2004 Mw9.3
Indian Ocean
(600-1500 m) (600-2500 m) (6500-7000 m)
(after Jackson and Bilham, 1994)
Possible slip available in
gap areas
Map showing the major faults in Himalaya and Tibet, along with the list of some significant great
and large magnitude earthquakes in the Himalaya. Seismicity data is extracted from the ICS
bulletin and Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) event catalogue. The thrust faults are marked
in solid black lines, dextral and sinistral faults in red and brown lines respectively, whereas suture
zone is black dashed line.
Malik et al, 2016. BSSA
Active Fault, Paleoseismic
➢ Identification and
of most seismically
active region,
crustal mapping inofNW
deformation newand
active
faults
Central Himalaya, India: An
integrated
➢ Prepare approach
“Digital towards
Active Fault Map”
Seismic Hazard Assessment
➢ Active fault map on 1:25,000 scale
➢ Paleoseismic investigations – to
identify the historic and pre-historic
large magnitude earthquakes, slip
estimation.
➢ To construct the chronology of the
paleo-earthquake events & to get
recurrence interval.
➢ Estimation of crustal shortening at the
HFT and MBT using GPS measurements
across the active tectonic zones between
HFT and MBT in Himalayan region along
➢ Seismic Hazard Assessment based on
paleoseismic data generated and available
strain in these areas if any deduced from
GPS studies
Map showing the major faults in Himalaya and Tibet, along with the list of some significant great
and large magnitude earthquakes in the Himalaya. Seismicity data is extracted from the ICS
bulletin and Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) event catalogue. The thrust faults are marked
in solid black lines, dextral and sinistral faults in red and brown lines respectively, whereas suture
zone is black dashed line.
Paleoseismological trench sites investigated in the Himalayan region from different authors.
The white arrows show the long-term shortening across the arc. The interseismic coupling
is shown as shades of red (ref. 48). A coupling value of 1 means the area is fully locked,
while a value of 0 means fully creeping. Coloured patches indicate the supposed rupture
zones since 1505 (refs. 4,21,22): blue patches display blind ruptures of large (Mw ≤ 7.8)
earthquakes, whereas yellow patches indicate surface ruptures of great (Mw > 8) events.
Black line indicates the cross-section utilized for the numerical model setup.
Source: Zilio et al., 2019
Cross section along the eastern Himalaya pink and blue stars showing the recorded
instrumental earthquake along the ramp and flat of MHT (modified from Mugnier et al. 2013)
Active fault and paleoseismic evidence:
Implication towards seismic hazard in Kachchh
region, western Gujarat
Why Kachchh is active..?? 1885
1555
Kashmir M>7.5
Kashmir M>7.5 (??)
1905 Kangra M7.8
1934 Nepal-Bihar M>8
1950 Upper Assam M>8
2005 Kashmir M7.6
Indian Plate
325 BC M>7 (?)
1945 M>7.8
893 M(?)
1668 M8
1819 M7.8 1679 M7.5 (?)
1845 M>7 1762 M7.5 (?)
1956 M6.1 1847 Mw7.5
2001 M7.6 1881 Mw7.9
1941 Mw7.7
2004 Mw9.3
1993
(Mw6.2)
Indian Ocean
Geomorphic & Tectonic set-up
Earthquakes in Kachchh region
• In last 500 years, Kachchh experienced several large magnitude earthquakes (6.0
M 7.8).
• These earthquakes are 1668 Indus-Delta (M7), 1819 Allah Bund (Mw7.8), 1956
Anjar (Mw6.0) and recent 2001 Bhuj earthquake (Mw7.6) was the most
destructive event.
• Historical data and paleoseismic studies from the Great Rann of Kachchh revealed
evidence of large magnitude earthquakes those occurred during a time span of
BCE 800-1000.
• Active fault studies from Kachchh Mainland revealed that the major faults, viz. the
Katrol Hill Fault (KHF) and the Kachchh Mainland Fault (KMF) have ruptured the
younger Quaternary succession.
Ground Effects and
Evaluation of
Earthquake Hazards
For seismic hazard evaluation
• Seismicity and ground conditions
• Effects of earthquake vibrations on sediment
types
• Seismic investigations
• Duration of the seismic event (is most
important factor)
• Magnitude of earthquake
• Precursory events
• Measurements of electric and magnetic field
• Geological and geomorphological records
• Plotting of seismic data on geological maps
• Study of accelerograms
SEISMICITY AND GROUND CONDITION
• Amplitude of seismic waves and
acceleration varies from place to
place
• It is much greater on deep (thick)
alluvium than in rocky terrain
• However, some well build rigid
buildings suffers less damage on
alluvium than on rocky area
• But poor construction will be
more affected
Effects of Vibrations on Ground
• Strong vibrations during earthquake can affect the portion of
the upper crust comprising thin pile of loose-unconsolidated
sediment
• Cohesiveless sediments (sand + silt) – undergo compaction
• Loosely packed water saturated sediments – can lose all shear
strength and behave like fluid.
• This phenomenon is known as “densification” – this will result
into increase in pore water pressure – result into formation of
sand boils
• This phenomenon is also termed as liquefaction
LIQUEFACTION • Liquefaction is a phenomenon that causes
transformation of water saturated sandy (cohesion less
sediments) material into liquefied state due to increase
in pore water pressure
Pore
water
But during earthquake shear waves
results into increase in pore water
pressure – causes formation of sand
blows/sand boils on the surface
Before earthquake the grains remains packed
due to friction between them and the weight of
the ground is supported by the sand grains
Seismic shaking, amplification and duration
• The reason was of course the population
• A large portion of the Mexico City sits on the bed of
Lake Texcoco – since European settlements way back
in 1520
• The area provides flat terrain with fertile soil, ideal for
settlement...
• But this terrain and thick lake deposits – leads to (a)
amplification of seismic waves, and (b) extend the
duration of shaking from earthquakes.
[Link]
• Dramatic effect of seismic energy amplified due to 1985
earthquake having its epicenter location about 400 km away
from the Mexico City
[Link]
Time
Hypocenter
• Changes in field loading conditions as the energy (seismic
waves) propagates towards the surface upward from the
hypocenter
• ’0 – initial effective stress (vertical overburden)
• h – horizontal cyclic shear stress (earthquake induced)
• Liquefaction usually takes place where the sediments (cohesionless) are completely
saturated
• It depends on the relationship of the cyclic shear stresses developed by earthquake
shaking and the amount of stress required to trigger liquefaction
• Depth of the occurrence of liquefaction varies from few meters to about 10 m.
• Development of liquefaction is highly difficult at greater depth because of increase in
normal (static) effective stress (’0 = total overburden pressure – pore water pressure)
which will increase the resistance of sediment to shear or deform.
Site: 2
?
Surface
manifestation of
liquefaction features
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
Lodai
Dinodhar
Hill
Bhuj
Volcanic
plug