Surface

manifestation of
liquefaction
features
 Shuttle Radar Topography Mission

Lodai

Dinodhar
Hill
Bhuj
Volcanic
plug
 SRTM

Liquefaction in Rann & Banni plains

 Sand blows during 1811-12 New
Madrid Earthquake

2001 Republic day Earthquake Bhuj

• a
• a
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• a
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• a
• a
• a
• a
• a
EFFECTS LIQUEFACTION ON BUILDINGS
Historic liquefaction features from
Kachchh region
 Evidence of Paleo-liquefaction from Banni-Great Rann region near Khavda in
Kachchh

Pseudo-nodules

Sand blows

West facing wall of N-S trending trench

Showing sand dike/blows, discontinuous
laminae, sand blow, folded clay silt lamina,
minor fracture
 Modified Mercalli Scale

Average Peak
Intensity Value and Description Acceleration (g is
Gravity = 9.80 m/sec2

I. Not felt except by a very few under especially favourable circumstances.

[Link] only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings.

Delicately suspended objects may swing.

[Link] quite noticeably indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings, but many
people do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing automobiles may rock
slightly. Vibration like passing of truck. Duration estimated.
IV. During the day felt indoors by many, outdoors by few. At night some awakened. 0.015g-0.02g
Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make creaking sound. Sensation like
heavy truck striking building. Standing automobiles rocked noticeably.
V. Felt by nearly everyone, many awakened. Some dishes, windows, and so on 0.03g-0.04g
broken; cracked plaster in a few places; unstable objects overturned. Disturbances
of trees, poles, and other tall objects sometimes noticed. Pendulum clocks may
stop.
VI. Felt by all, many frightened and run outdoors. Some heavy furniture moved; a 0.06g-0.07g
few instances of fallen plaster and damaged chimneys. Damage slight.
VII. Everybody runs outdoors. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and 0.10g-0.15g
construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable in
poorly built or badly designed structures; some chimneys broken. Noticed by
persons driving cars.
VIII. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary 0.25g-0.30g
substantial buildings with partial collapse; great in poorly built structures.
Panel walls thrown out of frame structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stack,
columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture overturned. Sand and mud
ejected in small amounts. Changes in well water. Persons driving cars
disturbed.
(=M 6)

IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed frame 0.50g-0.55g

structures thrown out of plumb; great in substantial buildings, with partial
collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations. Ground cracked conspicuously.
Underground pipes broken.
(~M 7 to 7.5)

X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame More than
structures destroyed with foundations; ground badly cracked. Rails bent. 0.60g
Landslides considerable from river banks and steep slopes. Shifted sand
and mud. Water splashed, slopped over banks.

XI. Few, if any, (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Broad
fissures in ground. Underground pipelines completely out of service. Earth
slumps and land slips in soft ground. Rails bent greatly.
XII. Damage total. Waves seen on ground surface. Lines of sight and level
distorted. Objects thrown into the air.
Liquefaction possibilities depending upon the thickness of
beds – liquefaction zone as a function of PGA

• H1 – Non-liquefiable
low permeability layer
capping the probable
liquefiable unit.

• H2 – Liquefiable layer

• Thicker the capping

layer (H1) more ground
acceleration will be
required to liquefy the
sediments
 Sand dyke

Sand drape

• A view of N-S trending trench exhibiting deformational structure

formed due to a single large magnitude earthquake (MS>5).
Succession comprise mainly clay-silt and silty-sand lamination.
(pen length is 14 cm).
 Layered undisturbed sediments

Layered undisturbed sediments

• Micro faulting in Banni-Rann Sediments

• Two generations of sandblows
exposed on the walls of a crater
located northeast of Vigakot. The
grayish sand forming the top layer is
due to the recent earthquake and
the yellowish sand below is due to
an earlier earthquake, probably
1819. Note the vent of the yellowish,
lower layer.
Lateral Spreading
 Lateral Spreading

• Cyclic process of shear stress result into back-and-forth movement

within the sediment column
• Increase in pore water pressure – densification – result into sudden
movement of large sediment blocks – causing lateral spreading
 February 28, 2001, Earthquake in Olympia, South Seattle,
Washington
• Aerial view of the flow slide that
occurred along a perimeter road
of Sunset Lake.

• Head scarp of formed due to lateral spread. The total length of the scarp is
approximately 200 feet with a maximum vertical drop of 3 feet.
Active fault traces along Kachchh Mainland around
Budhamora (epicenter of the 26 Jan. 2001 Bhuj
earthquake)

Trenching
 Oblique aerial photo-mosaic showing ground deformation
associated with the Jan. 26, 2001 quake around Budharmora
and Morgar

• Lateral spreading in the epicentral area resulted in development of numerous extensional

cracks in southern part and E-W trending linear bulges (pressure ridges) in the north fringe.

• Cracks were confined in a zone of about 0.2 to 0.3 km wide (N-S) and about 1 km in length
(E- W).
C
A

B
 Bulges were marked by typical asymmetric
anticlines with sharp north facing scarp and
gently dipping back limb to south (120-150).
Height of the scarp varied upto 30-50 cm.

•Lateral spreading in the southern portion

resulted in fracturing in agricultural fields.

•These E-W trending cracks were the

normal faults associated with extensional
regime.

•Descending step-pattern was observed with

down throw due north. With average ht. the
north face of about 10 cm.
 pond

• An apparent right-lateral offset of an irrigation

channel along a N-S striking fracture. Where the
ground in the front of the fracture locally moved
northward due to lateral spreading in a highly moist
soil close to pond in the upper slope to the south.
Deformation 5 km north of Kachchh Mainland in Banni Plains at
Umedpur

Isolated cracks were characterized by general down throw due north, with
10-20 cm left-lateral movement resulting into formation of pull-aparts.
Effect of Lateral Spreading and Liquefaction during
1995 Kobe & 1964 Niigata earthquakes

1964 Niigata
 Relation between the magnitude
and the occurrence of liquefaction
evidences
Locations of documented
liquefaction features and other
deformation structures. Size and
orientation of sand blows and
sand-blow craters as well as
direction of lateral spreading
• Relation between earthquake
magnitude and maximum
epicentral distance to surface
manifestation of liquefaction
(Ambraseys, 1988).

• This relation shows distances to

documented and reported sites
of liquefaction during 2001 Bhuj
earthquake.
Farthest Recorded Liquefaction
caused by 8 Oct. 2005 Kashmir
earthquake of Mw 7.6
Monitoring Seismic activity
SEISMIC INVESTIGATIONS

• Detail study of historic seismicity and close monitoring of modern

seismicity and geological phenomenon - Helps to workout probability
of an earthquake magnitude and recurrence interval – in strategic
planning & safety measures

• Seismologists believe – duration of an earthquake is most important

factor to mitigate risk – causes maximum damage to any civil
structure, failure of soil and slope failure etc.

• e.g., Buildings can remain standing if the shaking last for 30 sec. But
longer duration (100 sec) can result into collapse.

• During 1995 Kobe quake (M 7.2) – duration was 11 sec. But in some
areas located on soft soil it was amplified up to 100 sec.
 Magnitude and rupture length (Bolt et al., 1975)
Magnitude (in Rupture length
• Magnitude of earthquake is directly
Richter) (km)
related to duration and rupture length
5.5 5-10 (??)
6 10-15 Threshold magnitude
to trigger liquefaction
6.5 15-30
7 30-60
7.5 60-100
Great Himalayan
8.0 100-120 earthquakes
8.5 200-400
 PRECURSORY EVENTS & Short term
Prediction
• Keep close watch on the ongoing seismicity
(instrumental) to workout the pattern and behaviour
of small and moderate size earthquakes

• Before any major event the velocity of the P-wave

slow down up to 10%

• Because of fracturing in rock and later factures are

occupied by water, P-wave velocity increase, where
the water helps to regain the elasticity of rock

• Therefore continuous record of such changes helps

in predicting earthquake
Reasons of changes that takes place before major event (after Zongjin, 1990; Zongjin, Ma
(1990). Earthquake Prediction. Nine Major Earthquakes in China (1966-1976). Seismological
Press, Beijing.

• Due to plate movements elastic strain builds up along a fault line.

• Cracks begin to develop in the crustal rocks and the manifestation on the
surface may be either uplift or subsidence before the EQ.

• P-waves do not propagate through the cracked rocks easily and their velocity
slows in the area.

• Radon gas can escape through the newly formed cracks, and electrical
resistivity decreases.

• The cracks forming phenomenon (due to increasing stress) result into increase
in micro-seismicity locally.

• Groundwater or semi-solid material from surrounding areas flows into the new
formed cracks. As the cracks are filled again by the water the P-wave velocity
can increase back to normal. Also radon gas emission decreases.

• This will be followed by an earthquake (main shock), and then followed by the
aftershocks.
Duration of Precursory changes in velocity of seismic waves
The range of such changes can indicate the size of an earthquake

Earthquake Magnitude Duration

2 1 day
3 1 week
4 1-2 months
5 3 months
6 1 year
7 6 years
≥7 Sometime for 14
years
• It has been noticed that prior to major event crustal deformation
results either in ground shortening or lengthening or subsidence

• Also it has been noticed that always swarms of micro-earthquakes

are trigged several months before any major earthquake

• Bolt (1993) suggested that continuous upliftment of coastal area

occurred for about 60 yrs near Niigata prior to the June 16, 1964
Niigata earthquake (M 7.5)

• Similar uplift of several cm occurred over a period of 5 yrs before

1983 earthquake in Japan (M 7.7)
• Well documented evidence from Japan of the AD 1802
earthquake

• In morning before the AD 1802 earthquake, the sea

suddenly withdrew by about 300 m from the harbor in
response to the pre-seismic uplift

• After 4 hours a large magnitude earthquake (1802 event)

struck the region uplifting the land by another meter.
• Before an earthquake there is
consistent decrease in electrical
resistivity and magnetic field (locally)
becomes stronger

• Such changes can help in locating

hidden faults in the area.
• Constant watch on ground water chemistry also helps in predicting
earthquake

• It has been noticed that inert gases like helium, argon, radon etc.
are released prior to an earthquake.

• Detail geological (geomorphological) mapping of active landforms

and precise geodetic measurements can help in determining which
segment of the fault is likely to slip in future

• Active fault mapped and studied in detail should be classified on the

basis of their seismic potential.

• All magnitude earthquake [small, moderate and large] should be

plotted on detailed geological map with all information of structures
and geology, active fault etc to get complete map for hazard
evaluation.
History of Earthquake Hazard
Assessment in India
• Earthquake hazard assessment studies started in India after the occurrence
of the M 8.6 Assam earthquake in 1897.

• Before this, T. Oldham published a catalogue covering the earthquakes those

believed to have occurred in India from early times to 1869 AD (Oldham,
1883).

• Later the Geological Survey of India, under the leadership of R. D. Oldham,

started publishing "Memoirs of GSI," giving detailed accounts of damage
observations.

• The first seismic zoning map of India, demarcating three zones of heavy,
moderate and light – to no damage was prepared by the Geological Survey of
India in 1934 on a qualitative basis immediately after the occurrence of the
famous Bihar-Nepal earthquake.

• In 1962, the Bureau of Indian Standards (then Indian Standards Institution)

issued the first code of practice for earthquake resistant structural design.
This included the first comprehensive seismic zoning map of India based on a
multi-disciplinary approach.

• The map was based on the data on shapes of isoseismals for important
damaging earthquakes, the epicentral map and the tectonics of the region
• Indian Seismic zone maps since 1962: (a) 1962 edition, (b) 1966 edition, (c) 1984
version, and (d) 2002 edition (Redrawn based on IS:1893-1962, 1966, 1984 and
2002).
Before 2001 Bhuj earthquake After 2001 Bhuj earthquake
Seismic Zoning
• Main aim of regional seismic zoning and micro-
zonation is to reduce the seismic hazard – helps in
designing earthquake resistance structures
• The seismic zoning map includes information –
highlighting different zones
• Zones indicates the degree of hazard which may
be caused by seismic activity in particular region
• It includes information of instrumental data and
historic records
• Active tectonic structures
• Peak Ground Acceleration at particular area
 35.00

3.40
30.00 3.40
3.20
3.00 3.10
2.80 30.00
2.80
2.60
2.40 2.50
25.00
2.20 2.20
2.00 25.00
1.90
1.80
1.60 1.60
1.40
1.30
20.00 1.20
1.00 20.00 1.00
0.80 0.70
0.60
0.40 0.40

15.00 0.20 15.00 0.10

0.00
-0.20
-0.20

10.00
10.00
65.00 70.00 75.00 80.00 85.00 90.00 95.00

65.00 70 .00 75 .00 80.00 85.00 90.00 Grid spacing 1/2 Degree.

CSHI map India and adjoining region (Grid spacing 1 degree ) CSHI map India and adjoining region (Grid spacing 1/2 degree )
35.00

3.40

30.00 3.10

2.80

2.50

2.20
25.00
1.90

1.60

1.30
20.00
1.00

0.70

0.40

15.00 0.10

-0.20

10.00

65.00 70.00 75.00 80.00 85.00 90.00 95.00

CHSI Map of 1/4 degreeinterval

 Need of Paleoseismic studies…
• The driving force behind most paleoseismic studies is
society’s need to assess the probability and severity of
future earthquakes (Reiter, 1995; Gurpinar, 2005).

• Deadly earthquakes have occurred in 1999 in Turkey

(17,118 dead), in 2001 in India (20,023 dead), in 2003 in
Iran (31,000 dead), in 2004 in Indonesia (>250,000 dead
from tsunamis accompanying the earthquake), in 2005 in
Pakistan (80,361 dead), and

• 2008 Sichuan province, China (69,000 dead; U.S.

National Earthquake Information Center).

• In 2015 Gorkha earthquake about 9000 people were

killed
 Need of Paleoseismic studies…
• The 2004 Sumatra–Andaman earthquake was the fourth most deadly
earthquake in human history, and strained worldwide relief capacity.

• With the exception of the Turkish event, these earthquakes occurred

on faults that had not generated a surface-rupturing earthquake
during historical times or been studied by paleoseismologists.

• However, even where paleoseismologists have pointed out

potentially dangerous faults, local governments have often not used
that information to increase public awareness of seismic hazards or
mitigate the effects of future earthquakes (e.g., Bilham and Hough,
2006).
 Earthquake Risk & Damage
• The risk that an earthquake will occur close to where we live depends
on whether or not tectonic activity that causes deformation is occurring
within the crust of that area. The risk is greatest in the most
tectonically active area, that is near the plate margin or plate
boundaries.

• Occurrence of earthquakes in areas other then plate boundaries are

not well understood. But if earthquakes have occurred before, then
one can expect that they will occur again.

• “ Earthquakes don't kill people, buildings do". Because most

damage will be to the buildings during an earthquake.

• Earthquakes located in isolated areas far from human population

rarely cause any deaths.

• Thus, in earthquake prone areas strict building codes should be

followed for the design and construction of buildings or structure that
can withstand a large earthquake – reduce the death toll.
• Damage from earthquakes can be classified as follows:

• Ground Shaking - Shaking of the ground caused by the

passage of seismic waves near the epicenter of the
earthquake is responsible for the collapse of most structures.

• The intensity of ground shaking depends on distance from

the epicenter and on the type of bedrock underlying the
area.

• Loose unconsolidated sediment is subject to more intense

shaking than solid bedrock.
• Damage to structures depends on the type of construction.
Concrete and masonry structures, because they are brittle
are more susceptible to damage than wood and steel
structures, which are more flexible.
• Ground Rupture -
Ground rupture only
occurs along the fault
zone that moves during
the earthquake. Thus
structures that are built
across fault zones may
collapse, whereas
structures built adjacent
to, but not crossing the
fault may survive.

1999 Chichi Earthquake

Of Taiwan (Mw 7.7)
Hajipur fault
HF2

HF1
Geological Hazards Related to Earthquakes
Mass movement

Volcanoes

Landslides

Tsunamis
 December 7, 1988, a magnitude 6.9 earthquake
shook northwestern Armenia

• Rapid Mass-Wasting Processes - In mountainous regions ground shaking

due to earthquakes may trigger rapid mass-wasting events like rock and debris
falls, rock and debris slides, slumps, and debris avalanches.

• Sliding caused by shaking during earthquake is due to instability of slope by

loss of strength in the slope materials.
 Mw 6.7 Hokkaido earthquake of Japan (06 Sept. 2018)

• Strong ground shaking

resulted into massive
(complex) landslide &
liquefaction
• 11 killed & 26 people were
missing
• Liquefaction - Liquefaction is common in areas
comprising cohesiveless sediments

• Tsunamis - Tsunamis are giant ocean waves

that can rapidly travel across oceans.
Earthquakes that occur along coastal areas can
generate tsunamis, which can cause damage
thousands of kilometers away on the other side
of the ocean.
• Fire - Fire is a secondary effect of earthquakes. Because
power lines may be knocked down.

• Natural gas lines may rupture due to an earthquake, fires

are often started closely following an earthquake.

• The problem is compounded if water lines are also

broken during the earthquake since there will not be a
supply of water to extinguish the fires once they have
started.

• e.g., 1906 earthquake in San Francisco more than 90%

of the damage to buildings was caused by fire.
 Hazard
Bldg Inventory Analysis

Predicted MMI
Topography
Damage Scenario

Seismicity

Faults Collateral Hazards

(Intensity, PGA)

Soil Characteristics
Vulnerability
Analysis
Hydrology
End