Engineering Physics :: Module 4 :
Semiconductor Physics - 4
Dr. Kapil Saraswat
Department of Physics
School of Engineering
Dayananda Sagar University
Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
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Hall Effect
Definition :
The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage)
across a current carrying conductor (in presence of magnetic field),
perpendicular to both current and the magnetic field.
Discovery :
The Hall effect was discovered in 1879 by Edwin Herbert
Hall while working on his doctoral degree at the Johns
Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
Theory
• A static magnetic field has no effect on a charged particle unless it is
moving.
• When charges flow, a mutually perpendicular force (Lorentz force) is
induced on the charge.
• Now electrons and holes are separated by opposite force.
• This produces a electric field [Eh] which depends upon cross product of
magnetic intensity [H] and current density [J] :
Eh = R (J × H) , where R is called Hall coefficient.
➢ Consider a Semiconductor bar along X-axis, Magnetic field along Z-axis. Thus Eh
will be along Y-axis.
➢Consider a rectangular slab of an n-type semiconductor material that carries a
current I along the positive X-direction, as shown in the Figure.
➢In an n-type semiconductor, electrons are
the majority carriers.
➢ Let a magnetic field B be applied along the
positive Z-direction.
➢Under the influence of this magnetic field,
the electron experience a force called
Lorentz force given by,
FL = − B e vd (1)
• Thus R=Vh/aJH = Vhb/IH Where e is the charge of the electrons and vd
• Vh is Hall Voltage and I (J x A; A=axb) is the drift velocity of electron.
➢This Lorentz force is exerted on the electrons in the negative Y-direction. The
direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule. Thus, the
electrons are, therefore, deflected downwards and collect at the bottom surface
of the specimen.
➢On the other hand, the top edge of the specimen becomes positively charged
due to the loss of electrons. Hence, a potential called the Hall voltage VH is
developed between the upper and lower surfaces of the specimen, which
establishes an electric field EH called the Hall field across the specimen in the
negative Y-direction.
➢This electric field exerts an upward force on the electron and is given by,
FE = − e EH (2)
➢ At equilibrium, the Lorentz force FLand electric force FE get balanced. Hence,
FE = FL
From Eq.(1) and Eq.(2), then
FE = FL ,
− e EH = − B e vd ,
EH = B vd (3)
➢If b is the width (i.e., the distance between the top and bottom surface) of
the specimen, then
VH
EH = (4)
b
Or VH = EH b (5)
And VH = B vd b (6) [Using Eq.(3)]
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➢Let t (or a) be the thickness of the specimen along the Z-direction. Therefore,
its area of cross-section normal to the direction of current is b t (or a).
➢ Current density J can be expressed as
J = − ne e vd (7)
Where ne is the density of electrons.
J
➢ From Eq.(7), the drift velocity is vd = − (8)
ne e
➢ Substitute vd from Eq.(8) into Eq.(6), we get
J J
VH = − B b =− Bb (9)
ne e ne e
➢ Equate Eq.(5) and Eq.(9), then
J
EH b = − Bb ne e
,
J
EH = − B ne e
,
BJ
or EH = ne e
. (10)
Hall Coefficient (RH) Formula
• The Hall effect is described by means of Hall coefficient RH. It is given by
1
RH = (11)
ne
Where, n is the carrier concentration.
RH For n− type and p− type material
• A negative sign is used while denoting the Hall coefficient RH for an n-type
material, i.e., it is given by
1
RH = − (12)
ne e
where ne is the density of electrons.
• for an p-type material, a positive sign is used to denote the Hall coefficient RH
i.e., it is given by
1
RH = (13)
nh e
where nh is the density of holes.
• Using Eq.(12), Eq.(10) can be written as
EH
EH = B J RH ⇒ RH = (14)
JB
VH I
• Using EH =
b
From Eq.(4) and J =
bt
, Eq.(14) can be written as
VH bt VH t
RH = × = (15)
b IB IB
• Since the quantities VH, t, I, and B are measurable, the Hall coefficient RH
can be determined.
Mobility Determination from Hall Effect
Mobility (μ) measures how quickly charge carriers (electrons or holes) move through a material
when an electric field (E) is applied
or Mobility is the drift velocity per unit electric field of a charge carrier. (μ = vd /E)
Conductivity (σ) is a measure of how easily a semiconductor allows electric current to flow Or
Conductivity is the proportionality constant that relates electric current density (J) to the applied
electric field (E) in a semiconductor. (J = σ/E).
• For n-type material, the conductivity (σe) is given by
σe = ne e μe (16)
Where μe is mobility of electrons.
σe
From Eq.(16) μe = (17)
ne e
Using Eq.(12) [RH = − 1/(ne e)], Eq.(17) can be written as
μe = − σe RH (18)
Mobility Determination from Hall Effect
• For p-type material, the conductivity (σh) is given by
σh = nh e μh (19)
Where μh is mobility of holes.
σh
From Eq.(19) μh = (20)
nh e
Using Eq.(13) [RH = 1/(nh e)], Eq.(19) can be written as
μh = σh RH (21)
In the above discussion, it is assumed that all the charge carriers travel with average
velocity. But actually, the charge carriers have a random thermal distribution in velocity.
Hall Effect Derivation in Semiconductors
In semiconductors, electrons and holes contribute to different concentrations and
mobilities, making it difficult to explain the Hall coefficient given above.
Therefore, for the simple explanation of a moderate magnetic field, the following
is the Hall coefficient :
pμ H 2 − n μe2 (p − n b 2)
RH = = (22)
e (p μH + n μe e (p + n b)2
Where b = μe /μH,
n is electron concentration, p is hole concentration
μe is the mobility of electron, μH is the mobility of the hole
e is an elementary charge.
Applications of Hall Effect
The Hall effect can be used for :
(1) Determining whether a semiconductor is n-type and p-type.
(2) Determining the carrier concentration and mobility.
(3) Determining the magnetic field B in terms of Hall voltage VH.
(4) Designing the gauss meter and electronics meters based on Hall
voltage. 14
Q: A Hall effect flow probe is placed on an artery, applying a 0.100-T magnetic
field across it, in a setup similar to that in Figure. What is the Hall emf, given the
vessel’s inside diameter is 4.00 mm and the average blood velocity is 20.0 cm/s?
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