Fluid Mechanics
Chapter 7
The Energy Equation
1
7.2 Energy Equation: General Form
The energy equation for a system is written as
In words, this is stated as,
In this case, E is the energy of the system and it is an extensive
property. To make it an intensive simply divide by mass; i.e.,
e = E/m. Thus, using the Reynolds transport theorem with B = E,
b= e,
This2 integral form of the energy equation written for a control
volume (Eulerian form)
In general, in fluids there are three forms of energy we are
interested in; kinetic, potential and internal energies. The kinetic
energy per unit mass is V2/2, the potential energy per unit mass
is gz, and the internal energy per unit mass is given the symbol
u. Thus,
e = u + V2/2 + gz
Substituting for e into the integral form of the energy equation
leads to
(1)
3
Shaft and Flow Work
Work is classified into two categories:
Work = flow work + shaft work
Each work term involves force acting over a distance. When this
force is associated with a pressure distribution, then the work is
called flow work. Alternatively, shaft work is any work that is
not associated with a pressure force. Shaft work is usually
done through a shaft (from which the term originates) and is
commonly associated with devices like pumps and turbines.
According to the sign convention for work when work is done a
system it is negative else when it is done by the system it is
positive, therefore for pump work is negative and for turbine
work is positive. Thus,
4
To derive an equation for flow work, consider Fig. 7.3 which
defines a control volume that is situated inside a converging
pipe. At section 2, the fluid that is inside the control volume will
push on the fluid that is outside of the control volume. The
magnitude of the pushing force is p2A2. During a time interval
Dt, the displacement of the fluid at section 2 is Dx2 = V2Dt. Thus,
the amount of work is
Dx
Figure 7.3 Sketch
for deriving
5 flow
work.
Convert the amount of work given by previous equation into a rate
of work:
This work is positive because the fluid inside the control volume is
doing work on the environment. In a similar manner, the flow work
at section 1 is negative and is given by
Therefore, the net flow work is
6
For the generalized situation involving multiple streams of fluid
passing across a control surface the net flow work:
To account for velocity and pressure variation across the control
surface the integral form is used. Also, use the dot product to
account for flow direction. The general equation for flow work is
Thus, the rate of work is the sum of flow work and shaft work,
(2)
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Substitute the work expression, equation (2), into the general
energy equation, equation (1), leads to
(3)
Combine terms,
(4)
Realize the definition for enthalpy, h = u + p/r,
8
(5)
For uniform conditions, the equation is simplified to
7.3 Energy Equation for Pipe Flow
An important application of the energy equation is in pipe flows.
However, for this the first step is to develop a way to account for
the kinetic energy distribution in the flowing fluid.
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10
Kinetic Energy Correction Factor
Figure 7.4 shows fluid that is pumped through a pipe. At sections
1 and 2, kinetic energy is transported across the control surface
by the flowing fluid,
The right hand side
is not equal to
Figure 7.4 Flow carries
kinetic energy into and out
of a11control surface.
Define a correction factor as,
For incompressible fluid,
In general, α takes either 1 for turbulent flows, or 2 for laminar
flow.
12
The simplified form of the energy equation is obtained by applying
equation (4) to the control volume in Figure 7.4 and assuming
steady flow,
Recognizing that pressure, elevation and internal energy varies
little across the flow in a pipe and using the kinetic correction
factor lead to
13
Substituting for shaft work pump work and turbine work and divide
by the mass flow rate simplifies to,
Introduce pump head and turbine head as,
Substitute these definition into the above equation,
14
All terms but not the bracketed terms are form of mechanical
energies. The bracketed terms on the right hand side are
thermal energies and are always positive. This term is called
head loss and is represented by hL. Head loss is the conversion
of useful mechanical energy to waste thermal energy through
viscous action between fluid particles. Therefore, the final form
of the simplified energy equation applied to pipe flow,
In words,
15
EXAMPLE 7.2 PRESSURE IN A PIPE
A horizontal pipe carries cooling water at 10°C for a thermal
power plant from a reservoir as shown. The head loss in the
pipe is
where L is the length of the pipe from the reservoir to the point in
question, V is the mean velocity in the pipe, and D is the diameter
of the pipe. If the pipe diameter is 20 cm and the rate of flow is
0.06 m3/s, what is the pressure in the pipe at L = 2000 m. Assume
α2 = 1.
16
Solution
Apply the energy equation between sections 1 and 2,
Simplify as,
p1 = 0 because the pressure at top of a reservoir is patm = 0 gage.
V1 ≈ 0 because the level of the reservoir is constant or changing
very slowly.
z1 = 100 m; z2 = 20 m.
hp = ht = 0 because there are no pumps nor turbines in the system
Find V2 using the flow rate equation
17
Compute head loss from given relation,
Substitute into the energy equation leads to
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Fluid Mechanics
The Energy Equation
Continue
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20
7.4 Power Equation
to relate head to power and efficiency follows directly from the
head definition of the pump head and turbine head,
These equations can be generalized to give the power equation,
where the h can either be the pump head or turbine head. The
efficiency is defined as,
It follows the efficiency for
the pump and turbine are,
Where the subscript s mean shaft while p and T indicate energy to or from
fluid.
EXAMPLE 7.3 POWER NEEDED BY A PUMP
A pipe 50 cm in diameter carries water (10°C) at a rate of 0.5
m3/s. A pump in the pipe is used to move the water from an
elevation of 30 m to 40 m. The pressure at section 1 is 70 kPa
gage and the pressure at section 2 is 350 kPa gage.
What power in kilowatts and in horsepower must be
supplied to the flow by the pump? Assume hL = 3 m of
water and α1 = α2 = 1.
21
Solution. Apply the energy equation between sections 1 and 2,
Simplify terms,
Velocity head cancels because V1 = V2.
ht = 0 because there are no turbines in the system.
All other head terms are given.
Inserting terms into the general equation gives
Consequently,
22
Power consumption,
23
EXAMPLE 7.4 POWER PRODUCED BY A TURBINE
At the maximum rate of power generation, a small hydroelectric
power plant takes a discharge of 14.1 m3/s through an elevation
drop of 61 m. The head loss through the intakes, penstock, and
outlet works is 1.5 m. The combined efficiency of the turbine
and electrical generator is 87%. What is the rate of power
generation?
24
Solution. Apply the energy equation between sections 1 and 2,
Simplify terms,
Velocity heads are negligible because V1 ≈ 0 and V2 ≈ 0.
Pressure heads are zero because p1 = p2 = 0 gage.
hp = 0 because there is no pump in the system.
Elevation head terms are given.
Substitute into energy equation,
Power:
Efficiency:
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26
7.5 Comparing the Bernoulli Equation and the Energy Equation
While the Bernoulli equation and the energy equation have a similar form and
several terms in common, they are not the same equation. The difference
between the two is important to understand for conceptual understanding of
these two very important equations.
1- The Bernoulli equation and the energy equation are derived in different ways:
The Bernoulli equation was derived by applying Newton's second law to a
particle and then integrating the resulting equation along a streamline.
The energy equation was derived by starting with the first law of
thermodynamics and then using the Reynolds transport theorem.
Consequently, the Bernoulli equation involves only mechanical energy,
whereas the energy equation includes both mechanical and thermal energy.
2- The two equations have different methods of application.
The Bernoulli equation is applied by selecting two points on a streamline and
then equating terms at these points. In addition, these two points can be
anywhere in the flow field for the special case of irrotational flow.
The energy equation is applied by selecting an inlet section and an outlet
section in a pipe and then equating terms as they apply to the pipe.
27
3- The two equations have different assumptions.
The Bernoulli equation applies to steady, incompressible, and
inviscid flow.
The energy equation applies to steady, viscous, incompressible
flow in a pipe with additional energy being added through a
pump or extracted through a turbine.
4- Under special circumstances the energy equation can be
reduced to the Bernoulli equation.
If the flow is inviscid, there is no head loss. If the flow in the
pipe is uniform, then α = 1. There is no pump or turbine along a
streamline. In this case the energy equation is identical to the
Bernoulli equation.
5- Note that the energy equation cannot be developed starting
with the Bernoulli equation.
6- In summary, the energy equation is not the Bernoulli equation.
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7.6 Transitions
In the analyses of these components energy, momentum, and continuity
equations are used together to analyze (a) head loss for an abrupt
expansion and (b) forces on transitions.
Abrupt Expansion
An abrupt or sudden expansion in a pipe or duct is a change from a smaller
section area to a larger section area as shown in Fig. 7.6. Notice that a
confined jet of fluid from the smaller pipe discharges into the larger pipe and
creates a zone of separated flow. Because the streamlines in the jet are
initially straight and parallel, the piezometric pressure distribution across the
jet at section 1 will be uniform. This same uniform pressure distribution will
also occur in the zone of separated flow. Apply the energy equation between
sections 1 and 2:
Figure 7.6 Flow through an abrupt expansion.
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Figure 7.6 Flow through an abrupt expansion.
30
Assume turbulent flow conditions so α1 = α2 ≈ 1. The momentum equation for the fluid in
the large pipe between section 1 and section 2, written for the s direction, is
Neglect the force due to shear stress to give,
or (7)
The continuity equation simplifies to
(8)
Combining equations (6), (7), and (8)and solving for the head loss hL caused by a
sudden expansion
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If a pipe discharges fluid into a reservoir, then V2 = 0 and the
sudden-expansion head loss simplifies to
which is the velocity head of the liquid in the pipe. This energy is
dissipated by the viscous action of the fluid in the reservoir.
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Fluid Mechanics
The Energy Equation
Continue
33
Forces on Transitions 34
To find forces on transitions in pipes, apply the momentum
equation in combination with the energy equation, the flow rate
equations, and head loss equations.
EXAMPLE 7.5 FORCE O A COTRACTION IN A PIPE
A pipe 30 cm in diameter carries water (10°C, 250 kPa) at a rate
of 0.707 m3/s. The pipe contracts to a diameter of 20 cm. The
head loss through the contraction is given by
where V2 is the velocity in
the 20 cm pipe. What
horizontal force is
required to hold the
transition in place?
Assume α1 = α2 = 1.
Steady flow.
Solution.
Momentum equation (horizontal direction)
The forces acting on
the control volume are:
Momentum accumulation is zero because flow is steady.
Momentum efflux is:
35
Substitute force and momentum terms into the momentum
equation
Energy equation (from section 1 to section 2). Since α1 = α2 = 1,
z1 = z2, and hp = ht = 0, simplifies to
Pressure at section:
Find Velocities
using the flow rate
equation
36
Calculate head loss.
Calculate pressure.
37
Calculate Fx.
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7.7 Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
The hydraulic grade line (HGL) and the energy grade line (EGL), which are
graphical representations that show head in a system. The EGL, shown in
Fig. 7.7, is a line that indicates the total head at each location in a system.
39 Figure 7.7 EGL and HGL in a straight pipe.
The EGL is related to terms in the energy equation by 40
The EGL, shown in Fig. 7.7, is a line that indicates the total head at each location in a system
The HGL, shown in Fig. 7.7, is a line that indicates the piezometric head at each location in a
system:
Since the HGL gives piezometric head, the HGL will be coincident with the liquid surface in a
piezometer as shown in Fig.7.7.
Similarly, the EGL will be coincident with the liquid surface in a stagnation tube.
NOTE:
1-You need to pay attention for
the pressure at the reservoir.
2- the slope of the lines is along
the flow direction.
41
Examples on EGL and HGL
For this case, note how the EGL decreases along the flow
direction to the left of the pump due to head loss in the pipe.
The EGL increases by hp that receives from the pump.
Because the diameter is constant, the increase in EGL is equal
to HGL.
Figure 7.8 Rise in EGL and HGL due to Pump.
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Figure 7.9 Drop in EGL and HGL due to turbine.
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Jet open to the atmosphere
Figure 7.10 Change in HGL and EGL due to flow through a
nozzle.
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Figure 7.11 Change in EGL and HGL due to change in diameter of pipe.
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Figure 7.12 Sub atmospheric pressure when pipe is above HGL.
Cavitation phenomena
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EXAMPLE 7.6 EGL AND HGL FOR A SYSTEM
A pump draws water (10°C) from a reservoir, where the water-
surface elevation is 160 m, and forces the water through a pipe
1525 m long and 0.3 m in diameter. This pipe then discharges
the water into a reservoir with water-surface elevation of 190 m.
The flow rate is 0.2 m3/s, and the head loss in the pipe is given
by
Determine the head supplied by the pump, hp, and the power
supplied to the flow, and draw the HGL and EGL for the system.
Assume that the pipe is horizontal and is 155 m in elevation.
47
Solution
Energy equation (general form)
Velocity heads are negligible because V1 ≈ 0 and V2 ≈ 0. same
pipe diameter.
Pressure heads are zero because p1 = p2 = 0 gage.
ht = 0 because there are no turbines in the system.
Calculate V using the flow rate equation
Q 0.2m / s3
V 2.83 m / s
A ( / 4)0.3 m2 2
Calculate head loss.
1525 2.83
2
h 0.01
0.3 2
L
48
20.75 m
Calculate hp.
h ( z z ) h (190 160) 20.75 50.75 m
p 2 1 L
Power W Qh (9.81)(0.2)(50.75)
p p
99.5 kW
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Figure. EGL and HGL lines.
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7.21 Determine the discharge in the pipe and the pressure at point
B for two cases:
case 1 head loss is neglected;
case 2. the head loss is given by 0.01 (L/D) (V2/2g).
Assume α = 1.0 at all locations. Also neglect losses in
components (minor losses).
3.0 m
3.0 m
7.33 For this siphon the elevations at A, B, C, and D are 30 m, 32
m, 27 m, and 26 m, respectively. The head loss between the
inlet and point B is three-quarters of the velocity head, and the
head loss in the pipe itself between point B and the end of the
pipe is one-quarter of the velocity head. For these conditions,
what is the discharge and what is the pressure at point B? The
pipe diameter = 25 cm. Assume α = 1.0 at all locations.
7.39 As shown, water at 15°C is flowing in a 15 cm–diameter by
60 m-long run of pipe that is situated horizontally. The mean
velocity is 2 m/s, and the head loss is 2 m. Determine the
pressure drop and the required pumping power to overcome
head loss in the pipe.
Fluid Mechanics
Suggested Problems
Chapter 7
The Energy Equation
7.21 Determine the discharge in the pipe and the pressure at point
B for two cases: case 1 head loss is neglected; case 2. the
head loss is given by 0.01 (L/D) (V2/2g). Assume α = 1.0 at all
locations. Also neglect losses in components (minor losses).
3.0 m
7.33 For this siphon the elevations at A, B, C, and D are 30 m, 32
m, 27 m, and 26 m, respectively. The head loss between the
inlet and point B is three-quarters of the velocity head, and the
head loss in the pipe itself between point B and the end of the
pipe is one-quarter of the velocity head. For these conditions,
what is the discharge and what is the pressure at point B? The
pipe diameter = 25 cm. Assume α = 1.0 at all locations.
7.39 As shown, water at 15°C is flowing in a 15 cm–diameter by
60 m-long run of pipe that is situated horizontally. The mean
velocity is 2 m/s, and the head loss is 2 m. Determine the
pressure drop and the required pumping power to overcome
head loss in the pipe.