BJT - biasing

Transistor as amplifier

 The weak signal is applied between emitter-base junction and output is taken across
the load RC connected in the collector circuit.
 A d.c. voltage VEE is applied in the input circuit in addition to the signal for input circuit
to always remain forward biased.

2
BJT Biasing
 Biasing refers to the application of D.C. voltages to setup the operating point
in such a way that output signal is undistorted throughout the whole
operation.
 Either forward or reverse biasing can be applied to the emitter-base (EB)
and collector-base (CB) junctions of the transistor.
 These biasing methods make the transistor circuit to work in four kinds of
regions such as
Active region,
Saturation region,
Cut off region and
3
Inverse active region
Need for BJT Biasing

For a BJT, to amplify a signal, two conditions have to be

met.
The input voltage should exceed cut-in voltage for the transistor
to be ON.
The BJT should be in the active region, to be operated as
an amplifier.
Hence DC biasing is needed to ensure that the transistor is
operating in active region and acts as an amplifier.
4
 Load Line

 The line joining the Saturation point (maximum possible collector

current) present on the Y-axis and the Cutoff point (maximum possible
collector emitter voltage ) present on the X-axis, is called as Load line.
 If the load line is drawn only when DC biasing is given to the transistor,
but no input signal is applied, then such a load line is called as DC load
line.
 Whereas the load line drawn under the conditions when an input
signal along with the DC voltages are applied, such a line is called as
an AC load line.

5
 DC Loadline

 Apply KVL at output loop

IC
 VCE is given by 𝟏 𝑽𝑪𝑪
𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪 𝑰𝒄 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 /𝑹𝑪 𝑰𝑪 = − 𝑽𝑪𝑬 +
𝑹𝑪 𝑹𝑪
 When IC = 0
VCE = VCC
 When VCE = 0
𝑰𝒄 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 /𝑹𝑪 VCE
𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪
 DC loadline determines the locus of VCE 6
- IC points for any given value of RC.
Example

 Plot the dc load line for the circuit shown in the figure. Then, find the values of VCE for IC = 1, 2,
5 mA respectively.

𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪
𝑰𝑪 (mA) 𝑽𝑪𝑬 (V)
1 9
2 8
5 5

7
Operating point

 The zero signal values of IC and VCE are known as the operating point
 It is also called quiescent (silent) point or Q-point because it is the point on IC - VCE
characteristic when the transistor is silent i.e. in the absence of the signal.

8
 Operating point
 Biasing is the application of dc voltages to establish a fixed level of current and voltage.
 The Operating point or Q-point or DC bias point is the operating point where the DC load
line intersects the output characteristic curves in the absence of input signal.
 For transistor amplifiers the resulting dc current and voltage establish an operating point on
the characteristics that define the region that will be employed for amplification of the
applied signal.
 Because the operating point is a fixed point on the characteristics, it is also called the
quiescent point (abbreviated Q-point).
 The position of the Q-point depends on the applications of the transistor.
 If the transistor is used as a switch, then for open switch the Q-point is in the cutoff region,
and for the close switch, the Q-point is in the saturation region.
 The Q-point lies in the middle of the load line, the transistor operates as an amplifier.
9
Position of operating point

10
Cut off and saturation points

 Cut off. The point where the load

line intersects the IB = 0 curve is
known as cut off.
 Saturation. The point where the
load line intersects the IB = IB(sat)
curve is called saturation.
 Active region. The region
between cut off and saturation is
known as active region
11
Factors affecting the operating point

 The main factor that affect the operating point is the temperature.
The operating point shifts due to change in temperature.
 As temperature increases, the values of ICE, β, VBE gets affected.
ICBO gets doubled (for every 10o rise)
VBE decreases by 2.5mv (for every 1o rise)

12
Selection of operation point

13
Transistor Biasing

 The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the

maintenance of proper collector-emitter voltage during the
passage of signal is ensured by transistor biasing.
 The basic purpose of transistor biasing is to keep the base-emitter
junction properly forward biased and collector-base junction
properly reverse biased during the application of signal.
 The circuit which provides transistor biasing is known as biasing
circuit.
14
 Essentials of transistor biasing

Proper zero signal collector current Proper minimum base- Proper minimum VCE at any
emitter voltage. instant

15
Stabilization

 The process of making the operating point independent of temperature

changes or variations in transistor parameters is known as Stabilization.
 A good biasing circuit helps in the stabilization of operating point.
 Stabilization of the operating point has to be achieved due to the
following reasons.
 Temperature dependence of IC
 Individual variations
 Thermal runaway

16
Need for bias stabilization –
[Link] of IC

The operating point shifts due to two reasons: Thermal Runaway

 Temperature dependence of IC.
𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 ↑
 IC = ICmajority + ICEO

𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 = (1 + 𝛽)𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 ↑
𝑰𝑪 = 𝜷𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑪𝑬𝑶 𝑇↑ 𝑇↑

Temperature
continues to 17
increase 𝐼𝐶 ↑
Thermal runaway

 IC = ICmajority + ICOminority
 The flow of collector current and also the collector leakage current
causes heat dissipation.
 If the operating point is not stabilized, there occurs a cumulative effect
which increases this heat dissipation.
 The self-destruction of such an unstabilized transistor is known as Thermal
run-away.
 In order to avoid thermal runaway and the destruction of transistor, it is
necessary to stabilize the operating point, i.e., to keep IC constant.
18
Individual Variations

 As the value of β and the value of VBE are not same for every
transistor, whenever a transistor is replaced, the operating point
tends to change. Hence it is necessary to stabilize the operating
point.

19
Requirements of biasing circuits

1. Establish Q-point at the center of the active region.

2. Stabilize the collector current against temperature variations.
3. Making operating point independent of transistor parameters.

20
Biasing Basics

 Emitter base junction is forward

biased by the battery VBB
 Collector base junction is reverse
biased by battery VCC
 VCC should be much larger than VBB

21
DC Biasing Circuits

Fixed-bias circuit
Self – bias circuit

Voltage divider bias circuit

22
Fixed bias circuit

23
Fixed bias circuit

24
Fixed Bias - analysis

 Input section  Output section

Applying KVL
𝑰𝑪 = 𝜷𝑰𝑩
𝑽𝑪𝑪 = 𝑰𝑩 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝑽𝑪𝑪 −𝑽𝑩𝑬 𝑽𝑪𝑪 = 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪 + 𝑽𝑪𝑬
𝑰𝑩 =
𝑹𝑩

𝑽𝑪𝑪
𝑰𝑩 = 𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪
𝑹𝑩

So once RB is fixed IB is fixed –

hence the name Fixed Bias
25
Fixed bias – operating point fixing

 Calculate the base current

𝑽𝑪𝑪
𝑰𝑩 =
𝑹𝑩
 Calculate the collector current

𝑰𝑪 = 𝜷𝑰𝑩
 Calculate VCE
𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪
26
Fixed bias
Advantages :
1. This biasing circuit is very simple as only one resistance RB is
required.
2. Biasing conditions can easily be set and the calculations are
simple.
3. There is no loading of the source by the biasing circuit since no
resistor is employed across base-emitter junction.
Disadvantages :
1. This method provides poor stabilization.
27
2. There are strong chances of thermal runaway
Why fixed bias is seldom used

 Fixing of Q-point can be easily done. But 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 ↑

 No temperature stability 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 ↑

 Since 𝑰𝑪 = 𝜷𝑰𝑩 and IB is

already fixed, IC depends
completely on 𝜷 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 ↑ 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 ↑
𝑇↑ 𝑇↑ 𝑇↑

𝐼𝐶 ↑

28
𝐼𝐶 ↑
Self bias (Collector-to-base bias)

 requires two resistors to provide

the necessary DC bias for the
transistor.
 ensures that the transistor is
always biased in the active
region regardless of the value of
Beta (β).
 The DC base bias voltage is
derived from the collector
voltage VC, thus providing good
stability.
29
Self bias (Collector-to-base bias)

the base bias resistor, RB is connected to

the transistor collector C, instead of to the
supply voltage rail, Vcc.
KVL at input loop:
𝑽𝑪𝑪 − (𝑰𝑪 +𝑰𝑩 )𝑹𝑪 − 𝑰𝑩 𝑹𝑩 − 𝑽𝑩𝑬 = 𝟎
𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪 − 𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝑰𝑩 =
𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹𝑩
30
Self bias (Collector-to-base bias)

KVL at output loop:

𝑽𝑪𝑪 − (𝑰𝑪 +𝑰𝑩 )𝑹𝑪 − 𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝟎
𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − (𝑰𝑪 +𝑰𝑩 )𝑹𝑪 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪 since 𝑰𝑩 << 𝑰𝑪

𝑽𝑪𝑬 − 𝑽𝑩𝑬
Hence, 𝑰𝑩 =
𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹𝑩

𝑰𝑪 = 𝜷𝑰𝑩
31
Self bias (Collector-to-base bias)

When T ↑, leakage current ↑ (also β)

Hence, IC ↑ ( as IC = β IB +ICEO)
𝑽𝑪𝑬 − 𝑽𝑩𝑬
VCE ↓ (as VCE = VCC –ICRC) 𝑰𝑩 =
𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹𝑩
Thus, IB ↓, which reduces the original
increase in IC.
Thus there is a tendency in the circuit to
stabilize the operating point.
32
 Self bias (Collector-to-base bias)

𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 ↑
𝐼𝐵 ↓

𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 ↑
𝑽𝑪𝑬 − 𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝑰𝑩 =
𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹𝑩
𝐼𝐶 ↑ 𝐼𝐶 ↓

𝑇↑ 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ↓

Rising tendency is checked 33

Self bias (Collector-to-base bias)

RB connects collector with the base.

Thus a feedback exists in the circuit. IB is
dependent on VCE; this dependence nullifies the
changes in IB.
Therefore this method of collector feedback
biasing produces negative feedback round the
transistor as there is a direct feedback from the
output terminal to the input terminal via
resistor, RB.
34
Self bias (Collector-to-base bias)

Advantages:
The change of Q-point (due to temperature and β
variations) is less when compared to the fixed bias
method.
Disadvantages:
Use of RB reduces the voltage gain of the amplifier.

35
Emitter bias

By adding a stabilizing resistor

at the emitter, fixed bias is
changed to emitter bias

36
Emitter bias

 Input loop
Applying KVL
𝑽𝑪𝑪 = 𝑰𝑩 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑽𝑩𝑬 + 𝑰𝑬 𝑹𝑬

Since 𝐼𝐸 =(𝛽 + 1)𝐼𝐵

𝑽𝑪𝑪 = 𝑰𝑩 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑽𝑩𝑬 + (𝜷 + 𝟏)𝑰𝑩 𝑹𝑬
So 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑽𝑩𝑬 𝑽𝑪𝑪
𝑰𝑩 = ≈
𝑹𝑩 + (𝜷 + 𝟏)𝑹𝑬 𝑹𝑩 + 𝜷𝑹𝑬
𝑽𝑪𝑪
𝑰𝑪 = 𝜷𝑰𝑩 = 37
𝑹𝑬 + 𝑹𝑩 /𝜷
 Emitter bias

 Output loop
Applying KVL
𝑰𝑬 𝑹𝑬 + 𝑽𝑪𝑬 + 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪 − 𝑽𝑪𝑪 = 𝟎

Since 𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑪
𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 (𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹𝑬 )

38
Thermal runaway - stabilization

𝐼𝐵 ↓
𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 ↑

𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 ↑

T↑ 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 ↑
𝐼𝐶 ↑ 𝐼𝐶 ↓

𝐼𝐸 ↑
39
Transistor replacement - stabilization

𝐼𝐵 ↓

𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 ↑
𝐼𝐶 ↑ 𝐼𝐶 ↓

𝛽↑

𝐼𝐸 ↑

40
Why emitter bias is seldom used

 We have
𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐶 = β𝐼𝐵 =
𝑅𝐸 + 𝑅𝐵 /𝛽

 To make denominator independent of β

1. RE should be very high output voltage decreases
2. RB should be very low cant use a single source VCC

41
Voltage Divider Bias

 This is a very stable bias circuit.

 The currents and voltages are nearly
independent of any variations in β.
 Resistors R1 and R2 constitute a voltage
divider that divides the supply voltage to
produce the base bias voltage (VB).
 The resistor RE employed in the emitter
provides stabilization.
 The voltage drop across R2 forward
biases the base-emitter junction

42
1. Approximate analysis

43
 1. Approximate analysis

 The resistance Ri is the equivalent resistance between base and ground for the
transistor with an emitter resistor RE.
 The reflected resistance between base and emitter is defined by,
𝑹𝒊 = 𝜷 + 𝟏 𝑹𝑬
 If Ri is much larger than the resistance R2, the current IB will be much smaller
than I2 (current always seeks the path of least resistance) and I2 will be
approximately equal to I1.
 Hence R1 and R2 can be considered series elements.

44
1. Approximate analysis

 When 𝑰𝑩 ≪ 𝑰𝟏 and 𝑰𝟏 ≈ 𝑰𝟐
 VB is largely unaffected by IB, so VB can be
assumed to remain constant.
𝑹𝟐 𝑽𝑪𝑪
𝑽𝑩 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝑬 𝑽𝑩 −𝑽𝑩𝑬
 𝑽𝑬 = 𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑩𝑬 and 𝑰𝑬 = = = 𝑰𝑪
𝑹𝑬 𝑹𝑬

 From KVL, 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪 − 𝑽𝑪𝑬 − 𝑰𝑬 𝑹𝑬 = 𝟎

𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪 − 𝑽𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪 − 𝑰𝑬 𝑹𝑬

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 (𝑹𝑪 +𝑹𝑬 ) 45

 Condition for Approximate analysis

 Since 𝑹𝒊 = 𝜷 + 𝟏 𝑹𝑬 ≅ 𝜷𝑹𝑬 , the condition that will define whether the

approximate approach can be applied is

𝜷𝑹𝑬 ≥ 𝟏𝟎𝑹𝟐

 In other words, if β times the value of RE is at least 10 times the value of R2,
the approximate approach can be applied with a high degree of
accuracy.
46
2. Exact analysis

 The input side of the network can then be redrawn as

47
2. Exact analysis

 The Thévenin equivalent network for the network to the left of the base
terminal can then be found in the following manner:
 RTh: The voltage source is replaced by a short-circuit equivalent as shown
in Fig.:

48
2. Exact analysis

 ETh: The voltage source VCC is returned to the network and the open-circuit
Thévenin voltage is determined as follows:
 Applying the voltage-divider rule gives

49
2. Exact analysis

 The Thévenin network is then redrawn and IBQ can be determined

by first applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the clockwise direction for the
loop indicated:

 Substituting IE = (β + 1)IB and solving for IB yields

𝑰𝑪 = 𝜷𝑰𝑩
50
2. Exact analysis

 Applying KVL at output side, VCE can be determined.

51
Stabilization

 Excellent stabilization is provided by RE

𝑽𝑩 = 𝑽𝑩𝑬 + 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑬
 Suppose the collector current IC increases due to rise in
temperature.
 This will cause the voltage drop across emitter resistance RE to increase.
 As voltage drop across R2 independent of IC, VBE decreases.
 This in turn causes IB to decrease.
 The reduced value of IB tends to restore IC to the original value.
 In voltage divider bias, β stabilization is achieved since operating 52
point fixing parameters IC and VCE equations are independent of β
Problem - 1

 Calculate the emitter current in the voltage divider circuit shown in

Fig. Also find the value of VCE and collector potential VC.

53
Problems

54
Problems

55
Problem - 2

 Determine the dc bias voltage VCE and the current IC for the voltage divider
configuration of Fig. given below.

56
Problem - 2

57
Problem - 2

58
Problem - 2

59
Problem - 3

 Design base resistor bias circuit for a CE amplifier such that operating point is VCE
= 8V and IC = 2 mA. You are supplied with a fixed 15V d.c. supply and a silicon
transistor with β = 100. Take base-emitter voltage VBE = 0.6V. Calculate also the
value of load resistance that would be employed.

60
Problems

61
Bias stabilization

62
Bias stabilization

 The stability of a system is a measure of the sensitivity of a network to variations in

its parameters.
 In any amplifier employing a transistor the collector current IC is sensitive to each
of the following parameters:
 β: increases with increase in temperature
 |VBE | : decreases about 2.5 mV per degree Celsius (°C) increase in temperature
 ICO (reverse saturation current): doubles in value for every 10°C increase in
temperature

63
 Shift in Q-point due to change in temperature:

 The effect of changes in leakage current (ICO) and current gain (β) on the dc bias
point is demonstrated by the common-emitter collector characteristics.

At 1000°C

At 25°C

64
 Stability Factor

 A stability factor S is defined for each of the parameters affecting bias stability as
follows:
 S (ICO) → S ∆𝑰𝑪
𝑺= |𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝜷 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝑩𝑬
 S (VBE) → S’ ∆𝑰𝑪𝑶
 S (β) → S’’ ∆𝑰𝑪
𝑺′ = |𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝜷 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝑪𝑶
∆𝑽𝑩𝑬
∆𝑰𝑪
𝑺′′ = |𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑰𝑪𝑶 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝑩𝑬
∆𝜷

65
Stability Factor

 Networks that are quite stable and relatively insensitive to temperature variations
have low stability factors.
 The higher the stability factor, the more sensitive is the network to variations in that
parameter.

66
Derivation of Stability Factor(S)

 For a CE configuration,

𝐈𝐂 = 𝛃𝐈𝐁 + 𝐈𝐂𝐄𝐎

 Differentiating wrt IC, we get,

67
Stability Factor (S) – Fixed Bias

 In a fixed bias circuit.

𝑽𝑪𝑪
𝑰𝑩 =
𝑹𝑩

 IB is independent of IC so that
𝒅𝑰𝑩
=𝟎
𝒅𝑰𝒄

 Hence, stability factor, S = β + 1

68
Stability Factor (S) – Voltage Divider Bias

 ETH - IBRTH - VBE - IERE = 0

 ETH = IBRTH + VBE + (IB+ IC)RE
 Differentiate wrt IC (take VBE and ETH constant),

69
Stability Factor (S) – Voltage Divider Bias

 multiply denominator and numerator by (RTH / RE) +1

70
Stability Factor (S) – Voltage Divider Bias

 Value of 'S' depends on two factors of the equation, (RTH / RE) and β ('1' is very
less compared to them).
 Minimum value of 'S' is '1' for small values of (RTH / RE).
 Maximum value of 'S' is 1+β for large (RTH / RE).

71
Derivation of Stability Factor (S’ or S(VBE))

 The stability factor S’ or S(VBE) is defined by

∆𝑰𝑪
𝑺′ = |𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝜷 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝑪𝑶
∆𝑽𝑩𝑬

72
Stability Factor (S’ or S(VBE)) – Voltage
divider bias

 ETH - IBRTH - VBE - IERE = 0

 ETH = IBRTH + VBE + (IB+ IC)RE

73
Stability Factor (S’ or S(VBE)) – Voltage
divider bias

 Differentiate wrt IC,

74
Stability Factor (S’ or S(VBE)) – Voltage
divider bias

 For good stabilization, stability factor S’ should be low.

 This will happen when (RTH/RE) ˂˂ 1+ β and β ˃˃ 1.
 During these conditions, S’ =̃ -1/RE
 Thus S’ mainly depends on RE , i.e.,the dominant factor in stabilizing Ic against
variations in VBE is the voltage drop across RE.

75
Stability Factor (S’’ or S(β))

∆𝑰𝑪
𝑺′′ = |𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑰𝑪𝑶 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝑩𝑬
∆𝜷

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Stability Factor (S’’ or S(β)) – Voltage
divider bias

77
Stability Factor (S’’ or S(β)) – Voltage
divider bias

 Differentiate wrt β,

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Stability Factor (S’’ or S(β)) – Voltage
divider bias

We have

Substituting,

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Stability Factor (S’’ or S(β)) – Voltage
divider bias

Like 'S', Sβ also depends on values of RTH and RE .

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