Introduction to basic Networking

Terminology
Last Updated : 3 Oct, 2025
••
For• a specific purpose if things are connected together, are referred to as
a NETWORK. A network can be of many types, like a telephone network,
television network, computer network, or even a people network.

Similarly, a COMPUTER NETWORK is also a kind of setup, where it

connects two or more devices to share a range of services and
information in the form of e-mails and
messages, databases, documents, websites, audios and
videos, telephone calls, and video conferences, etc. among them.

A PROTOCOL is nothing but a set of defined rules, which has to be

followed by every connected device across a network to communicate
and share information among them. To facilitates End to
End communication, a number of protocols worked together to
form Protocol Suites or Stacks.

Networking terminology can be confusing, especially for those

who are new to computer networking. Here are some basic
terms and their definitions to help you understand the
fundamentals of networking:

Network: A collection of interconnected devices, such as computers,

printers, and servers, that can communicate with each other.
Node: Any device connected to a network, such as a computer, printer, or
router.
Protocol: A set of rules and standards that define how devices on a
network communicate with each other.
IP Address: A unique numerical identifier assigned to each device on a
network, used to identify and communicate with other devices.
Router: A networking device that connects multiple networks together
and forwards data packets between them.
Switch: A networking device that connects devices on a network and
forwards data packets between them.
Firewall: A security device or software that monitors and controls
incoming and outgoing network traffic, based on a set of predefined
security rules.
DNS (Domain Name System): A system that translates domain names
(such as [Link]) into IP addresses, allowing devices to
locate and connect to websites and other network resources.
LAN (Local Area Network): A network that connects devices within a
limited geographical area, such as a home, office, or building.
WAN (Wide Area Network): A network that connects devices over a
large geographical area, such as multiple offices in different cities or
countries.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): A protocol that
automatically assigns IP addresses and network configuration settings to
devices on a network.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): A set of
protocols used to communicate over the internet and other networks.
These are just a few basic networking terms, but understanding them is
essential to building a strong foundation in computer networking.

Some basic Protocols are:

• IP : Internet Protocol
• FTP : File Transfer Protocol
• SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
• HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

The Network reference models were developed to allow products from

different manufacturers to interoperate on a network. A network
reference model serves as a blueprint, detailing standards for how
protocol communication should occur.

The most widely recognized reference models are the Open Systems
Interconnect ( OSI ) Model and Department of Defense ( DoD, also
known as TCP/IP ) model.

• LANs (Local Area Networks)

 • MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks)
• WANs (Wide Area Networks)

An Internetwork is a general term describing multiple networks

connected together. The Internet is the largest and most well-known
internetwork.

• SAN (Storage Area Network): A SAN provides systems with

high-speed, lossless access to high-capacity storage devices.
• VPN (Virtual Private Network): A VPN allows for information
to be securely sent across a public or unsecured network, such
as the Internet. Common uses of a VPN are to connect branch
offices or remote users to the main office.

• A host can act as a Client when he is requesting information.

• A host can act as a Server when he provides information.
• A host can also request and provide information, which is
called Peer.

Physical Components of Computer Network

Last Updated : 15 Jul, 2025

The physical components of a computer network include hardware devices and media that enable
connectivity and data exchange between devices. The server, client, peer, transmission media, and
connecting devices make up the hardware components. A computer network is made up of several
computers connected so that resources and data can be shared. In this article, we will discuss every
point about the physical component of a computer network.

Types of Physical Components

A computer network consists of several physical components. In other words, two or more devices
are connected via a computer network to exchange an almost infinite amount of data and services.
Here Below are some physical components of computer Networks:

1. NIC(Network Interface Card)

NIC or Network Interface Card is a network adapter used to connect the computer to the network. It
is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique ID that is written on the chip, and it
has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between the computer and
the router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device, which means it works on the network model's
physical and data link layers.

Types of NIC

• Wired NIC: Cables and Connectors use Wired NIC to transfer data.

• Wireless NIC: These connect to a wireless network such as Wifi, Bluetooth, etc.

2. HUB

A hub is a multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for
example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so
data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts
connected through hub remains one. Hub does not have any routing table to store the data of ports
and map destination addresses., the routing table is used to send/broadcast information across all
the ports.

HUB

Types of HUB

• Active HUB: Active HUB regenerates and amplifies the electric signal before sending them to
all connected device. This hub is suitable to transmit data for long distance connections over
the network.

• Passive HUB: As the name suggests it does not amplify or regenerate electric signal, it is the
simplest types of Hub among all and it is not suitable for long-distnace connections.

• Switching HUB: This is also known as intelligent HUB, they provide some additional
functionality over active and passive hubs. They analyze data packets and make decisions
based on MAC address and they are operated on DLL(Data Link Layer).

3. Router

A Router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The router is
mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets. The router
divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.
 Router

Types of Router

There are several types of routers available in the market, Some of them are mentioned in the given
link: Types of Routers

4. Modem

A Modem is a short form of Modulator/Demodulator. The Modem is a hardware component/device

that can connect computers and other devices such as routers and switches to the internet. Modems
convert or modulate the analog signals coming from telephone wire into a digital form that is in the
form of 0s and 1s.

Modem

Types of Modem

There are multiple types of Modem available you can visit the page where you find Types of Modems

5. Switch

A Switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a large number
of ports implies less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can
perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward
packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only.
 Switches

Types of Switch

There are different types of switches in computer networks, visit the webpage and learn how
many Types of Switches are there.

6. Nodes

Node is a term used to refer to any computing devices such as computers that send and receive
network packets across the network.

Types of nodes

• End Nodes: These types of nodes are going to be the starting point or the end point of
communication. E.g., computers, security cameras, network printers, etc.

• Intermediary Nodes: These nodes are going to be in between the starting point or end point
of the end nodes. E.g., Switches, Bridges, Routers, cell towers, etc.

7. Media

It is also known as Link which is going to carry data from one side to another side. This link can be
Wired Medium (Guided Medium) and Wireless Medium (Unguided Medium). It is of two types:

7.1 Wired Medium

• Ethernet: Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology, which is defined under IEEE
standards 802.3. There are two types of Ethernet:

• Fibre Optic Cable: In fibre optic cable data is transferred in the form of light waves.

Fibre Optic Cable

• Coaxial Cable: Coaxial Cable is mainly used for audio and video communications.
 Coaxial Cable

• USB Cable: USB Stands for Universal Serial Bus it is mainly used to connect PCs and
smartphones.

USB

7.2 Wireless Medium

• Infrared (E.g. short-range communication - TV remote control).

• Radio (E.g. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi).

• Microwaves (E.g. Cellular system).

• Satellite (E.g. Long range communications - GPS).

8. Repeater

Repeater is an important component of computer networks as it is used to regenerate and amplify

signal in the computer networks. Repeaters are used to improve the quality of the networks and they
are operated on the Physical Layer of the OSI Model.
Repeater

Types of Repeaters

There are several types of repeaters based on specifications you can check by tapping the link Types
of Repeaters.

9. Server

A server is a computer program that provides various functionality to another computer program.
The server plays a vital role in facilitating communication, data storage, etc. Servers have more data
storage as compared to normal computers. They are designed for the specific purpose of handling
multiple requests from clients.

Servers

Types of Server

There are different types of servers in computer networks, visit the page and tap on the link to
study Types of Servers.

Conclusion

In Conclusion each component of a computer network play a significant role in the efficient
transmission of data which includes hardware, software devices, and network protocols. Hardware
devices are the physical components of computer networks including NIC, HUB, etc and software are
the programs that run on hardware devices, and the protocols are the set of rules that define how
data is received and transmitted over the internet.
Applications of Computer Network
There are multiple applications of computer networks including: There are multiple applications
of computer networks including:

• Business applications: Computer networks are often used by businesses to ensure impact
communication, to share resources, and to allow their employees to access the whole
system and applications from remote locations.

• Educational applications: Online networks are widely employed in educational institutions

allowing students to access educational possibilities, share knowledge, and collaborate with
their professors.

• Healthcare applications: The healthcare sector has benefited a lot from the computer
networks, which are used to store and share patient details thus allowing healthcare
providers to provide more personalized treatment.

• Entertainment applications: Besides that with computer networks, you can entertain
yourself with online games, streaming movies and music, or utilization of social media.

• Military applications: Military networks are often closed and not used for general
communication, which ensures the safety of military information.

• Scientific applications: Scientific research heavily depends on computer networks because

they will help establish collaboration among researchers and facilitate the sharing of data
and information.

• Transportation applications: Computer networks are used to monitor a transit system in

various ways, by managing the traffic, tracking vehicles as well as even improving efficiency
in transportation.

• Banking and finance applications: The banks and finance sector are the biggest users of
computer networks to carry out transactional processing, information sharing, and the
provision of secure access to financial services.
Advantages of Computer Networks
Here are the advantages uses of a computer network: Here are the advantages uses of a computer
network:

• Improved communication and collaboration.

• Resource sharing may play the role of cost-cutting.

• Data quality management and data security.

• Higher automation benefits and remote access possibilities.

• Enhanced productivity and efficiency

Disadvantages of Computer Networks

Here are the disadvantages uses of a computer network:Here are the disadvantages uses of a
computer network:

• Data hacking risks and chances of the data leakage.

• The problem of technicalities and operation troubleshooting.

• The likelihood of the exposure of viruses and malware increased.

• There might be a decrease in privacy because of this.

Types of Network Topology
Last Updated : 8 Dec, 2025
••
•
A network topology is the arrangement of devices (nodes) and
connections (links) in a computer network. It shows how computers,
servers, and other devices are connected and how data flows between
them. There are two main types of topology:
Physical Topology: The actual physical layout of cables and
•
devices.
• Logical Topology: How data moves across the network,
regardless of physical layout.
Note: Choosing the right topology is important because it affects the
performance, cost, reliability, and security of the network.
Point To Point Topology
Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the
functionality of the sender and receiver. It is the simplest communication
between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the other one is the
receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Point to Point

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a
particular channel. Every device is connected to another via dedicated
channels. These channels are known as links. In Mesh Topology, the
protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Mesh

• Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each

other in a mesh topology, the total number of ports that are
required by each device is 𝑁 − 1. In Figure , there are 6 devices
connected to each other, hence the total number of ports
required by each device is 5. The total number of ports
required = N * (N-1).
• Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in
a mesh topology, then the total number of dedicated links
required to connect them is 𝑁 𝐶2 i.e. N * (N-1)/2. In Figure, there
are 6 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of
links required is 6 * 5/2 = 15.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

• Communication is very fast between the nodes.

• Mesh Topology is robust.
 • The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is
transferred among the devices through dedicated channels or
links.
• Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

• Installation and configuration are difficult.

• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence
suitable for less number of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.
Note: A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone,
where various internet service providers are connected to each other via
dedicated channels. This topology is also used in military communication
systems and aircraft navigation systems.
Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to
the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent
hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be
intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them.
Star

Note: Here, Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the
computers & many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as
CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Advantages of Star Topology

• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then

the number of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy
to set up.
• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub,
therefore the total number of ports required is N.
• It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not
other than that.
• Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
• Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial
cable.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

 • If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies
fails, the whole system will crash down.
• The cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
Note: A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN)
in an office where all computers are connected to a central hub. This
topology is also used in wireless networks where all devices are
connected to a wireless access point.
Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network
device is connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point
connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the
topology crashes. IBus-topology Ethernet uses only the CSMA/CD MAC
protocol. TDMA, CDMA, Pure ALOHA, and Slotted ALOHA were never
used in Ethernet.

Bus

Advantages of Bus Topology

• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then

the number of cables required to connect them is 1, known as
backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 • Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based
networks that support up to 10 Mbps.
• The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it
is used to build small networks.
• Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known.
• CSMA/CD was the only MAC method used in traditional bus
Ethernet. Modern switched Ethernet does not use CSMA/CD
because full-duplex operation eliminates collisions.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

• A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of

cabling.
• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash
down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the
network. To avoid this, various protocols are used in the MAC
layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
• Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
• Security is very low.
Note: A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all
devices are connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This
topology is also used in cable television networks.
Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two
neighboring devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology
with a large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some
data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data
will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to
prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the
workstations to transmit the data where, Token passing is a network
access method in which a token is passed from one node to another node
& Token is a frame that circulates around the network.
Ring

Note: Here, data flows in one direction, but it can be made bidirectional
by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual
Ring Topology.

Operations of Ring Topology

• One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the

responsibility for performing the operations.
• To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the
transmission is done, the token is to be released for other
stations to use.
• When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will
circulate in the ring.

Advantages of Ring Topology

• The data transmission is high-speed.

• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
• Cheap to install and expand.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology

• The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire
network to fail.
• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
• Less secure.
Tree Topology
Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a
hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC
(Standard Automatic Configuration) are used.
• Here, various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub
which contains the repeater.
• This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to
the secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e.
devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub.
• It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because
if the backbone fails the topology crashes.

Tree

Advantages of Tree Topology

 • It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub
thus it decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to
come to the devices.
• It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from
different computers.
• We can add new devices to the existing network.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.

• The cost is high because of the cabling.
• If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
Note: A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large
organization. CEO is the root, who is connected to the different
departments(child nodes) of the company, managers overseeing different
teams (grandchild nodes) & team members (leaf nodes) are at the
bottom of the hierarchy.
Hybrid Topology
Hybrid Topology is the combination of all the various types of topologies
we have studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free
to take any form. It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star
topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen
above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been
discussed earlier.
Hybrid

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

• This topology is very flexible.

• The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new
devices.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

• It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid

Network.
• Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
• The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires
a lot of cabling and network devices .
Note: A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus
network. The network may have a backbone of a star topology, with each
building connected to the backbone through a switch or router. Within
each building, there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the
different rooms and offices.
Important Points

Network Topology is important because it defines how devices are

connected and how they communicate in the network. Here are some
points that defines why network topology is important.
• Network Performance: Upon choosing the appropriate topology
as per requirement, it helps in running the network easily and
hence increases network performance.
• Network Reliability: Some topologies like Star, Mesh are
reliable as if one connection fails, they provide an alternative for
that connection, hence it works as a backup.
• Network Expansion : Chosing correct topology helps in easier
expansion of Network as it helps in adding more devices to the
network without disrupting the actual network.
• Network Security: Network Topology helps in understanding
how devices are connected and hence provides a better security
to the network.

Transmission Media in Computer Networks

Last Updated : 5 Jan, 2026

Transmission media refers to the physical or wireless communication channel used to carry data
signals from one device to another within a computer network. It forms the fundamental pathway
through which information is transmitted, ensuring connectivity between networked devices.

The selection of a transmission medium depends on factors such as:

• Transmission distance

• Data transfer speed (bandwidth)

• Susceptibility to interference and noise

• Cost and installation requirements

Based on the nature of the transmission path, transmission media are broadly classified into two
main types:
Types of Transmission Media

Guided Media

Guided Media also known as wired or bounded transmission media, refers to transmission media in
which data signals are transmitted through a physical path using cables. The signal is confined and
guided along a fixed route, providing controlled communication between network devices.

• Uses physical cables to transmit data signals.

• Provides dedicated and well-defined transmission paths.

• Major types of guided media included Twisted Pair Cables, Coaxial Cables and Optical Fiber
Cables.

• Offers higher data transmission rates compared to most wireless media.

• Provides better security due to physical connectivity and limited signal leakage.

• Suitable for short to long-distance communication, depending on the cable type used.

1. Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair cable consists of two individually insulated copper conductors twisted together in a
helical pattern to minimize electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk between adjacent pairs.
Multiple twisted pairs are typically enclosed within a protective outer sheath, making this cable one
of the most commonly used and cost-effective guided transmission media.

• Twisting of conductors helps reduce interference and signal degradation.

• Multiple pairs can be bundled together within a single cable.

• Widely used due to low cost, flexibility, and ease of installation.

 • Commonly used in telephone systems and local area networks (LANs).

(a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP cable consists of twisted copper wire pairs without any
additional metallic shielding. The twisting provides basic protection against interference, making UTP
suitable for environments with moderate noise levels.

Unshielded
Twisted Pair

Advantages:

• Least expensive among guided transmission media.

• Easy to install and maintain due to its lightweight and flexible nature.

• Supports high data transmission rates over short distances.

• Widely used in Ethernet-based LANs and telephone networks.

Disadvantages:

• Lower performance and capacity compared to Shielded Twisted Pair (STP).

• Limited transmission distance due to signal attenuation.

• More susceptible to noise and electromagnetic interference.

(b) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of twisted pairs of
insulated copper conductors enclosed within an additional metallic shielding layer, such as a foil or
braided shield. This shielding provides enhanced protection against external electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and reduces crosstalk, resulting in more stable and reliable data transmission.
 Shielded
Twisted Pair

Advantages

• Provides better performance at higher data transmission rates compared to UTP.

• Significantly reduces electromagnetic interference and crosstalk.

• Ensures more reliable and stable communication, especially in noisy environments.

• Suitable for high-speed Ethernet networks and voice and data transmission systems.

Disadvantages

• Higher cost compared to Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP).

• More complex installation and termination due to shielding requirements.

• Bulkier and less flexible, making cable management more difficult.

2. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable consists of a central copper conductor surrounded by a dielectric insulating layer, a
metallic shielding layer, and an outer protective jacket. This structure allows signals to be transmitted
with better protection against noise and interference compared to twisted pair cables.

• Supports data transmission in both baseband mode (single channel) and broadband mode
(multiple channels).

• Provides higher bandwidth than twisted pair cables.

• Strong shielding makes it more resistant to noise, crosstalk, and electromagnetic interference
(EMI).

• Commonly used in cable television (CATV), broadband networks, and analog television
systems.

• More durable and reliable due to its layered construction.

• Easier to install and maintain compared to optical fiber cables.

Coaxial Cable

Advantages:

• Supports higher bandwidth than twisted pair cables.

• Offers better signal quality and reliability.

• Allows multiple channels using frequency division multiplexing (FDM).

• Less affected by external electromagnetic interference.

Disadvantages:

• More expensive than twisted pair cables.

• Requires proper grounding to ensure safety and minimize interference.

• Bulkier and less flexible due to multiple layers.

• More vulnerable to security breaches, as the cable can be physically tapped.

3. Optical Fiber Cable

Optical Fiber Cable is a guided transmission medium that transmits data in the form of light signals
through a glass or plastic core using the principle of total internal reflection. The core is surrounded
by a cladding layer with a lower refractive index, which confines the light within the core and enables
high-speed, long-distance data transmission.

• Supports very large data volumes at extremely high speeds.

• Can operate in unidirectional or bidirectional communication modes.

• WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) allows multiple light signals to be transmitted

simultaneously over a single fiber.

• Widely used where high bandwidth, long distance, and low signal loss are required.
Advantages:

• Provides very high bandwidth and data-carrying capacity.

• Lightweight and compact, making installation easier over long distances.

• Exhibits low signal attenuation, suitable for long-distance communication.

• Immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electrical noise.

• Resistant to corrosion and harsh environmental conditions.

Disadvantages:

• Complex installation and maintenance due to precise splicing and handling requirements.

• High initial installation and equipment cost.

• Fragile compared to copper cables and requires careful handling.

Applications:

• Medical: Used in endoscopy, imaging systems, and laser-based surgical procedures.

• Defense and Aerospace: Supports secure, high-speed, and interference-free communication.

• Communication: Widely used in internet backbone networks, undersea cables, and

telecommunication systems.

• Industrial and Automotive: Used for sensing, lighting, data communication, and safety
systems.

Unguided Media

Unguided media, also known as wireless or Unbounded transmission media , uses electromagnetic
waves to transmit data without any physical medium. Signals propagate through free space such as
air or vacuum. The main types of unguided media are radio waves, microwaves, and infrared waves.

Features:

• Signals propagate through air or free space

• Less secure due to broadcast nature

• Suitable for long-distance communication

1. Radio Waves

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic wave that can easily be generated and can propagate
through buildings and other obstacles. They do not require line-of-sight between transmitting and
receiving antennas, making them highly suitable for broadcast communication and wireless data
transmission.

Frequency Range:
3 kHz – 300 GHz
Applications:
AM and FM radio broadcasting, television transmission, cordless phones, and wireless
communication.

Types of Radio Waves:

• Shortwave: AM radio broadcasting

• VHF (Very High Frequency): FM radio and television

• UHF (Ultra High Frequency): Television and mobile communication

Components:

• Transmitter: Generates and modulates the signal

• Receiver: Receives and demodulates the signal

Radiowaves

2. Microwaves

Micro waves are a form of unguided transmission media that use line-of-sight communication, where
the transmitting and receiving antennas must be properly aligned. The transmission range depends
on the height of the antennas. Microwaves operate in the frequency range of 1 GHz to 300 GHz and
are widely used in mobile communication, satellite links, and television distribution.

Advantages:

• Cost-effective compared to laying physical cables

• No need for land acquisition

 • Suitable for communication over difficult terrains and oceans

• Supports high data transmission rates

Disadvantages:

• Less secure without proper encryption

• Susceptible to weather conditions such as rain and fog

• Affected by obstacles due to line-of-sight requirement

• High cost of antenna design, installation, and maintenance

Microwave Transmission

3. Infrared

Infrared waves are used for short-range wireless communication and operate in the frequency range
of 300 GHz to 400 THz. They cannot penetrate solid obstacles, which limits their range but helps
minimize interference between nearby systems. Infrared waves are commonly used in TV remote
controls, wireless keyboards, mice, and printers.
Infrared Waves

Difference Between Radio Waves, Micro Waves, and Infrared Waves

Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared Waves

Directional, requires line of

Omnidirectional in nature Highly directional
sight (LOS)

Can penetrate buildings and

Poor penetration; line of
obstacles easily due to low Cannot penetrate obstacles
sight required
frequency

Frequency range: 3 kHz – 300 Frequency range: 1 GHz – Frequency range: 300 GHz –
GHz 300 GHz 400 THz

Medium security (encryption Relatively high security but

Low security
possible) limited range
Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared Waves

Variable attenuation,
Moderate attenuation depends on weather High attenuation
conditions

Some frequency bands require Most frequency bands are

Generally unlicensed
government licensing licensed by the government

Low to moderate cost High cost Low cost

Supports long-distance Supports long-distance Suitable only for very short-

communication communication distance communication

Causes of Transmission Impairment

Transmission impairment refers to the loss or distortion of signals during data transmission, leading
to errors or reduced quality in communication. Common causes include signal distortion,
attenuation, and noise all of which can affect the clarity and reliability of transmitted data.

Transmission Impairment

• Attenuation: Loss of signal strength as the signal propagates over a transmission medium
due to resistance and energy loss. In analog systems, amplifiers are used to increase signal
strength, while in digital communication, repeaters or regenerators are used to restore the
original signal.

• Distortion: Occurs when the shape of the transmitted signal changes. This typically happens
in composite signals where different frequency components travel at different speeds,
causing phase shifts and timing differences at the receiver.
 • Noise: It refers to unwanted electrical or electromagnetic signals that interfere with the
original signal, potentially corrupting data. Common types of noise include thermal noise,
induced noise, crosstalk, impulse noise.

Factors Considered for Designing the Transmission Media

• Bandwidth: It refers to the range of frequencies that a transmission medium can support.
Higher bandwidth allows higher data transmission rates, assuming other factors such as
noise and attenuation remain constant.

• Transmission Impairment : Transmission Impairment occurs when the received signal differs
from the transmitted signal. Signal quality will be impacted as a result of transmission
impairment.

• Interference: It is the disturbance of a signal caused by the addition of unwanted signals

from external sources such as electromagnetic radiation or neighboring channels. It degrades
signal clarity and may result in data corruption.

Applications of Transmission Media in Computer Networks

Transmission Media Application

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Local Area Networks (LAN), telephones

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Industrial networks, environments with high interference

Optical Fiber Cable Long-distance communication, internet backbones

Coaxial Cable Cable TV, broadband internet, CCTV

Radio Wireless communication, AM/FM radio, mobile phones

Infrared Remote controls, short-range communication

Microwave Satellite communication, radar, long-distance links

Planar Transmission Lines

Planar transmission lines are specialized guided structures used to carry high-frequency electrical
signals over very short distances within electronic circuits and printed circuit boards. Although they
are not used as network communication media, they apply the same fundamental transmission
principles used in guided transmission media, such as controlled signal propagation, impedance
matching, and interference reduction.
 • They follow the same physical layer concepts as guided transmission media.

• Used where very high-frequency signals must be transmitted with minimal loss.

• Help demonstrate how transmission media principles are applied inside electronic hardware.

• Commonly studied in advanced physical-layer and RF design contexts.

Stripline

Stripline is a planar guided transmission structure in which a conducting strip is embedded between
two parallel ground planes, allowing high-frequency signals to propagate with excellent shielding and
minimal electromagnetic interference.

• Fully enclosed structure provides high EMI immunity

• Supports TEM mode propagation

• Offers better signal isolation and stability

• Used in microwave and high-frequency circuit design

• Suitable for high-performance RF systems

Microstripline

Microstripline is a planar transmission structure consisting of a conducting strip placed on a dielectric

substrate with a ground plane on the opposite side, making it widely used for high-frequency signal
transmission in printed circuit boards.

• Simple and cost-effective PCB implementation

• Partially exposed fields → lower shielding than stripline

• Supports quasi-TEM mode propagation

• Common in RF circuits, antennas, and microwave PCBs

• Preferred for compact electronic designs