Unit-2

Sampling Design: Meaning

Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number
of observations are taken from larger population.
A “sample” is a miniature representation of and selected from a larger group or
aggregate. In other words, the sample provides a specimen picture of a larger
whole. This larger whole is termed as the “population” or “universe”. In research,
this term is used in a broader sense; it is a well-defined group that may consist of
individuals, objects, characteristics of human beings, or even the behaviour of

inanimate objects, such as, the throw of a dice or the tossing of a coin.

If the sample results are to have any worthwhile meaning, it should possess the
following essentials.

• Representativeness: A sample should be so selected that it truly represents the

universe, otherwise the results obtained may be misleading.

• Adequacy: The size of sample should be adequate otherwise it may not represent
the characteristics of the universe.

• Independence: All the items of the sample should be selected independently of

one another and all the items of the universe should have the same chance of being
selected in the sample.

• Homogeneity: The term homogeneity means that there is no basic difference in

the nature of the universe and that of the sample. It two sample from the same
universe are taken, they should give more or less the same unit.

Implications of sampling design

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It
refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting
items for the sample. Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to
be included in the sample i.e., the size of the sample. Sample design is determined
before data are collected. There are many sample designs from which a researcher
can choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply than
others. Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable
and appropriate for his research study.

Types of Sampling
design,
There are different types of sample designs based on two factors viz., the
representation basis and the element selection technique. On the representation
basis, the sample may be probability sampling or it may be non-probability
sampling. Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection,
whereas non-probability sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling.

Non-probability Sampling: Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure

which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the
population has of being included in the sample. Non-probability sampling is also
known by different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and
judgement sampling. In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected
deliberately by the researcher; his choice concerning the items remains supreme. In
other words, under non-probability sampling the organisers of the inquiry
purposively choose the particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on
the basis that the small mass that they so select out of a huge one will be typical or
representative of the whole. For instance, if economic conditions of people living in a
state are to be studied, a few towns and villages may be purposively selected for
intensive study on the principle that they can be representative of the entire state.
Thus, the judgement of the organisers of the study plays an important part in this
sampling design.
In such a design, personal element has a great chance of entering into the selection
of the sample. The investigator may select a sample which shall yield results
favourable to his point of view and if that happens, the entire inquiry may get
vitiated. Thus, there is always the danger of bias entering into this type of sampling
technique. But in the investigators are impartial, work without bias and have the
necessary experience so as to take sound judgement, the results obtained from an
analysis of deliberately selected sample may be tolerably reliable. However, in such
a sampling, there is no assurance that every element has some specifiable chance
of being included. Sampling error in this type of sampling cannot be estimated and
the element of bias, great or small, is always there. As such this sampling design in
rarely adopted in large inquires of importance.

Probability Sampling: Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or

‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an
equal chance of inclusion in the sample. It is, so to say, a lottery method in which
individual units are picked up from the whole group not deliberately but by some
mechanical process. Here it is blind chance alone that determines whether one item
or the other is selected. The results obtained from probability or random sampling
can be assured in terms of probability i.e., we can measure the errors of estimation
or the significance of results obtained from a random sample, and this fact brings
out the superiority of random sampling design over the deliberate sampling design.
Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which states that if on an
average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same
composition and characteristics as the universe. This is the reason why random
sampling is considered as the best technique of selecting a representative sample.
Random sampling from a finite population refers to that method of sample selection
which gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being picked
up and each item in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included
in the sample.
Collection of Data through Questionnaire
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by
private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and even by governments. In this
method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the
questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed
in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected
to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own. The method of collecting
data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively employed in various economic and
business surveys. The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:

1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once questionnaires have
been despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain questions;
interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
Sample Size & its determination
In sampling analysis the most ticklish question is: What should be the size of the sample or how large or
small should be ‘n’? If the sample size (‘n’) is too small, it may not serve to achieve the objectives and if it is
too large, we may incur huge cost and waste resources. As a general rule, one can say that the sample must
be of an optimum size i.e., it should neither be excessively large nor too small. Technically, the sample size
should be large enough to give a confidence inerval of desired width and as such the size of the sample
must be chosen by some logical process before sample is taken from the universe. Size of the sample
should be determined by a researcher keeping in view the following points:
(i) Nature of universe: Universe may be either homogenous or heterogenous in nature. If the items
of the universe are homogenous, a small sample can serve the purpose. But if the items are
heteogenous, a large sample would be required. Technically, this can be termed as the
dispersion factor.
(ii) Number of classes proposed: If many class-groups (groups and sub-groups) are to be formed, a
large sample would be required because a small sample might not be able to give a reasonable
number of items in each class-group.
(iii) Nature of study: If items are to be intensively and continuously studied, the sample should be
small. For a general survey the size of the sample should be large, but a small sample is
considered appropriate in technical surveys.
(iv) Type of sampling: Sampling technique plays an important part in determining the size of the
sample. A small random sample is apt to be much superior to a larger but badly selected sample
(v) Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level: If the standard of acuracy or the level of
precision is to be kept high, we shall require relatively larger sample. For doubling the accuracy
for a fixed significance level, the sample size has to be increased fourfold.
(vi) Availability of finance: In prctice, size of the sample depends upon the amount of money
available for the study purposes. This factor should be kept in view while determining the size of
sample for large samples result in increasing the cost of sampling estimates.
(vii) Other considerations: Nature of units, size of the population, size of questionnaire, availability of
trained investigators, the conditions under which the sample is being conducted, the time available for
completion of the study are a few other considerations to which a researcher must pay attention while
selecting the size of the sample.
 Preparation of questionnaire of
different types
Main aspects of a questionnaire: Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey operation. Hence it
should be very carefully constructed. If it is not properly set up, then the survey is bound to fail. This fact requires us
to study the main aspects of a questionnaire viz., the general form, question sequence and question formulation
and wording. Researcher should note the following with regard to these three main aspects of a questionnaire:

1. General form: So far as the general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can either be structured or
unstructured questionnaire. Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are definite,
concrete and pre-determined questions. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same
order to all respondents. Resort is taken to this sort of standardisation to ensure that all respondents reply to the
same set of questions. The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’) or open (i.e.,
inviting free response) but should be stated in advance and not constructed during questioning. Structured
questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions in which responses of the informants are limited to the
stated alternatives. Thus a highly structured questionnaire is one in which all questions and answers are specified
and comments in the respondent’s own words are held to the minimum. When these characteristics are not
present in a questionnaire, it can be termed as unstructured or non-structured questionnaire. More specifically, we
can say that in an unstructured questionnaire, the interviewer is provided with a general guide on the type of
information to be obtained, but the exact question formulation is largely his own responsibility and the replies are to
be taken down in the respondent’s own words to the extent possible; in some situations tape recorders may be used
to achieve this goal.

Structured questionnaires are simple to administer and relatively inexpensive to analyse. The provision of
alternative replies, at times, helps to understand the meaning of the question clearly. But such questionnaires have
limitations too. For instance, wide range of data and that too in respondent’s own words cannot be obtained with
structured questionnaires. They are usually considered inappropriate in investigations where the aim happens to be
to probe for attitudes and reasons for certain actions or feelings. They are equally not suitable when a problem is
being first explored and working hypotheses sought. In such situations, unstructured questionnaires may be used
effectively. Then on the basis of the results obtained in pretest (testing before final use) operations from the use of
unstructured questionnaires, one can construct a structured questionnaire for use in the main study.

2. Question Sequence: In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies received, a
researcher should pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire. A proper sequence of
questions reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being misunderstood. The question-sequence
must be clear and smoothly-moving, meaning thereby that the relation of one question to another should be readily
apparent to the respondent, with questions that are easiest to answer being put in the beginning. The first few
questions are particularly important because they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and in
seeking his desired cooperation. The opening questions should be such as to arouse human interest.

The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening questions in a questionnaire:

1. questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of the respondent;

2. questions of a personal character;

3. questions related to personal wealth, etc.

Following the opening questions, we should have questions that are really vital to the research problem and a
connecting thread should run through successive questions. Ideally, the sequence of the question should conform to
the respondent’s way of thinking. Knowing what information is desired, the researcher can rearrange the order of
the questions (this is possible in case of unstructured questionnaire) to fit the discussion in each particular case.

But in a structured questionnaire the best that can be done is to determine the question-sequence with the help of a
Pilot Survey which is likely to produce good rapport with most respondents. Relatively difficult questions must be
relegated towards the end so that even if the respondent decides not to answer such questions, considerable
information would have already been obtained. Thus, question-sequence should usually go from the general to the
more specific and the researcher must always remember that the answer to a given question is a function not only of
the question itself, but of all previous questions as well. For instance, if one question deals with the price usually paid
for coffee and the next with reason for preferring that particular brand, the answer to this latter question may be
couched largely in terms of price differences.

3. Question formulation and wording: With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the researcher should note that
each question must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a survey. Question
should also be impartial in order not to give a biased picture of the true state of affairs. Questions should be
constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan. In general, all questions
should meet the following standards—

(a) should be easily understood;

(b) should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time;

(c) should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondent’s way of thinking. (For instance,
instead of asking. “How many razor blades do you use annually?” The more realistic question would be to ask, “How
many razor blades did you use last week?”

Concerning the form of questions, we can talk about two principal forms, viz., multiple choice question and the
open-end question. In the former the respondent selects one of the alternative possible answers put to him,
whereas in the latter he has to supply the answer in his own words.

The question with only two possible answers (usually ‘Yes’ or ‘No’) can be taken as a special case of the multiple
choice question, or can be named as a ‘closed question.’ There are some advantages and disadvantages of each
possible form of question. Multiple choice or closed questions have the advantages of easy handling, simple to
answer, quick and relatively inexpensive to analyse . They are most amenable to statistical analysis. Sometimes, the
provision of alternative replies helps to make clear the meaning of the question. But the main drawback of fixed
alternative questions is that of “putting answers in people’s mouths” i.e., they may force a statement of opinion on
an issue about which the respondent does not in fact have any opinion. They are not appropriate when the issue
under consideration happens to be a complex one and also when the interest of the researcher is in the exploration
of a process. In such situations, open-ended questions which are designed to permit a free response from the
respondent rather than one limited to certain stated alternatives are considered appropriate. Such questions give
the respondent considerable latitude in phrasing a reply. Getting the replies in respondent’s own words is, thus, the
major advantage of open-ended questions. But one should not forget that, from an analytical point of view, open-
ended questions are more difficult to handle, raising problems of interpretation, comparability and interviewer bias.

Essentials of a good questionnaire: To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple i.e.,
the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.

Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions.

Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.

Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations should be avoided in a questionnaire.

Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers), multiple choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended.

The latter type of questions are often difficult to analyse and hence should be avoided in a questionnaire to the
extent possible.

There should be some control questions in the questionnaire which indicate the reliability of the respondent.

Questions affecting the sentiments of respondents should be avoided.

Avoid leading and loaded questions. A leading question is a question that suggests or implies certain answers. A
question that suggests socially desirable answer or is emotionally charged.

Avoid double barrelled question (A question that may induce bias because it covers two issues at once.

For example: “How much do you enjoy collecting and analysing data?”

Adequate space for answers should be provided in the questionnaire to help editing and tabulation.

There should always be provision for indications of uncertainty, e.g., “do not know,” “no preference” and so on.

Brief directions with regard to filling up the questionnaire should invariably be given in the questionnaire itself.

Finally, the physical appearance of the questionnaire affects the cooperation the researcher receives from the
recipients and as such an attractive looking questionnaire, particularly in mail surveys, is a plus point for enlisting
cooperation.

The quality of the paper, along with its colour, must be good so that it may attract the attention of recipients.
Observational method
Observation Method -The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies
relating to behavioural sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not
scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the
researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under the observation method, the information is
sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent. For instance, in
a study relating to consumer behaviour, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by
the respondent, may himself look at the watch. The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is
eliminated, if observation is done accurately. Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to
what is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or
attitudes. Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively
less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or
the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e.,
respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other
However, observation method has various limitations. Firstly, it is an expensive method. Secondly, the
information provided by this method is very limited. Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere
with the observational task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation
creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.

Interview method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through
telephone interviews. (a) Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the
interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. (At times the
interviewee may also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to these, but usually the interviewer
initiates the interview and collects the information.) This sort of interview may be in the form of direct
personal investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation. In the case of direct personal investigation the
interviewer has to collect the information personally from the sources concerned. He has to be on the spot
and has to meet people from whom data have to be collected. This method is particularly suitable for
intensive investigations. But in certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to contact directly the
persons concerned or on account of the extensive scope of enquiry, the direct personal investigation
technique may not be used. In such cases an indirect oral examination can be conducted under which the
interviewer has to cross-examine other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem
under investigation and the information, obtained is recorded. Most of the commissions and committees
appointed by government to carry on investigations make use of this method.

The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually carried out in a structured way.
As such we call the interviews as structured interviews. Such interviews involve the use of a set of
predetermined questions and of highly standardised techniques of recording. Thus, the interviewer in a
structured interview follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and order prescribed.
As against it, the unstructured interviews are characterised by a flexibility of approach to questioning.
Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardised techniques of
recording information. In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to
ask, in case of need, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so
requires. He may even change the sequence of questions. He has relatively greater freedom while recording
the responses to include some aspects and exclude others.

We may as well talk about focussed interview, clinical interview and the non-directive interview. Focussed
interview is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its effects. Under it the
interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence in which the questions would be asked and
has also the freedom to explore reasons and motives. The main task of the interviewer in case of a focussed
interview is to confine the respondent to a discussion of issues with which he seeks conversance. Such
interviews are used generally in the development of hypotheses and constitute a major type of unstructured
interviews. The clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the
course of individual’s life experience. The method of eliciting information under it is generally left to the
interviewer’s discretion. In case of non-directive interview, the interviewer’s function is simply to encourage
the respondent to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning. The interviewer
often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the respondents’ feelings and beliefs and of the
frame of reference within which such feelings and beliefs take on personal significance.

Case studies
Among the various methods of data collection, case study is certainly one popular form of qualitative
analysis involving careful and complete observation of a case. A case is a social unit with a deviant behavior,
and may be an event, problem, process, activity, programme, of a social unit. The unit may be a person, a
family, an institution, a cultural group, a community or even an entire society (Kothari, 2014). But it is a
bounded system that has the boundaries of the case. Case Study therefore is an intensive investigation of the
particular unit under consideration. It is extensively used in psychology, education, sociology, anthropology,
economics and political science. It aims at obtaining a complete and detailed account of a social
phenomenon or a social event of a social unit.