MODULE: (SECED03) – CHILD DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 11: Development of
Primary Schoolers (Physical & Cognitive)
A. Describe the physical development of primary school children.
B. Explain cognitive development during the school-age years.
C. Apply appropriate strategies to support physical and cognitive growth.
Primary school years (approximately ages 6–12) represent a period of steady growth and increasing
competence. Children become more physically skilled and cognitively capable, allowing them to
engage in more complex academic and social activities.
During this stage, children:
• Improve coordination and strength
• Develop logical thinking skills
• Enhance memory and attention
• Gain independence in learning
Understanding these developmental processes helps educators design effective teaching strategies
and learning environments.
I. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN PRIMARY SCHOOLERS
Middle childhood (roughly aged 6 to 12) is often called the "latent period" of growth. Unlike the dramatic
transformations of infancy or the rapid "spurt" of puberty, development here is characterized by
consistency and refinement.
1. Growth Patterns: The Vertical Shift
While the pace slows down compared to toddlerhood, primary schoolers still undergo significant
changes in body composition and proportion.
• Height and Weight: On average, children grow about 5 to 7 centimeters (2 to 3 inches) and
gain roughly 2 to 3 kilograms (5 to 7 pounds) per year.
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• Proportion Changes: The "baby fat" of early childhood disappears as the trunk and limbs
lengthen. This gives children a leaner, more "athletic" appearance.
• Skeletal Maturation: Bones continue to ossify (harden), but the ligaments are not yet firmly
attached to the bone. This gives primary schoolers unusual flexibility—often referred to as the
"rubbery" stage.
2. Muscle Development and Coordination
Muscle mass increases gradually, but the real magic happens in the nervous system. As the brain
better communicates with the muscles, children gain much finer control over their bodies.
• Gross Motor Skills: This involves large muscle groups. Children move from basic running to
complex maneuvers like pivoting in soccer, swimming strokes, or maintaining balance on a
gymnastics beam.
• Fine Motor Skills: By age 7 or 8, the hands become much steadier. This is when we see a
transition from "drawing" letters to fluid cursive writing, the ability to tie shoelaces with ease, and
the precision needed for playing musical instruments.
3. Enhanced Stamina and Physiology
As the heart and lungs grow in capacity, children’s physical endurance increases significantly.
• Heart and Lung Efficiency: The heart becomes stronger, pumping more blood per beat, and
the respiratory system matures. This means they don't tire as easily during sustained play.
• The "Active Learner": Because they have more energy and better physical control, this is the
prime window for establishing lifelong habits. Children are now capable of following complex
rules in team sports, which combines their physical growth with social and cognitive
development.
Note: During this stage, "growing pains" are common. These are usually muscle aches (often in the
legs) caused by increased activity levels rather than the actual stretching of the bone.
Milestone Comparison: Physical Development (Ages 6–11)
During the primary school years, children transitioned from the "toddler-like" proportions of early
childhood to the more coordinated, lean physique of pre-adolescence.
Age
Height & Weight Trends Gross Motor Milestones Fine Motor Milestones
Range
Slow, steady growth; loss Hopping, jumping, and Learn to write letters/numbers;
Ages
of "baby fat" and first climbing; improved sense of can use scissors and glue with
6–7
primary teeth. balance. control.
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Age
Height & Weight Trends Gross Motor Milestones Fine Motor Milestones
Range
Increase muscle strength; Can participate in organized Uses household tools
Ages
bodies look leaner and sports; improved rhythm and (screwdriver); begins to master
8–9
more elongated. grace. cursive or drawing detail.
Possible onset of "growth High level of coordination; can Manipulates small objects
Ages
spurts" (especially in perform complex sequences easily; can play complex
10–11
girls); increased appetite. (dance/martial arts). musical instruments.
Key Areas of Development
1. The Skeletal and Muscular Shift
At this stage, the long bones of the arms and legs are growing. Because the muscles and ligaments
are still catching up to the bone growth, children often appear "gangly" or awkward.
• Ossification: Bones are becoming harder and more brittle but are still flexible enough to handle
the frequent falls associated with active play.
• Muscle Mass: Boys typically have slightly more muscle tissue, while girls often have slightly
more adipose (fat) tissue, though these differences are minimal until puberty.
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2. Neurological Refinement
Physical development isn't just about size; it’s about the coating of nerve fibers in the brain. This
process speeds up electrical signals, leading to:
• Reaction Time: Children become much faster at responding to a ball being thrown or a whistle
blowing.
• Hand-Eye Coordination: The ability to track a moving object and move the hands to meet it
becomes a refined skill.
3. The Role of "Active Play"
Physical development in these years is heavily influenced by "functional exercise."
• Stamina: The heart and lungs are maturing, allowing for sustained aerobic activity.
• Body Awareness: Through rough-and-tumble play and sports, children develop proprioception—
the internal sense of where their limbs are in space.
Developmental Note: This is the "Golden Age" of motor learning. Skills acquired now—like swimming,
riding a bike, or skating—are often retained for a lifetime because the brain is highly plastic and the
body is resilient.
II. Gross Motor Development
Gross motor development in the primary school years is less about learning new movements and more
about mastering and combining the movements learned in early childhood. This is the stage where
"clumsy" toddler gaits transform into the fluid athleticism of a young athlete.
1. Refined Developmental Progress
By the time children reach ages 6 through 11, their bodies are better proportioned, and their central
nervous system is more efficient at sending signals to large muscle groups.
• Complex Coordination: It’s no longer just about running; it’s about running while dribbling a
ball or dodging an opponent. This requires multitasking of the motor cortex.
• Balance and Posture: The center of gravity shifts downward as limbs lengthen, leading to better
equilibrium. This allows for activities like riding a bicycle without training wheels, walking a
narrow balance beam, or maintaining a steady stance in martial arts.
• Power and Speed: Increased muscle mass and lung capacity mean children can jump further,
run faster, and throw with significantly more force and accuracy than they could at age 5.
2. The Shift to Organized Sports and Games
During this period, children move from "parallel play" to collaborative and competitive play.
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• Rule-Based Movement: Participating in sports like soccer, basketball, or tag requires the child
to inhibit certain impulses and follow specific physical patterns defined by rules.
• Rhythmic Movement: Many children at this age show an increased ability to match their gross
motor movements to a beat, leading to success in dance, gymnastics, or jump-rope routines
(like "Double Dutch").
3. The Multi-Dimensional Importance of Gross Motor Skills
While it might look like "just playing," these physical milestones are critical for holistic development:
• Physical Health & Bone Density: Weight-bearing activities (running, jumping) are essential for
building strong bones and maintaining a healthy cardiovascular system.
• Cognitive Links: Research suggests a strong link between physical activity and brain function.
Movement increases blood flow to the brain, which can improve executive function, focus, and
memory in the classroom.
• Social & Emotional Growth: In the primary school yard, "social currency" is often tied to
physical competence. Being able to join a game of kickball or keep up with peers during recess
builds self-efficacy and a sense of belonging.
• Stress Regulation: Physical exertion acts as a natural outlet for the energy and occasional
anxiety that can come with the increased academic pressures of primary school.
The "Success Cycle": When a child master’s a gross motor skill, their confidence increases, making
them more likely to try new physical challenges, which further improves their fitness and social standing.
Gross Motor Indicators Checklist (Ages 6–11)
This checklist can be used by educators or parents to monitor whether a child is meeting the expected
physical milestones for their age group. While every child develops at their own pace, these indicators
represent the "functional mastery" typically seen in the primary years.
Early Primary (Ages 6–7): The Transition Phase
• [ ] Static Balance: Can stand on one foot for 10 seconds or more with eyes open.
• [ ] Rhythmic Hopping: Can hop on one foot for a distance of at least 5 meters without losing
balance.
• [ ] Ball Skills: Can catch a small ball (like a tennis ball) using only the hands, rather than
"trapping" it against the chest.
• [ ] Bilateral Coordination: Can perform a jumping jack (moving arms and legs in sync).
• [ ] Basic Navigation: Can run and kick a moving ball without stopping or tripping.
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Middle Primary (Ages 8–9): The Coordination Phase
• [ ] Dynamic Balance: Can walk backward heel-to-toe along a line or low balance beam.
• [ ] Spatial Awareness: Can navigate a complex obstacle course (climbing, crawling, jumping)
without bumping into objects.
• [ ] Strength and Power: Can perform a standing long jump that is roughly equal to their own
height.
• [ ] Fluid Movement: Can ride a two-wheeled bicycle confidently, including making controlled
turns.
• [ ] Target Accuracy: Can throw a ball toward a specific target with overhand accuracy from 10
feet away.
Late Primary (Ages 10–11): The Mastery Phase
• [ ] Agility: Can perform a "shuttle run," quickly changing direction while maintaining speed.
• [ ] Complex Sequencing: Can learn and repeat a 3-to-4 step dance or gymnastic routine.
• [ ] Endurance: Can engage in vigorous aerobic activity (like a soccer match or swimming laps)
for 20 minutes without excessive fatigue.
• [ ] Interceptive Timing: Can accurately time a jump to catch a ball or swing a bat/racket to hit a
moving object.
• [ ] Postural Control: Can maintain an upright, stable seated posture for extended periods during
classroom tasks (indicating core strength).
When to Provide Extra Support
If a child consistently struggles with several of the following, they may benefit from additional physical
activity or a consultation with a specialist:
• Frequent Falling: Appears significantly more "clumsy" than peers or trips over their own feet
often.
• Avoidance: Shows extreme frustration or withdraws from physical games and PE classes.
• Asymmetry: One side of the body appears significantly weaker or less coordinated than the
other.
• Fatigue: Gets tired very quickly compared to classmates during normal recess play.
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MODULE: (SECED03) – CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Pro-Tip for Educators: Use "Brain Breaks" that incorporate these movements—like a 30-second
balance challenge or a quick round of "Simon Says" involving cross-body movements—to support gross
motor development within the classroom.
III. Fine Motor Development
While gross motor skills involve “big" movements, fine motor development is all about precision,
dexterity, and the coordination of small muscle groups—specifically those in the hands, fingers, and
wrists. In the primary school years, these skills transition from functional to mastery.
1. Fine Motor Skills
Fine motor skills involve the use of small muscles in the hands and wrists to perform precise
movements. These are often synchronized with the eyes (hand-eye coordination) to complete complex
tasks.
2. Developmental Progress
By ages 6–12, the nervous system has matured enough to allow for "independent finger movements,"
meaning a child can move one finger without others automatically following.
• Handwriting & Literacy: Children move from "printing" large, blocky letters to refined, smaller
script. By age 9 or 10, most have the muscular control required for fluid cursive writing.
• Tool Manipulation: This is the era of mastery for "adult" tools. Primary schoolers can use a
needle for basic sewing, a screwdriver for a science project, or a vegetable peeler during a
cooking lesson.
• Precision Tasks: Activities like building complex LEGO sets, weaving, or playing a stringed
instrument (where fingers must press specific spots) become much easier as finger strength
increases.
• Self-Care Independence: Fine motor maturity allows children to manage complex fasteners,
such as small buttons, zippers on the back of clothing, and intricate hair braiding.
3. The Importance of Fine Motor Skills
Fine motor development is a silent pillar of academic and personal success:
• Academic Performance: While we live in a digital age, handwriting is still linked to memory
retention and reading development. The physical act of forming a letter helps the brain "map"
that letter more effectively than typing does.
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• Self-Esteem: A child who struggles to zip their coat or finish a timed writing task may feel "behind"
their peers. Mastery fosters a sense of independence and competence.
• Cognitive Integration: Fine motor tasks often require executive function—planning the steps of
a craft, focusing on a small target, and correcting errors in real-time.
Fine Motor Milestone Checklist
Age Milestone Indicator
6–7 Years Can tie shoelaces; uses a knife and fork together; prints clearly on a line.
Can maintain consistent letter size; uses a ruler to draw straight lines; masters "pencil
8–9 Years
pressure."
10–12
High speed and accuracy in typing/writing; can perform detailed crafts or model building.
Years
Teacher's Tip: If a child is struggling with fine motor tasks, "heavy work" for the hands—like squeezing
stress balls, using playdough, or using tweezers to pick up beads—can help build the intrinsic muscle
strength needed for writing.
IV. Cognitive Development – The Concrete Operational Stage
Between the ages of 7 and 11, children undergo a massive shift in how they process information.
According to Jean Piaget, they move out of the "intuitive" thinking of early childhood and into the
Concrete Operational Stage. The hallmark of this stage is that thinking becomes logical, but it
remains tethered to physical, "concrete" reality.
1. Logical Thinking: The End of "Magic"
In earlier years, children might believe their thoughts can cause things to happen (magical thinking). In
the Concrete Operational stage, this is replaced by inductive logic.
• Cause and Effect: Children begin to understand that if $A$ happens, $B$ is the likely result.
• Reversibility: This is the mental ability to "undo" an action in their head. For example, they
realize that if $2 + 3 = 5$, then $5 - 3 = 2$.
• Concrete Limits: While they are logical, they still struggle with abstract or hypothetical
concepts. They need to see, touch, or visualize a problem to solve it effectively.
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MODULE: (SECED03) – CHILD DEVELOPMENT
2. Conservation: Substance over Appearance
Conservation is the understanding that the fundamental properties of an object (mass, volume, or
number) do not change just because its shape or appearance does.
• Liquid Conservation: If you pour water from a short, wide glass into a tall, thin one, a child in
this stage knows the amount of water is the same.
• Number Conservation: They understand that ten pennies spread far apart are the same as ten
pennies bunched together.
• Decentration: They no longer "center" on just one feature (like the height of the water); they
can consider multiple features (height and width) simultaneously.
3. Classification: Sorting the World
Classification involves the ability to identify the properties of categories and relate those categories to
one another.
• Hierarchical Classification: Children can now understand that a "Poodle" is a type of "Dog,"
and a "Dog" is an "Animal." They can navigate sub-groups without getting confused.
• Collection Hobbies: This is the age where many children begin collecting stamps, cards, or
stones. This isn't just a hobby; it’s a cognitive exercise in sorting and categorizing items based
on multiple traits (e.g., color, rarity, and size).
4. Seriation: Order and Sequences
Seriation is the ability to sort objects or situations according to any characteristic, such as size, color,
shape, or type.
• Transitivity: This is a key part of seriation. If a child knows that Stick A is longer than Stick B,
and Stick B is longer than Stick C, they can logically conclude that Stick A is longer than Stick C
without needing to hold them next to each other.
• Mathematical Foundations: Seriation is the root of understanding number lines and time
sequences (yesterday, today, tomorrow).
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MODULE: (SECED03) – CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Summary of Cognitive Shifts
Concept Pre-Operational (Age 2–7) Concrete Operational (Age 7–11)
Logic Intuitive/Magical Logical/Inductive
Perspective Egocentric (only sees own view) Can take the perspective of others
Problem Solving Trial and Error Systematic/Planful
Focus Centers on one "look" Considers multiple variables
Education Note: Because children in this stage rely on "concrete" evidence, teachers use
manipulatives (like counting blocks, maps, and science experiments) to bridge the gap between
physical action and mental logic.
V. Memory and Information Processing
As children move through primary school, their brains undergo "neurological pruning" and increased
myelination. This doesn't just make them faster; it makes their mental filing system significantly more
organized. They transition from being "passive" observers to "active" processors of information
1. Memory Development: Expanding the Mental Warehouse
Memory in middle childhood becomes more predictable and functional.
• Short-Term (Working) Memory: This is the "mental scratchpad." A 6-year-old might remember
2 or 3 instructions, but by age 11, they can hold 5 to 7 bits of information at once. This allows
them to perform multi-step mental math or hold the beginning of a sentence in mind while they
reach the end.
• Long-Term Memory: The "knowledge base" grows exponentially. Because they know more
about the world, they have more "hooks" to hang new information on. If a child already knows
about dogs, learning about wolves is easier because the existing memory structure supports the
new data.
• Recall vs. Recognition: While younger children are good at recognizing (picking an answer
from a list), primary schoolers become much better at recalling (retrieving information from "thin
air").
2. Attention: From "Butterfly" to "Laser"
In early childhood, attention is often captured by whatever is loudest or brightest. In the primary years,
it becomes selective and sustained.
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• Selective Attention: Children develop the "filter" necessary to ignore the hum of the air
conditioner or a classmate whispering, focusing instead on the teacher’s voice.
• Planful Attention: When looking at a complex picture or a map, older children scan
systematically rather than looking at random spots.
• Executive Control: This is the ability to shift focus. They can stop working on a math problem,
listen to an announcement, and then return to the exact spot where they left off.
3. Strategies for Learning (Mnemonics & Metacognition)
Children at this stage begin to use Metacognition—thinking about their own thinking. They realize that
if they want to remember something, they have to do something to the information.
• Rehearsal: The simplest strategy. Repeating a spelling word or a phone number over and over
to keep it in the working memory.
• Organization: Grouping related items together. Instead of memorizing a random grocery list,
they group it by "fruit," "dairy," and "snacks." This reduces the "cognitive load" on the brain.
• Elaboration: Creating a relationship or a story between two pieces of information. For example,
remembering the word "Stalactite" (which hangs from the ceiling) because it has a "C" for ceiling.
• External Aids: Relying on tools like checklists, planners, or "sticky notes" to supplement their
internal memory.
Summary of Information Processing Growth
Feature Age 6–7 Age 10–11
Attention Span 15–20 minutes; easily distracted. 45+ minutes; I can ignore most distractions.
Instruction Following 1 or 2 steps at a time. Can follow complex, multi-part directions.
Memory Strategy Spontaneous rehearsal (naming items). Strategic organization and elaboration.
Instructional Tip: To support memory at this age, use the "Rule of Three." Give information visually,
auditorily, and through physical action (kinesthetic). This creates multiple pathways to the same
memory.
VI. Language Development
Language development in primary schoolers shifts from basic communication to metalinguistic
awareness—the ability to think about language as a system. This is the "golden age" of vocabulary
expansion and the mastery of complex grammar.
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1. Vocabulary Expansion: The "Word Explosion"
While toddlers learn words for things they see, primary schoolers begin to learn words for things they
think.
• Exponential Growth: A child's vocabulary typically grows from about 10,000 words at age 6 to
over 40,000 words by age 11.
• Abstract Terms: They move beyond concrete nouns (ball, dog) to abstract concepts (justice,
loyalty, curiosity).
• Multiple Meanings: Children begin to understand that one word can have different meanings
based on context (e.g., a "bat" for baseball vs. a "bat" that flies).
2. Grammar and Syntax: Refining the Structure
By this stage, children have mastered basic sentence structure and begin to experiment with "adult-
like" complexity.
• Complex Sentences: They start using conjunctions (although, unless, because) to create
longer more descriptive sentences.
• Passive Voice: They transition from saying "The dog ate the cookie" to understanding "The
cookie was eaten by the dog."
• Tense Mastery: They become more consistent with irregular past tenses (taught instead of
"teached") and future perfect tenses.
3. Metalinguistic Awareness: Playing with Language
This is perhaps the most exciting shift. Children begin to realize that language is a tool that can be
manipulated.
• Humor and Riddles: This is the peak age for "Knock-Knock" jokes and puns. They find humor
in wordplay because they finally understand the double meanings and linguistic "tricks" involved.
• Irony and Sarcasm: Older primary schoolers (ages 9–11) start to pick up on social cues like
tone of voice to understand when someone is being sarcastic, though they may still take things
literally occasionally.
• Pragmatics: They learn to adjust their speech depending on who they are talking to—using
"playground talk" with friends and "formal talk" with a teacher or principal.
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Language Milestone Summary
Age Range Key Language Milestone
Ages 6–7 Can tell a story with a clear beginning, middle, and end; understands about 20,000 words.
Uses figurative language (similes/metaphors); can explain the rules of a game clearly to
Ages 8–9
others.
Ages 10– Can write persuasive essays; understand subtle sarcasm; vocabulary reaches 40,000+
12 words.
The Literacy Link
Language development is the engine behind Reading and Writing.
• Oral to Written: A child’s ability to speak in complex sentences directly predicts their ability to
write them.
• Reading Comprehension: As their internal "dictionary" grows, they spend less energy decoding
words and more energy understanding the deeper meaning of a story.
Instructional Tip: Encourage "Dialogic Reading"—asking open-ended questions like "What do you think
will happen next?" or "Why did the character choose that word?" to stimulate high-level language
processing.
VII. Factors Influencing Development
The steady growth of a primary schooler isn't just a result of biology; it is deeply shaped by the "ecology"
of the child’s life—the systems and environments they interact with daily.
1. The Family: The Primary Foundation
The home remains the most significant influence on a child's developmental trajectory.
• Support and Encouragement: A child’s self-efficacy (the belief in their own ability) is mirrored
by their parents. When a family celebrates the effort of learning rather than just the grades,
children are more likely to take the cognitive risks necessary for growth.
• The Literacy-Rich Environment: Access to books, stimulating conversations, and a quiet
space for study directly correlates with higher language and memory scores.
• Emotional Security: According to attachment theory, a stable home allows a child to "venture
out" into the complex social world of school with a secure base to return to.
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2. The school: The Cognitive Laboratory
School is where children move from "learning to read" to "reading to learn."
• Teaching Quality: A teacher’s ability to provide scaffolding (temporary support that is gradually
removed) is critical. High-quality instruction balances challenge with support to keep a child in
the "Zone of Proximal Development."
• Learning Resources: Exposure to varied tools—from digital literacy programs to hands-on
science labs—helps bridge the gap between concrete and abstract thinking.
• The Hidden Curriculum: Beyond academics, school teaches the "soft skills" of development:
following schedules, respecting authority, and managing time.
3. Nutrition and Health: The Biological Fuel
Physical and cognitive development can be stunted or accelerated by the child’s physiological state.
• Brain Fuel: The brain requires high-quality fats and proteins for myelination (the insulation of
nerve fibers). Iron-deficiency, for instance, is directly linked to shorter attention spans and
irritability in the classroom.
• Sleep Hygiene: Primary schoolers still need 9–11 hours of sleep. During deep sleep, the brain
consolidates memories and releases growth hormones.
• Physical Activity: Regular movement isn't just for muscles; it increases Brain-Derived
Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), a protein that supports the survival of existing neurons and the
growth of new ones.
4. Peer Interaction: The Social Mirror
In middle childhood, the "center of gravity" begins to shift from parents toward peers.
• Social Comparison: Children begin to define themselves by looking at their classmates. This
can lead to healthy competition or feelings of inferiority (Erikson’s "Industry vs. Inferiority").
• Collaborative Learning: Working in groups forces children to practice perspective-taking.
They must explain their logic to others, which reinforces their own cognitive understanding (as
seen in Piaget's social interaction theory).
• Conflict Resolution: Playground disagreements are actually "social laboratories" where
children learn to negotiate, compromise, and develop empathy.
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Developmental Milestones (Summary Table)
Age Physical Development Cognitive Development
Basic Logical Thinking: Understands
Improved Coordination: Can tie shoes,
6–7 conservation of number; begins to use simple
ride a bike, and print letters clearly.
strategies like rehearsal.
Stronger Motor Skills: Increased stamina Better Problem-Solving: Can perform
8–9 for sports; masters cursive; hand-eye "reversibility" in math; understand hierarchical
coordination is highly refined. classification (sorting objects into groups).
Skilled Movements: Shows "adult-like" Advanced Reasoning: Can think about thinking
10–
grace in dance or sports; onset of puberty (metacognition); begins to understand subtle
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spurts (especially in girls). metaphors and sarcasm.
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REFERENCES
Child Development
Berk, L. E. (2018). Child Development. Pearson.
The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence
Berger, K. S. (2021). The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence. Worth
Publishers.
Life-Span Development
Santrock, J. W. (2020). Life-Span Development. McGraw-Hill.
UNICEF
UNICEF. (2023). Child Development.
World Health Organization
World Health Organization. (2023). Child Development.
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