Chapter 4 Contents

Page
4.1 Overview 4-3

4.2 Soil Classification 4-3

4.2.1 Coarse Grained Soils 4-4
4.2.2 Fine-Grained Inorganic Soils 4-7
4.2.3 Organic Fine Grained Soils 4-7
4.2.4 Angularity 4-10
4.2.5 Consistency and Relative Density 4-11
4.2.6 Color 4-11
4.2.7 Moisture 4-12
4.2.8 Structure 4-12
4.2.9 HCl Reaction 4-12
4.2.10 Test Hole Logging 4-13

4.3 Rock Classification 4-13

4.3.1 Intact Properties 4-13
[Link] Igneous Rocks 4-14
[Link] Sedimentary Rocks 4-15
[Link] Metamorphic Rocks 4-16
[Link] Rock Color 4-17
[Link] Grain Size 4-17
[Link] Weathered State of Rock 4-17
[Link] Relative Rock Strength 4-18
[Link] Slaking 4-19

4.3.2 In Situ Properties 4-19

[Link] Discontinuity Spacing 4-20
[Link] Discontinuity Condition 4-21
[Link] Core Recovery (CR) 4-21
[Link] Rock Quality Designation (RQD) 4-21
[Link] Fracture Frequency (FF) 4-22
[Link] Voids 4-22

4.3.3 Test Hole Logging 4-22

4.4 References 4-22

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4.1 Overview
The detailed description and classification of soil and rock are an essential part of the geologic
interpretation process and the geotechnical information developed to support design and construction.
The description and classification of soil and rock includes consideration of the physical characteristics
and engineering properties of the material. The soil and rock descriptions that are contained on the field
logs should be based on factual information. Interpretive information should not be included on the field
logs, but provided elsewhere, such as in the text of geological, and geotechnical reports. This chapter
provides standards for describing and logging soil and rock.

The Unified Soil Classification System, as outlined in ASTM 2488 – “Standard Practices for
Description of Soils (Visual – Manual Procedure)”, provides a conventional system for classifying soils.
However, it alone does not provide adequate descriptive terminology and criteria for identifying soils for
engineering purposes. Therefore, the ASTM Standard has been modified to account for these additional
descriptive terms and criteria. It is not intended to replace the standard but to improve upon it, and make
it better understood.

There are numerous rock classification systems, but none of these is universally used. This chapter
provides a composite of those classification systems that incorporates the significant descriptive
terminology relevant to geotechnical design and construction.

An important facet of soil and rock classification is the determination of what constitutes “rock”, as
opposed to extremely weathered, partially cemented, or altered material that approaches soil in its
character and engineering characteristics. Extremely soft or decomposed rock that is friable (easily
crumbled), and can be reduced to gravel size or smaller by normal hand pressure, should be classified as a
soil.

4.2 Soil Classification

Soil classification, for engineering purposes, is based on the distribution and behavior of the fine-grained
and coarse-grained soil constituents. Soil descriptions that are contained on the field exploration logs are
based on modified procedures as outlined in ASTM 2488. The visual - manual procedure provided in
this standard utilizes visual observation and simple field index tests to identify the characteristics of the
soil constituents. Definitions for the various soil constituents can be found in Table 4-1. In addition, soil
properties that address angularity, consistency/relative density, color, moisture, structure, etc. have been
defined.

Soils are divided into four broad categories. These soil categories are coarse-grained soils, fine-grained
inorganic soils, organic soils, and peat. The first step in identifying soil is to make a determination
regarding which of the four broad categories the soil belongs. The definitions for these broad categories
are as follows:
• Coarse Grained Soils: Soils that contain 50 % or less of soil particles passing a 0.0030 in. (0.075 mm)
opening.
• Fine Grained Inorganic Soils: Soils that contain more than 50 % of soil particles passing a 0.0030 in.
(0.075 mm) opening.
• Fine Grained Organic Soils: Soils that contain enough organic particles to influence the soil
properties.

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• Peat: Soils that are composed primarily of vegetative tissue in various stages of decomposition that
has a fibrous to amorphous texture, usually dark brown to black, and an organic odor are designated
as a highly organic soil called peat. Once a soil has been identified as a peat (group symbol PT), the
soil should not be subjected to any further identification procedures.

Soil Constituent Description

Boulder Particles of rock that will not pass through a 12 in. opening.

Cobble Particles of rock that will pass through a 12 in. opening, but will not pass
through a 3 in. opening.

Gravel Particles of rock that will pass through a 3 in. opening, but will not pass a
0.19 in. (4.75 mm) opening.

Sand Particles of rock that will pass through a 0.19 in. (4.75 mm) opening, but
will not pass a 0.003 in. (0.075 mm) opening.

Silt Soil that will pass through a 0.003 in. (0.075 mm) opening that is non-
plastic or very slightly plastic and exhibits little or no strength when air-
dried.

Clay Soil that will pass through a 0.003 in. (0.075 mm) opening that can be
made to exhibit plasticity (putty-like properties) within a range of water
contents, and exhibits considerable strength when air-dried.

Organic Soil Soil that contains enough organic particles to influence the soil properties.

Peat Soil that is composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various stages of

decomposition usually with an organic odor, a dark brown to black color, a
spongy consistency, and a texture ranging from fibrous to amorphous.

Table 4-1 Soil constituent definition.

4.2.1 Coarse Grained Soils

Coarse grained soils are classified as either a gravel or a sand, depending on whether or not the percentage
of the coarse grains are larger or smaller than a 0.19 in. (4.75 mm) opening. A soil is defined as a gravel
when the estimated percentage of the gravel size particles is greater than the sand size particles. A soil is
defined as a sand when the estimated percentage of the sand size particles are greater than the gravel size
particles.

If the soil is classified as a gravel, it is then identified as either clean or dirty. Dirty means that the gravel
contains an appreciable (greater than 10 %) amount of material that passes a 0.003 in. (0.075 mm)
opening (fines), and clean means that the gravel is essentially free of fines (less than 10 %). The use of
the terms clean and dirty are for distinction purposes only and should not be utilized in the description
contained on the field log.

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If the gravel is clean then gradation criteria apply, and the gravel is classified as either well graded
(GW) or poorly graded (GP). Well graded is defined as a soil that has a wide range of particle sizes and
a substantial amount of the intermediate particle sizes. Poorly graded is defined as a soil that consists
predominately of one particle size (uniformly graded), or has a wide range of particle sizes with some
sizes obviously missing (gap graded). Once the grading determination has been made, the classification
can be further refined by estimating the percentage of the sand size particles present in the sample.

If the gravel is dirty then it will be important to determine whether the fines are either silt or clay. If the
fines are determined to be silt then the gravel will be classified as a silty gravel (GM). If the fines are
determined to be clay then the gravel will be classified as a clayey gravel (GC). Once the determination
has been made whether the fines are silt or clay, the classification can be further refined by estimating the
percentage of sand size particles present in the sample.

If the soil is classified as a sand, the same criteria that were applied to gravels are used - clean or dirty. If
the sand is clean, the gradation a criterion is examined in terms of well-graded sand (SW) versus poorly
graded sand (SP). Once the grading determination has been made, the classification can be further refined
by estimating the percentage of gravel size particles present in the sample. If the sand is dirty, then it
will be important to determine whether the fines are silt or clay. If the fines are determined to be silt, then
the sand will be classified as a silty sand (SM); conversely, if the fines are determined to be clay, then the
sand will be classified as a clayey sand (SC). Once the determination has been made whether the fines
are silt or clay the classification can be further refined by estimating the percentage of gravel size particles
present in the sample. Table 4-2 should be used when identifying coarse grained soils.

The coarse-grained soil classification as outlined in Table 4-2 does not take into account the presence of
cobbles and boulders within the soil mass. When cobbles and/ or boulders are detected, either visually
within a test pit or as indicated by drilling action/core recovery, they should be reported on the field logs
after the main soil description. The descriptor to be used should be as follows:

with cobbles - when only cobbles are present

with boulders - when only boulders are present
with cobbles and boulders - when both cobbles and boulders are present

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Silt or Group Sand or

Fines Grading Description
Clay Symbol Gravel

Gravel <10% Well GW < 15% Well graded GRAVEL

Graded Sand

< 10% Well GW > 15% Well graded GRAVEL with sand
Graded Sand

< 10% Poorly GP < 15% Poorly graded GRAVEL

Graded Sand

< 10% Poorly GP > 15% Poorly graded GRAVEL with

Graded Sand sand

> 10% Silt GM < 15% Silty GRAVEL

Sand

> 10% Silt GM > 15% Silty GRAVEL with sand

Sand

> 10% Clay GP < 15% Clayey GRAVEL

Sand

> 10% Clay GP > 15% Clayey GRAVEL with sand

Sand

Sand < 10% Well SW < 15% Well graded SAND

Graded Gravel

< 10% Well SW > 15% Well graded SAND with gravel
Graded Gravel

< 10% Poorly SP < 15% Poorly graded SAND

Graded Gravel

< 10% Poorly SP > 15% Poorly graded SAND with

Graded Gravel gravel

> 10% Silt SM < 15% Silty SAND

Gravel

> 10% Silt SM > 15% Silty SAND with gravel

Gravel

> 10% Clay SC < 15% Clayey SAND

Gravel

> 10% Clay SC > 15% Clayey SAND with gravel

Gravel

Table 4-2 Field description of coarse grained soil classification.

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4.2.2 Fine-Grained Inorganic Soils

Fine-grained inorganic soils are classified into four basic groups based on physical characteristics of dry
strength, dilatancy, toughness, and plasticity. These physical characteristics are summarized in Table 4-3.
The index tests used to determine these physical characteristics are described in ASTM 2488. Soils that
appear to be similar can be grouped together. To accomplish this, one sample is completely described, and
the other samples in the group are identified as similar to the completely described sample.

When describing and identifying similar soil samples, it is generally not necessary to follow all of the
procedures for index testing as outlined in ASTM 2488 for those samples.

Soil Group Dry Strength Dilantancy Toughness Plasticity

Silt (ML) None to Low Slow to Rapid Low Non-plastic

Elastic Silt (MH) Low to Medium None to Slow Low to Medium Low to Medium

Lean Clay (CL) Medium to High None to Slow Medium Medium

Fat Clay (CH) High to Very None High High

High

Table 4-3 Field identification of fine grained inorganic soils.

Once the major soil group has been determined, fine grained inorganic soils can be further described by
estimating the percentages of fines, sand and gravel contained in the field sample. Tables 4-4 through 4-7
should be used in describing fine-grained inorganic soils.

4.2.3 Organic Fine Grained Soils

If the soil contains enough organic particles to influence the soil properties, it should be identified as an
organic fine-grained soil. Organic soils (OL/OH) usually have a dark brown to black color and may have
an organic odor. Often, organic soils will change colors, for example black to brown, when exposed to
the air. Organic soils will not have a high toughness or plasticity. The thread for the toughness test will
be spongy. It will be difficult to differentiate between an organic silt and an organic clay. Once it has
been determined that the soil is a organic fine grained soil, the soil can be further described by estimating
the percentage of fines, sand, and gravel in the field sample. Table 4-8 should be used in describing an
organic fine-grained soil.

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Fines Coarseness Sand or Gravel Description

> 70% < 15% Plus Silt

0.075 mm

> 70% 15 to 25 % Plus 0.075 % Sand > Silt with Sand

mm % Gravel

> 70 % 15 to 25 % Plus 0.075 % Sand < Silt with Gravel

mm % Gravel

< 70% % Sand > < 15 % Gravel Sandy SILT

% Gravel

< 70 % % Sand > > 15% Gravel Sandy SILT with gravel
% Gravel

< 70 % % Sand < < 15 % Sand Gravelly Silt

% Gravel

< 70 % % Sand < > 15 % Sand Gravelly Silt with Sand

% Gravel

Table 4-4 Field descriptions of silt group (ML) soils.

Fines Coarseness Sand or Gravel Description

> 70 % < 15 % Plus Elastic Silt

0.003 in. (0.075 mm)

> 70 % 15 to 25 % Plus % Sand > Elastic Silt with Sand

0.003 in. (0.075 mm) % Gravel

> 70 % 15 to 25 % Plus % Sand < Elastic Silt with Gravel

0.003 in. (0.075 mm) % Gravel

< 70 % % Sand > < 15 % Gravel Sandy Elastic Silt

% Gravel

< 70 % % Sand > > 15 % Gravel Sandy Elastic Silt with

% Gravel Gravel

< 70 % % Sand < < 15 % Sand Gravelly Elastic Silt

% Gravel

< 70 % % Sand < > 15 % Sand Gravelly Elastic Silt

% Gravel with Sand

Table 4-5 Field descriptions of elastic silt (MH) group soils.

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Fines Coarseness Sand or Gravel Description

> 70 % < 15 % Plus Lean Clay

0.003 in. (0.075 mm)

> 70 % 15 to 25 % Plus % Sand > Lean CLAY with Sand

0.003 in. (0.075 mm) % Gravel

> 70 % 15 to 25 % Plus % Sand < Lean Clay with Gravel

0.003 in. (0.075 mm) % Gravel

< 70 % % Sand > < 15 % Gravel Sandy Lean Clay

% Gravel

< 70 % % Sand > > 15 % Gravel Sandy Lean Clay with

% Gravel Gravel

< 70 % % Sand < < 15 % Sand Gravelly Lean Clay

% Gravel

< 70 % % Sand < > 15 % Sand Gravelly Lean Clay

% Gravel with Sand

Table 4-6 Field descriptions of lean clay group (CL) soils.

Fines Coarseness Sand or Gravel Description

> 70 % < 15 % Plus Fat Clay

0.003 in. (0.075 mm)

> 70 % 15 to 25 % Plus % Sand > Fat Clay with Sand

0.003 in. (0.075 mm) % Gravel

> 70 % 15 to 25 % Plus % Sand < Fat Clay with Gravel

0.003 in. (0.075 mm) % Gravel

< 70 % % Sand > < 15 % Gravel Sandy Fat Clay

% Gravel

< 70 % % Sand > > 15 % Gravel Sandy Fat Clay with

% Gravel Gravel

< 70 % % Sand < < 15 % Sand Gravelly Fat Clay

% Gravel

< 70 % % Sand < > 15 % Sand Gravelly Fat Clay with

% Gravel Sand

Table 4-7 Field description of fat clay group (CH) soils.

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Fines Coarseness Sand or Gravel Description

> 70 % < 15 % Plus Organic soil

0.003 in. (0.075 mm)

> 70 % 15 to 25 % Plus % Sand > Organic Soil with

0.003 in. (0.075 mm) % Gravel Sand

> 70 % 15 to 25 % Plus % Sand < Organic Soil with

0.003 in. (0.075 mm) % Gravel Gravel

< 70 % % Sand > < 15 % Gravel Sandy Organic Soil

% Gravel

< 70 % % Sand > > 15 % Gravel Sandy Organic Soil

% Gravel with Gravel

< 70 % % Sand < < 15 % Sand Gravelly Organic

% Gravel Soil

< 70 % % Sand < > 15 % Sand Gravelly Organic

% Gravel Soil with Sand

Table 4-8 Field description of organic fine grained soil (OL/OH)group.

4.2.4 Angularity
The field description of angularity of the coarse size particles of a soil (gravel, cobbles and sand) should
conform to the criteria as outlined in Table 4-9.

Description Criteria

Angular Coarse grained particles have sharp edges and relatively plane sides
with unpolished surfaces

Subangular Coarse grained particles are similar to angular description but have
rounded edges

Subrounded Coarse grained particles have nearly plane sides but have well rounded
corners and edges

Rounded Coarse grained particles have smoothly curved sides and no edges

Table 4-9 Criteria for the field description of angularity.

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4.2.5 Consistency and Relative Density

An important index property of cohesive (plastic) soils is its consistency, and is expressed by terms
such as very soft, soft, medium stiff, stiff, very stiff, hard, and very hard. Similarly, a significant index
property of cohesionless (non-plastic) soils is its relative density, which is expressed by terms such as
very loose, loose, medium dense, dense, and very dense. The standard penetration test (ASTM 1586) is
an in-situ field test that is widely used to define cohesive soil consistency, and cohesionless soil density.
Tables 4-10 and 4-11 should be used to describe consistency, or relative density.

SPT N (Blows/Foot) Consistency

0 to 1 Very Soft

2 to 4 Soft

5 to 8 Medium Stiff

9 to 15 Stiff

16 to 30 Very Stiff

31 to 60 Hard

Over 60 Very Hard

Table 4-10 Consistency of cohesive soils.

SPT N (Blows/Foot) Relative Density

0 to 4 Very Loose

5 to 10 Loose

11 to 24 Medium Dense

25 to 50 Dense

Over 50 Very Dense

Table 4-11 Relative density of cohesionless soils.

4.2.6 Color
Soil color is not in itself a specific engineering property, but may be an indicator of other significant
geologic processes that may be occurring within the soil mass. Color may also aid in the subsurface
correlation of soil units. Soil color should be determined in the field at their natural moisture content.
The predominant color of the soil should be based on the Munsell Soil Color Charts.

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4.2.7 Moisture
A visual estimation of the relative moisture content of the soil should be made during the field
classification. The field moisture content of the soil should be based on the criteria outlined in
Table 4-12.

Moisture Description Criteria

Dry Absence of moisture; dusty, dry to the touch

Moist Damp but no visible water

Wet Visible free water

Table 4-12 Criteria for describing moisture condition.

4.2.8 Structure
Soils often contain depositional or physical features that are referred to as soil structure. These features
should be described following the criteria as outlined in Table 4-13.

Description Criteria

Stratified Alternating layers of varying material or color with layers at least 0.25 in.
thick; note thickness and inclination.

Laminated Alternating layers of varying material or color with layers less than 0.25 in.
thick; note thickness and inclination

Fissured Breaks along definite planes of fracture with little resistance to fracturing.

Slickensided Fracture planes appear polished or glossy, sometimes striated.

Blocky Cohesive soil that can be broken down into smaller angular lumps which
resists further breakdown.

Disrupted Soil structure is broken and mixed. Infers that material has moved
substantially - landslide debris.

Homogeneous Same color and appearance throughout.

Table 4-13 Criteria for describing soil structure.

4.2.9 HCl Reaction

Calcium carbonate is a common cementing agent in soils. To test for the presence of this cementing agent
the soil sample should be tested with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCL). The reaction of the soil sample with
HCL should be reported in accordance with the criteria outlined in Table 4-14.

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HCL Reaction Description Criteria

No HCL Reaction No visible reaction

Weak HCL Reaction Some reaction with bubbles forming slowly

Strong HCL Reaction Violent reaction with bubbles forming immediately

Table 4-14 Soil reaction to hydrochloric acid.

4.2.10 Test Hole Logging

The protocol for field logging the test hole is to describe the soil properties in the following order:

Soil Description ⇒Angularity ⇒ Density ⇒Color ⇒ Moisture ⇒ Structure ⇒

HCL Reaction

Some examples of this field logging protocol are as follows:

• Well graded Gravel, with cobbles and boulders, sub-rounded, very dense, light brown, wet,
homogeneous, no HCL reaction.
• Sandy silt, medium dense, light gray, moist, laminated, no HCL reaction
• Fat CLAY with sand, medium stiff, dark gray, wet, blocky, no HCL reaction

4.3 Rock Classification

Rock classification for engineering purposes consists of two basic assessments; one based on the intact
properties of the rock, and the other based on the in situ (engineering) features of the rock mass.

• Intact properties - This assessment is based on the character of the intact rock (hand specimens
and rock core) in terms of its genetic origin, mineralogical make-up, texture, and degree of chemical
alteration and/or physical weathering.
• In situ properties - This assessment is based on the engineering characteristics (orientation, spacing,
etc.) of the bounding discontinuities (bedding, joints, foliation planes, shear zones, faults etc.) within
the rockmass.

Both assessments are essential engineering characterization of the rock mass, and are the basis for rock
slope design and excavation, foundation design on rock, rock anchorage, and characterizing rock quarries.

4.3.1 Intact Properties

Rocks are divided into three general categories based on genetic origin. These categories are igneous
rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks.

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[Link] Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are those rocks that have been formed by the solidification of molten or partially molten
material. Typically, they are classified based on mineralogy and genetic occurrence (intrusive or
extrusive). See Table 4-15 for examples. Texture is the most conspicuous feature (key indicator) of
genetic origin (see Table 4-16).

In general, coarser grained igneous rocks are intrusive having been formed (solidified) before the molten
material has reached the surface; while the finer grained igneous rocks are extrusive and have formed
(solidified) after the molten material has reached the surface. Although this generality is true in most
cases, it must be stressed that there is no clear line between the two.

A special, but common, class of igneous rock is pyroclastic rocks (See Table 4-17). These rocks have
been derived from volcanic material that has been explosively or aerially ejected from a volcanic vent.

Intrusive Primary Common Accessory Extrusive

(Coarse- grained) Minerals Minerals (Fine Grained)

Granite Quartz, Plagioclase, Mica, Rhyolite

K-feldspar Amphibole, Pyroxene

Quartz Diorite Quartz Hornblende, Pyroxene, Dacite

Plagioclase Mica
Diorite Plagioclase Mica, Amphibole, Andesite

Gabbro Plagioclase, Amphibole Basalt

Pyroxene

Table 4-15 Common igneous rocks.

Texture Grain Size Genetic Origin

Pegmatitic Very large; diameters greater Intrusive
than 0.8 in.

Phaneritic Can be seen with the naked Intrusive or Extrusive

eye

Porphyritic Grained of two widely different Intrusive or Extrusive

sizes
Aphanitic Cannot be seen with the Extrusive or Intrusive
naked eye
Glassy No grains present Extrusive

Table 4-16 Igneous rock textures.

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Table 4-16 should be used only as an aid in determining the possible genetic origin (intrusive versus
extrusive) of the igneous rock. For grain size determination and descriptors use Table 4-23.

Rock Name Characteristics

Pyroclastic Breccia Pyroclastic rock whose average pyroclast size exceeds 2.5 inches
and in which angular pyroclasts predominate.

Agglomerate Pyroclastic rock whose average pyroclast size exceeds 2.5 inches
and in which rounded pyroclasts predominate.

Lapilli Tuff Pyroclastic rock whose average pyroclast size is 0.08 to 2.5 inches.

Ash Tuff Pyroclastic rock whose average pyroclast size is less than 0.08 inches.

Table 4-17 Pryoclastic rocks.

Some extrusive volcanic rocks contain small sub-rounded to rounded cavities (vesicles) formed by the
expansion of gas or steam during the solidification process of the rock. The occurrence of these vesicles
are to be reported using an estimate of the relative area that the vesicles occupy in relationship to the total
area of the sample and the designation as outlined in Table 4-18.

Percentage (by volume) of

Designation
Total Sample

Slightly Vesicular 5 to 10 Percent

Moderately Vesicular 10 to 25 Percent

Highly Vesicular 25 to 50 Percent
Scoriaceous Greater than 50 Percent

Table 4-18 Degree of vesicularity.

[Link] Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed from preexisting rocks. They are formed by the deposition and lithification
of sediments such as gravels, sands, silts, and clays; or rocks formed by the chemical precipitation from
solutions (rock salt), or from secretion of organisms (limestone). As indicated above sedimentary rocks
are classified based on whether they are derived from clastic sediments or from chemical precipitates/
organisms. See Tables 4-19 and 4-20 for their classification.

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Rock Name Original Sediment

Conglomerate Sand, Gravel, Cobbles, and Boulders

Sandstone Sand
Siltstone Silt
Claystone Clay
Shale Laminated Clay and Silt

Table 4-19 Clastic sedimentary rocks.

Rock Name Primary Mineral

Limestone Calcite

Dolomite Dolomite
Chert Quartz

Table 4-20 Non-clastic sedimentary rocks.

[Link] Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are those rocks that have been formed from pre-existing rocks when mineral in
the rocks have been re-crystallized to form new minerals in response to changes in temperature and/or
pressure. Metamorphic rocks are classified based on two general categories; foliated and non-foliated
metamorphic rocks. Foliated metamorphic rocks contain laminated structure resulting from the
segregation of different minerals into layers parallel to schistosity. Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are
generally re-crystallized and equigranular.

Rock Name Texture Formed From Primary Minerals

Slate Platy, fine grained Shale, Claystone Quartz, Mica

Phyllite Platy, fine grained with Shale, Claystone, Quartz, Mica

silky sheen Fine grained
pyroclastic

Schist Medium grained, with Sedimentary and Mica, Quartz,

irregular layers Igneous Rocks Feldspar, Amphibole

Gneiss Layered, medium to Sedimentary and Mica, Quartz,

coarse grained Igneous Rocks Feldspar, Amphibole

Table 4-21 Foliated metamorphic rocks.

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Rock Name Texture Formed From Primary Minerals

Greenstone Crystalline Volcanics, Mica, Hornblende,

Intermediate - Mafic Epidote
Igneous
Marble Crystalline Limestone, Calcite, Dolomite
Dolomite

Quartzite Crystalline Sandstone, Chert Quartz

Amphibolite Crystalline Mafic Igneous, Hornblende,

Calcium - Iron Plagioclase
Bearing Sediments

Table 4-22 Non-foliated metamorphic rocks.

[Link] Rock Color
Rock color is not in itself a specific engineering property, but may be an indicator of the influence of
other significant geologic processes that may be occurring in the rock mass (e.g. fracture flow of water,
weathering, alteration, etc.). Color may also aid in the subsurface correlation of rock units. The color
of the rock is based on the Geological Society of America Rock Color Charts. Rock color should be
determined as soon as the core has been recovered from the test hole.

[Link] Grain Size

Grain size is defined as the size of the particles or mineral crystals that make up the intact portion of the
rockmass. The description of grain size should follow the criteria as set forth in Table 4-23.

Grain Size Description Criteria

Less than 0.04 Fine grained Few crystal boundaries/ grains distinguishable in the field
inches or with a hand lens.

0.04 to 0.2 inches Medium grained Most crystal boundaries/ grains distinguishable with the
aid of a hand lens.

Greater than 0.2 Coarse grained Most crystal boundaries/ grains distinguishable with the
inches naked eye.

Table 4-23 Grain size.

[Link] Weathered State of Rock

Weathering is the process of mechanical and/or chemical degradation of the rock mass through exposure
to the elements (e.g. rain, wind, ground water, ice, change in temperature etc.). In general, the strength
of the rock tends to decrease as the degree of weathering increases. In the earliest stages of weathering
only discoloration and slight change in texture occur. As the weathering of the rock advances significant
changes occur in the physical properties of the rock mass, until ultimately the rock is decomposed to soil.

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The classification of the weathered state of the rock mass is based on six weathering classes (See
Table 4-24) developed by the International Society of Rock Mechanics (ISRM).

Term Description Grade

Fresh No visible signs of rock material weathering; perhaps slight I
discoloration in major discontinuity surfaces.

Slightly Discoloration indicates weathering of rock material and II

Weathered discontinuity surfaces. All the rock material may be discolored by
weathering, and may be somewhat weaker externally than in its
fresh condition.

Moderately Less than half of the rock material is decomposed and/or III
Weathered disintegrated to soil. Fresh or discolored rock is present either as
a continuous framework or as corestones.
Highly More than half of the rock material is decomposed and/or IV
Weathered disintegrated to soil. Fresh or discolored rock is present either as
discontinuous framework or as corestone.

Completely All rock material is decomposed and/or disintegrated to soil. The V

Weathered original mass structure is still largely intact.

Residual All rock material is converted to soil. The mass structure and VI
Soil material fabric is destroyed. There is a large change in volume,
but the soil has not been significantly transported.

Table 4-24 Weathered state of rock.

Alteration is the process that applies specifically to the changes in the chemical or mineral composition
of the rock due to hydrothermal or metamorphic activities. Alteration may occur in zones or pockets, and
can be found at depths far below that of normal weathering. Alteration does not strictly infer that there is
a degradation of the rockmass or an associated loss in strength.

Where there has been a degradation of the rockmass due to alteration, Table 4-24 may be used to describe
the alteration by simply substituting the word “altered” for the word “weathered” for Grade II through
Grade V.

[Link] Relative Rock Strength

Rock strength is controlled by many factors including degree of induration, cementation, crystal bonding,
degree of weathering or alteration, etc. Determination of relative rock strength can be estimated by
simple field tests, which can be refined, if required, through laboratory testing. The relative rock strength
should be determined based on the ISRM method outlined in Table 4-25. Due to the potential for
variable rock conditions, multiple relative strength designations may be required for each core run.

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Uniaxial Compressive
Grade Description Field Identification
Strength (Approx)

R0 Extremely Weak Indented by thumbnail 0.04 to 0.15 ksi

Rock

R1 Very Weak Rock Specimen crumbles under sharp blow 0.15 to 3.6 ksi
with point of geological hammer, and
can be cut with a pocket knife.

R2 Moderately Shallow cuts or scrapes can be made 3.6 to 7.3 ksi

Weak Rock in a specimen with a pocket knife.
Geological hammer point indents
deeply with firm blow.

R3 Moderately Strong Specimen cannot be scraped or cut 7.3 to 15 ksi

Rock with a pocket knife, shallow indentation
can be made under firm blows from a
hammer point.

R4 Strong Rock Specimen breaks with one firm blow 15 to 29 ksi

from the hammer end of a geological
hammer.

R5 Very Strong Rock Specimen requires many blows of a Greater than 29 ksi
geological hammer to break intact
sample.

Table 4-25 Relative rock strength.

[Link] Slaking
Slaking is defined as the disintegration of a rock under conditions of wetting and drying, or when exposed
to air. This behavior is related primarily to the chemical composition of the rock. It can be identified
in the field if samples shrink and crack, or otherwise degrade upon drying, or being exposed to air for
several hours. If degradation of the rock sample occurs, and slaking is suspected; an air-dried sample
may be placed in clean water to observe a reaction. The greater the tendency for slaking, the more rapid
the reaction will be when immersed in water. This tendency should be expressed on the field logs as
“potential for slaking”, and can be confirmed through laboratory testing.

4.3.2 In Situ Properties

The in-situ properties of a rock mass are based on the engineering properties of the bounding structure
within the rockmass. Structure refers to large-scale (megascopic) planar features which separate intact
rock blocks, and impact the overall strength, permeability, and breakage characteristics of the rock mass.

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Common planar features within the rockmass include joints, bedding, and faults; collectively called
discontinuities. These common planar features are defined as follows:
Joints- Joints are fractures within the rockmass along which there has been no identifiable
displacement.
Bedding - Bedding is the regular layering in sedimentary rocks marking the boundaries of small
lithological units or beds.
Faults - Faults are fractures or fracture zones within the rockmass along which there has been
significant shear displacement of the sides relative to each other. The presence of
gouge and/ or slickensides may be indicators of movement.

When defining the in-situ properties of these planar features (discontinuities) within the rockmass, the
recovered rock core from the borehole is examined, and the following information recorded:
• Discontinuity Spacing
• Discontinuity Condition
• Core Recovery
• Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
• Fractures Frequency (FF)
• Voids

[Link] Discontinuity Spacing

Discontinuity spacing is the distance between natural discontinuities as measured along the borehole. An
evaluation of discontinuity spacing within each core run should be made, and reported on the field logs in
conformance with the criteria set forth in Table 4-26. Mechanical breaks caused by drilling or handling
should not be included in the discontinuity spacing evaluation.

Description Spacing of Discontinuity

Very Widely Spaced Greater than 10 ft.

Widely Spaced 3 ft to 10 ft.

Moderately Spaced 1 ft to 3 ft.

Closely Spaced 2 inches to 12 inches

Very Closely Spaced Less than 2 inches

Table 4-26 Discontinuity spacing.

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[Link] Discontinuity Condition

The surface properties of discontinuities, in terms of roughness, wall hardness, and /or gouge thickness,
affects the shear strength of the discontinuity. An assessment of the discontinuities within each core run
should be made, and reported on the field logs in conformance with the descriptions and conditions set
forth in Table 4-27.

Condition Description

Excellent Condition Very rough surfaces, no separation, hard discontinuity wall.

Good Condition Slightly rough surfaces, separation less than 0.05 inches, hard
discontinuity wall.

Fair Condition Slightly rough surface, separation greater than 0.05 inches, soft
discontinuity wall.

Poor Condition Slickensided surfaces, or soft gouge less than 0.2 inches thick, or
open discontinuities 0.05 to 0.2 inches.

Very Poor Condition Soft gouge greater than 0.2 inches, or open discontinuities greater
than 0.2 inches.

Table 4-27 Discontinuity condition.

[Link] Core Recovery (CR)

Core recovery is defined as the ratio of core recovered to the run length expressed as a percentage.
Therefore:

Core Recovery (%) = 100 X Length of Core Recovered

Length of Core Run

These values should be recorded on the field logs on a core run by core run basis.

[Link] Rock Quality Designation (RQD)

The RQD provides a subjective estimate of rock mass quality based on a modified core recovery
percentage from a double or triple tube diamond core barrel. The RQD is defined as the percentage of
rock core recovered in intact pieces of 4 inches or more in length in the length of a core run, generally 6 ft
in length. Therefore:

RQD (%) = 100 x Length of Core in pieces > 4 inches

Length of Core Barrel

Mechanical breaks caused by drilling or handling should not be included in the RQD calculation. Vertical
fractures in the core should not be utilized in the RQD calculation.

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[Link] Fracture Frequency (FF)

Fracture frequency is defined as the number of natural fractures per unit of length of core recovered. The
fracture frequency is measured for each core run, and recorded on the field logs as fractures per foot.
Mechanical breaks caused by drilling or handling should not be included in the fracture frequency count.
In addition, vertical fractures in the core should not be utilized in the fracture frequency determination.

[Link] Voids
Voids are defined as relatively large open spaces within the rockmass caused by chemical dissolution or
the action of subterranean water within the rockmass. In addition, voids can be a result of subsurface
mining activities. Voids, when encountered, should be recorded on the field logs. Attempts should be
made to determine the size of the void by drilling action, water loss, etc.

4.3.3 Test Hole Logging

The protocol for field logging the test hole is to first describe the intact properties if the rockmass
followed by the description of the in-situ properties:
[Intact Properties] Rock Name ⇒ Rock Color ⇒ Grain Size ⇒ Weathered State ⇒ Relative
Rock Strength. then [ In-situ Properties] Discontinuity Spacing ⇒ Discontinuity Condition ⇒
Core Recovery ⇒ RQD ⇒ Fracture Frequency.

Some examples of this field logging protocol are as follows:

Diorite, medium light grey (N6), medium grained, slightly weathered, moderately strong rock
(R3). [Intact Properties] Discontinuities are widely spaced, and in fair condition. CR = 100%, RQD
= 80%, FF = 2. [In-situ Properties]
Basalt, highly vesicular, dark grey (N3), very fined grained, slightly weathered, fresh, strong rock
(R4). [Intact Properties] Discontinuities are closely spaced, and in poor condition. CR = 65%, RQD
= 40%, FF = 20. [In-situ Properties]
SILTSTONE, medium dark grey (N4), very fine grained, slightly weathered, very weak rock (R1),
potential for slaking. [Intact Properties] Discontinuities are widely spaced, and in fair condition.
CR = 100%, RQD = 100%, FF = 1. [In-situ Properties]

4.4 References
Munsell Soil Color Charts, 2000, GretagMacbeth, New Windsor, NY.
Geological Society of America, 1991, Rock Color Charts, Boulder, CO.

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