Instrumentations Dr.

Ahmad Malkawi

Instrumentation

Dr. Ahmad Malkawi

Book:

Process Control Instrumentation Technology

Curtis D. Johnson
Eighth Edition

Chapter 2 1
Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi

Instrumentation

Dr. Ahmad Malkawi

Chapter 2

Analog Signal Conditioning

Chapter 2 2
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Introduction
• Signal Conditioning: operations performed on signals to convert them to
a form suitable for the interfacing with other elements in the process-
control loop.
• Signal conditioning category:
▪ Signal-level and bias changes.
▪ Linearization.
▪ Conversion.
▪ Filtering and impedance matching.
▪ Concept of Loading.

Chapter 2 3
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Signal-Level and Bias Change
• Adjusting the level (magnitude) and bias (zero voltage) of some voltage
representing a process variable.
• Example: Some sensor output voltage may vary from 0.2 to 0.6V as a
process variable changes over a range.
▪ The equipment to witch the sensor output must connected requires a voltage that
varies from 0 to 5V for the same variation of the process variable.
▪ Change the zero to occur when the sensor output is 0.2V → subtracting 0.2V →
zero shift or bias adjustment.
▪ Multiply the voltage by 12.5 → Amplification (gain is 12.5)
▪ Note: attenuation if the output is smaller (gain < 1).
▪ Frequency response, output impedance and input impedance must be
concerned.

Chapter 2 4
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Linearization
• Specialized analog circuits were devised to linearize signals.
• Such circuits are difficult to design and usually operate only within
narrow range.
• The modern approach to provide the nonlinear signal as input to a
computer and perform the linearization using software.

Chapter 2 5
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Conversion
• Convert one type of electrical variation into another.
• Example: sensor exhibit changes of resistance with change in a dynamic
variable → circuit to convert this resistance change either to a voltage or
a current signal.
• Signal transmission: Standard of transmitting signal as 4 to 20 𝑚𝐴
current level in wire.
→ Convert resistance and voltage level to appropriate current
• Digital interface: Conversion from analog data into digital.
→ by integrated circuit called ADC.

Chapter 2 6
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filtering and Impedance Matching
• Filtering: to eliminate unwanted signals from the loop.
▪ Low pass filter (LPF), high pass filter (HPF), notch filter, band pass filter (BPF)
and band stop filter (BSF).

▪ Passive or active filters.

• Impedance matching: when transducer internal impedance or line

impedance can cause error in measurement of dynamic variable.

Chapter 2 7
Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Concept of Loading
𝑅𝑥 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑦 = 𝑉𝑥 1 − = 𝑉𝑥
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑥 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑥
If 𝑅𝐿 ≫ 𝑅𝑥 ⟹ 𝑉𝑦 = 𝑉𝑥

Chapter 2 8
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Example
• An amplifier outputs voltage that is 10 times the voltage on its input
terminal. It has an input resistance of 10𝑘Ω. A sensor outputs a voltage
proportional to temperature with a transfer function of 20𝑚𝑉/℃. The
sensor has an output resistance of 5.0𝑘Ω. If the temperature is 50℃, find
the amplifier output.

Chapter 2 9
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Passive Circuit
• Bridge and divider circuits are two passive techniques that have been
extensively used for signal conditioning.

• Bridge circuits are used primarily as an accurate means of measuring

changes in impedance.
▪ Useful when the fraction changes in impedance is very small.

• Filtering unwanted frequencies from the measurement signal by passive

circuit.

Chapter 2 10
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Divider Circuit
• Convert the resistance variation into a voltage
variation:

𝑅2
𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉𝑆
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑉𝑆 : Supply voltage.

𝑅1 , 𝑅2 : divider resistor (one of them can be the sensor

whose resistance varies with some measured variable).

Chapter 2 11
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Issues When Using a Divider
• The variation of 𝑉𝐷 with either 𝑅1 or 𝑅2 is nonlinear. Even if the
resistance varies linearly with the measured variable.

• The effective output impedance of the divider is the parallel combination

of 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 . (not necessarily be high → Loading effects)

• Current flows through both resistance; that is, power will be dissipated
by both, including the sensor.
→ Power rating of both the resistor and sensor must be considered.

Chapter 2 12
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Example
• The divider of the shown figure has 𝑅1 = 10.0 𝑘Ω
and 𝑉𝑆 = 5.00𝑉 . Suppose 𝑅2 is a sensor whose
resistance varies from 4.00𝑘 to 16.0 𝑘Ω as some
dynamic variable varies over a range. Then find (a)
the minimum and the maximum of 𝑉𝐷 , (b) the range
of the output impedance, and (c) the range of power
dissipated in 𝑅2 .

Chapter 2 13
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Bridge Circuit
• Convert impedance variation into voltage variation.

• Can be designed so the voltage produced varies around zero.

• Amplifiers can be used to increase the voltage level for increase

sensitivity to variation of impedance.

• Wheatstone Bridge: the most common bridge circuit.

Chapter 2 14
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Wheatstone Bridge
• Voltage detector D: to compare the
potentials of points a and b of the
network.

• Voltage detector has a very high input

impedance → differential amplifier.

Chapter 2 15
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Wheatstone Bridge
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏

𝑅3 𝑅4
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉 , 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉
𝑅3 + 𝑅1 𝑅4 + 𝑅2

𝑅3 𝑅2 − 𝑅4 𝑅1
∆𝑉 = V
𝑅3 + 𝑅1 𝑅4 + 𝑅2

⟹ Zero difference or zero voltage called null.

𝑅3 𝑅2 = 𝑅4 𝑅1

Chapter 2 16
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Examples
• If a Wheatstone bridge, as shown the
figure, null with 𝑅1 = 1000Ω , 𝑅2 =
842Ω, and 𝑅3 = 500Ω, fined the value of
𝑅4 ?

• The resistors in a bridge are given 𝑅1 =

𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 120Ω and 𝑅4 = 121Ω, if the
supply is 10.0𝑉. Find the voltage offset?

Chapter 2 17
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Example- Galvanometer Detector
• A bridge circuit has resistance of 𝑅1 =
𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 2.00𝑘Ω and 𝑅4 = 2.05𝑘Ω
and a 5.00𝑉 supply. If a galvanometer
with 50.0Ω internal resistance is used for
a detector. Find the offset current?

Chapter 2 18
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Bridge Resolution
• Is a function of the resolution of the detector
used to determine the bridge offset.

• Example: A bridge circuit has resistance of

𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅4 = 120Ω and a 10.0𝑉
supply. Clearly, the bridge is nulled. Suppose
1
a 3 digital DVM on 200m𝑉 scale will be
2
used for the null detector. Find the resistance
resolution for measurement of 𝑅4 ?

Chapter 2 19
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Lead Compensation
• A bridge circuit may be located at considerable distance from the sensor.
• Long leading wire → changing the resistance.
⟹ Lead Compensation:

Chapter 2 20
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Current Balance Bridge
• Disadvantage of simple bridge: the need to
obtain a null by variation of resistors in
bridge arms.
• Electronic nulling → Using current.
• The current flow predominantly through 𝑅5 :
𝑅4 ≫ 𝑅5 ⇒ 𝑅2 + 𝑅4 ≫ 𝑅5

𝑅4 + 𝑅5
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅5
𝑅4 + 𝑅5 + 𝑅2

𝑅3 𝑅4 + 𝑅5
∆𝑉 = 𝑉 −𝑉 − 𝐼𝑅5
𝑅3 + 𝑅1 𝑅4 + 𝑅5 + 𝑅2

Chapter 2 21
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Example
• A current balance bridge as shown in the
figure, has a resistor 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 10𝑘Ω,
𝑅3 = 1𝑘Ω , 𝑅4 = 950Ω and 𝑅5 = 50Ω
and a high-impedance null detector. Find
the current required to null the bridge if
𝑅3 changes by 1Ω? The supply is 10.0𝑉.

Chapter 2 22
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Potential Measurement Using Bridge
• Is performed by placing the potential to
be measured in series with the detector.
• The null detector responds to the potential
between point c and b.
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑥 + 𝑉𝑎
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑥 + 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑙

• The current balance bridge: the resistors

are chosen to null the bridge with 𝐼 = 0
and 𝑉𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑉𝑥 = 𝐼𝑅5

Chapter 2 23
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Examples
• A bridge circuit for potential measurement nulls
when 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 1𝑘Ω, 𝑅3 = 605Ω, 𝑅4 = 500Ω
with 10𝑉 supply. Find the unknown potential.

• A current balance bridge is used for potential

measurement. The fixed resistors are 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 =
5𝑘Ω, 𝑅3 = 1𝑘Ω, 𝑅4 = 990Ω and 𝑅5 = 10Ω
with 10𝑉 supply. Find the current necessary to
null the bridge if the potential is 12𝑚𝑉?

Chapter 2 24
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
AC Bridges
𝑍3 𝑍2 − 𝑍4 𝑍1
∆𝐸 = E
𝑍3 + 𝑍1 𝑍4 + 𝑍2

⟹ Zero difference or zero voltage called null.

𝑍3 𝑍2 = 𝑍4 𝑍1

• The null detection system is phase sensitive

with respect to the bridge excitation signal.

Chapter 2 25
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Example
• An ac bridge employs impedances as shown
in the figure. When the bridge is nulled.

Chapter 2 26
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Bridge Linearity
• The variation of the bridge offset is nonlinear
with respect to any of the resistors.
• Example: 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 100Ω and 𝑉 = 10𝑉.
Note that the nonlinearity of ∆𝑉 with 𝑅4 as it
varies from 0 to 500Ω.
• If the range of variation in the resistance is small
and centered about the null → the nonlinearity
of the offset versus the resistance is small.
▪ Example: 𝑅4 changes from 90 to 100Ω.

Chapter 2 27
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)
• Is a circuit composed of resistors, transistors, diodes, and capacitors.

• Requires connection of bipolar power supply, 𝑉 + and 𝑉 − .

• Op-Amp characteristics:
▪ Very high input resistance.

▪ Very low output resistance.

▪ Very high gain (𝐴𝑜𝑑 ).

▪ Input is the difference of two signals.

Chapter 2 28
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Op-Amp IC
• Normally has 20 to 30 transistors.

Chapter 2 29
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Practical Specifications
• 𝑣1 : is the inverting input.
• 𝑣2 : is the noninverting input.

Chapter 2 30
Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Development of Ideal Parameters

Chapter 2 31
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Ideal Parameters
• The internal differential gain 𝐴𝑜𝑑 is considered to be infinity (∞).
• The differential input voltage (𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) is assumed to be zero. ⟹ virtual short
circuit.
• The effective input resistance to the op-amp is assumed to be infinity. ⟹ 𝑖1
and 𝑖2 are essentially zero.
• The output resistance 𝑅𝑜 is assumed to be zero.

Chapter 2 32
Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Inverting Amplifier

𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 = −
𝑅1

Chapter 2 33
Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Noninverting Amplifier

𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 = 1 +
𝑅1

Chapter 2 34
Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Summing Amplifier

𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑣𝐼1 + 𝑣𝐼2 + 𝑣𝐼3
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Chapter 2 35
Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Voltage Follower - Buffer

𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐼

Chapter 2 36
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Differential Amplifier
𝑅2
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝐼2 − 𝑣𝐼1 𝑖𝑓 𝑅2 𝑅3 = 𝑅1 𝑅4
𝑅1
𝑅2
𝐴𝑑 =
𝑅1
• Common-mode rejection ratio.
𝑣𝐼2 + 𝑣𝐼1
𝑣𝑐𝑚 =
2
𝑣𝑜
𝐴𝑐𝑚 =
𝑣𝑐𝑚
𝐴𝑑
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴𝑐𝑚
𝐴𝑑
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝐴𝑐𝑚

Chapter 2 37
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Example
𝑅2 𝑅4
• Let = 10 and = 11. Determine 𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅𝑑𝐵 ?
𝑅1 𝑅3

• For good differential amplifiers, typically CMRR values are in the range of
80-100 dB.

Chapter 2 38
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Instrumentation Amplifier
• Differential amplifiers with high input impedance and low output impedance.

Chapter 2 39
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Instrumentation Amplifier with Gain Adjustment
• Variable gain with single resistor 𝑅𝐺 variation.
2𝑅1 𝑅3
𝑣𝑜 = 1 + 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
𝑅𝐺 𝑅2

Chapter 2 40
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Voltage-to-Current Converter

𝑣𝐼
𝑖2 = 𝑖1 = −𝑅𝐹 −1
𝑅1 𝑖𝐿 = 𝑣𝐼 = 𝑣𝐼
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅2
𝑅𝐹 1
𝑖𝑓 =
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅2
Chapter 2 41
Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Voltage-to-Current Converter

−𝑅2
𝑖𝐿 = 𝑣𝐼
𝑅1 𝑅3

Chapter 2 42
Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Current-to-Voltage Converter

𝑣𝑜 = −𝐼𝑅

Chapter 2 43
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Integrator
𝑭

𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 1 𝑅𝐹ൗ
=− 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) − 𝑅
𝑉𝐼 (𝑠) 𝑅𝐶𝑠 =
𝑉𝐼 (𝑠) 𝑅𝐹 𝐶𝑠 + 1

Chapter 2 44
Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Differentiator

𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)
= −𝑅𝐶𝑠
𝑉𝐼 (𝑠)

Chapter 2 45
Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Other Op Amp Functions

Chapter 2 46
Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Bridge Derived by a Constant Current
𝑉𝑍1
I=
𝑅6

Chapter 2 47
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Op Amp Specifications and Practical Issues
• Input offset voltage: The op amp output voltage may not be zero when the
voltage across the input is zero.
• The applied voltage across the input terminal to drive the output to zero is the
input offset voltage.

Chapter 2 48
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Op Amp Specifications and Practical Issues
• Input offset current: A net current may be required between the inputs to
zero the output voltage.

Chapter 2 49
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Op Amp Specifications and Practical Issues
• Input bias current: The average of the two input currents required to drive
the output voltage to zero.

• Slow rate: Is the rate (𝑉/𝜇𝑠) at which the output changes to the saturation
value when a step voltage is applied to the input.

• Unity gain frequency bandwidth: The frequency response of an op amp is

typically defined by the Bode plot of open loop voltage gain verses frequency.

Chapter 2 50
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filters
• Linear circuit can be represented by the general two port network.
• Filter transfer function:
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)
𝑇 𝑠 =
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)

• Filter transmission is found by evaluating 𝑇(𝑠) for physical frequency 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔.

𝑉𝑜 (𝑗𝜔)
𝑇 𝑗𝜔 = = 𝑇(𝑗𝜔) 𝑒 𝑗∅(𝜔)
𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔)
• Gain (Magnitude): 𝐺 𝜔 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑇(𝑗𝜔) ; dB
• Attenuation: 𝐴 𝜔 = −20𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑇(𝑗𝜔) ; dB

Chapter 2 51
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filters Types
• Filters perform a frequency selection:
• Passing signals whose frequency spectrum lies with in a specified range.

• and stopping signals whose frequency spectrum falls outside this range.

• Low Pass Filter (LPF).

• High Pass Filter (HPF).

• Band Pass Filter (BPF).

• Band Stop Filter (BSF); or Band Reject Filter.

Chapter 2 52
Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Ideal Filter Transmission Characteristics

Chapter 2 53
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filter Specification
• Low Pass Filter (LPF).

Chapter 2 54
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filter Specification
• Band Pass Filter (BPF).

Chapter 2 55
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filter Transfer Function
• As a ratio of two polynomial:
𝑎𝑀 𝑠 𝑀 + 𝑎𝑀−1 𝑠 𝑀−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0
𝑇 𝑠 =
𝑠 𝑁 + 𝑏𝑁−1 𝑠 𝑁−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0
• The degree of the denominator (𝑁) is the filter order.
• For stability 𝑀 ≤ 𝑁.
• In terms of zeros and poles:
𝑎𝑀 𝑠 − 𝑧1 𝑠 − 𝑧2 … 𝑠 − 𝑧𝑀
𝑇 𝑠 =
𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝2 … 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑁

Chapter 2 56
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filter Transfer Function
• The numerator roots 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ,…, 𝑧𝑀 ; the transfer function zeros or the
transmission zeros.

• The denominator roots 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 ,…, 𝑝𝑁 ; the transfer function poles or the natural
modes.

• Zero or pole can be either real or complex number

▪ Complex must occur in conjugates pairs 𝜎 ± 𝑗𝜔.

• # of poles = # of zeros
▪ If 𝑀 < 𝑁 → (𝑁 − 𝑀) zeros at 𝑠 = ∞.

Chapter 2 57
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filter Poles and Zeros Example
• Low Pass Filter (LPF).

Chapter 2 58
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filter Poles and Zeros Example
• Band Pass Filter (BPF).

Chapter 2 59
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filter Poles and Zeros Example
• Low Pass Filter (LPF) → all-pole filter.

Chapter 2 60
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
First Order Filter
𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎0
𝑇 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 𝜔0
• Low Pass Filter (LPF).

Chapter 2 61
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
First Order Filter
• High Pass Filter (HPF).

Chapter 2 62
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
First Order Filter
• General 𝑇(𝑠).

Chapter 2 63
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Second Order Filter
𝑎2 𝑠 2 + 𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎0
𝑇 𝑠 = 𝜔0
2
𝑠 + 𝑠 + 𝜔02
𝑄
• Low Pass Filter (LPF).

Chapter 2 64
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Second Order Filter
• High Pass Filter (HPF).

Chapter 2 65
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Second Order Filter
• Band Pass Filter (BPF).

Chapter 2 66
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Second Order Filter
• Notch Filter.

Chapter 2 67
Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Second Order Active Filter Circuit

Chapter 2 68
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filter Circuit
• Second order LPF.

Chapter 2 69
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filter Circuit
• First order LPF.

Chapter 2 70
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filter Circuit
• Second order HPF.

Chapter 2 71
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filter Circuit
• First order HPF.

Chapter 2 72
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filter Circuit
• Second order BPF.

Chapter 2 73
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Filter Circuit
• Notch Filter and BSF.

Chapter 2 74
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
The Second-Order LCR Resonator
• The Resonator Natural Modes (Poles location)
𝑉𝑜 1 1 𝑠/𝐶
= = = 2
𝐼 𝑌 ( 1 ) + ( 1 ) + 𝐶𝑠 𝑠 + 1/𝑅𝐶 𝑠 + (1/𝐿𝐶)
𝑅 𝐿𝑠
2
1 1 2
𝜔𝑜
𝑠 + 𝑠+ =𝑠 + 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑜2
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶 𝑄
• Transmission Zeros define the filter type.

Chapter 2 75
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
General Filter Structure
• LPF ⇒ Two Zeros at ∞.
• HPF ⇒ Two Zeros at 0.
• BPF ⇒ Zero at 0 and Zero at ∞.
• BSF (Notch) ⇒ Two Zeros at 𝜔𝑜 .

• Capacitor ⇒ • Inductor ⇒
▪ Short circuit at 𝑓 = ∞ ▪Short circuit at 𝑓 = 0
▪ Open Circuit at 𝑓 = 0 ▪Open Circuit at 𝑓 = ∞

Chapter 2 76
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Second Order Filter
• Low Pass Filter (LPF).

Chapter 2 77
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Second Order Filter
• High Pass Filter (HPF).

Chapter 2 78
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Second Order Filter
• Band Pass Filter (BPF).

Chapter 2 79
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Second Order Filter
• Notch Filter.

Chapter 2 80
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Analog Signal Conditioning Design Guidelines
1. Define the measurement objective.
2. Select a sensor (if applicable).
3. Design the analog signal conditioning.

Chapter 2 81
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Analog Signal Conditioning Design Guidelines
1. Define the measurement objective.
• Parameter: the nature of the measured variable.

• Range of the measurement.

• Accuracy.

• Linearity.

• Noise: the noise level and the frequency spectrum of the measurement.

Chapter 2 82
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Analog Signal Conditioning Design Guidelines
2. Select a sensor.
• Parameter: the nature of the sensor output.

• Transfer function: the relationship between the sensor output and the measured
variable.

• Time constant and the time response of the sensor.

• Range of the sensor parameter output.

• Power specification of the sensor.

Chapter 2 83
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Analog Signal Conditioning Design Guidelines
3. Design the analog signal conditioning.
• Parameter: the nature of the desired output.

• Range of the output parameter.

• Input impedance to prevent the loading.

• Output impedance.

Chapter 2 84
 Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi
Note Analog Signal Conditioning Design
1. If the output is a resistance change and a bridge or divider must be
used, be sure to consider both the effect of output voltage nonlinear
with resistance and the effect of current through the resistor sensor.

2. For op-amp portion of the design, the easiest design approach is

develop an equation of the output versus input.

3. Always consider any possible loading of voltage sources by the signal

conditioning.

Chapter 2 85