CIRCUITS & SIGNALS (C & S)

LABORATORY
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering (EEE)

Student Details:

Name :

SIC Number :

Section :

Group :

Sub Group :

SILICON INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Bhubaneswar
 CIRCUITS & SIGNALS (C & S) LABORATORY

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering (EEE)

C&S Lab, 3rd semester [Link]. (EEE / EIE)

CIRCUITS & SIGNALS (C&S) LABORATORY

List of Experiments
CYCLE-1
1. Verification of Superposition & Reciprocity theorem for both AC & DC
network.
2. Study of resonance in R-L-C series circuit.
3. Determination of circuit parameters: Z, Y, h and ABCD parameter of a two-
port network.
4. Determination of frequency response of active Low pass and High pass filter.
5. Determination of coefficient of coupling and equivalent inductance of a
single-phase transformer representing a coupled circuit.

CYCLE-2
6. Generation of various types of continuous and discrete waveforms (sine,
cosine, square, triangular etc.) using MATLAB.
7. Linear convolution of signals (with and without using the inbuilt conv.
function) using MATLAB.
8. Computation of autocorrelation of a signal, cross correlation of two signals
using MATLAB.
9. Spectral analysis of a non-sinusoidal waveform using MATLAB.
10. Study of DC and AC transients for R-L, R-C & R-L-C circuits using
MATLAB/SIMUINK software.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 01

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

Verification of Superposition & Reciprocity theorem for AC and DC network.

OBJECTIVE

(a) To verify superposition theorem in AC and DC electrical network.

(b) To verify reciprocity theorem in AC and DC electrical network.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

Sl. No. Name of the Instruments Specification Quantity

Superposition & Reciprocity
1 230 V, 50 Hz 01
theorem study trainer kit
2 Multimeter 230 V, 50 Hz 01
3 Patch Chords SP-7 As per requirement

THEORY
Superposition Theorem
The superposition theorem for electrical circuit states that for a linear system the response
(voltage or current) in any branch of a bilateral linear circuit having more than one independent
source equals the algebraic sum of the responses caused by each independent source acting
alone, where all the other independent sources are replaced by their internal impedances.

Reciprocity Theorem
The reciprocity theorem states that; in any branch of a network or circuit, the current due to a
single source of voltage (V) in the network is equal to the current through that branch in which
the source was originally placed when the source is again put in the branch in which the current
was originally obtained. This theorem is used in the bilateral linear network which consists of
bilateral components.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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PROCEDURE
For superposition Theorem

(i) Set the resistance value of each rheostat as given in the circuit diagram.
(ii) Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
(iii) Set the variac or rectifier unit as per the magnitude of the voltage given in the circuit
diagram.
(iv) Switch ON the AC or DC power supply to the network as per the network connected.
(v) Note down the current I2 (through R2 or Z2) using multimeter.
(vi) Switch OFF the power supply and replace the source (V2) by its internal resistance & note
down the current reading I2’ (through R2 or Z2) due to the voltage (V1) alone by switching
ON the power supply.
(vii) Similarly repeat the above step to find current I2’’.
(viii) Verify, whether I2 = I2’ + I2’’ and find the percentage error.

For Reciprocity Theorem

(i) Set the resistance value of each rheostat as given in the circuit diagram.
(ii) Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
(iii) Set the variac or rectifier unit as per the magnitude of the voltage given in the circuit
diagram.
(iv) Switch ON the AC or DC power supply to the network as per the network connected.
(v) Note down the current I5 (through R5 or Z5) using multimeter.
(vi) Switch OFF the power supply and interchange the position of ammeter and source ‘E’.
(vii) Note down the current I1 (through R1 or Z1) by switching ON the power supply.
(viii) Verify, whether I1= I5 and find the percentage of error.

OBSERVATION

For super position Theorem

(For DC Network)

Current through R2 Current through R2 Current due to

SL. I2’+ I2’’ Remark.
due to voltage due to current source both sources
NO. in A I2=I2’+ I2’’
source (I2’ in A) (l2’’ in A) (l2 in A)

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(For AC Network)

Current through R2 Current through R2 Current due to

SL. I ’+ I ’’ Remark.
due to voltage due to voltage source 2 2 both sources
NO. in A I2=I2’+ I2’’
source (I2’ in A) (l2’’ in A) (l2 in A)

For Reciprocity Theorem:

(For DC Network)

SL. Current through R5 Current through R1

Remark (Whether I1 = I5)
NO. (I5 in A) (I1 in A)

(For AC Network)

SL. Current through R5 Current through R1

Remark (Whether I1 = I5)
NO. (I5 in A) (I1 in A)

PRECAUTION
1. Set the variac to zero position before switching it on.
2. Connection should be right & tight.
3. Check the circuit connection before switching on the supply.
4. Instruments should be connected in proper polarity.
5. Don’t touch any non-insulated part of an instrument/equipment.

CONCLUSION

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ASSIGNMENT
1. In Reciprocity Theorem, what ratio is considered?
2. The Superposition Theorem is not applicable for _________
a) Power calculation
b) Voltage calculation
c) Current calculation
d) Both Voltage and Current calculation
3. In superposition theorem when we consider one voltage source, all the other voltage
sources are ___________
a) Shorted
b) Removed
c) Undisturbed
d) Opened
4. In superposition theorem, why voltage sources are replaced by short circuit?
5. In superposition theorem, why current sources are replaced by open circuit?
6. In the circuit given below, the value of voltage VX using Superposition Theorem is
_________

7. The Reciprocity Theorem is valid for ___________

a) Non-Linear Time Invariant circuits
b) Linear Time Invariant circuits
c) Non-Linear Time Variant circuits
d) Linear Time Variant circuits
8. What is the condition for the reciprocity theorem to be applied to the circuit containing
multiple sources?

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NOTE

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EXPERIMENT NO. 02
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

Study of Resonance in R-L-C Series Circuit.

OBJECTIVE

(a) To draw graph of resistance, inductive reactance, capacitive reactance, net reactance,
impedance, current with respect to frequency for series R-L-C circuit.
(b) To find the resonant frequency for series R-L-C circuit.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED
Name of the instrument/
Sl. No. Specification Quantity
Equipment

1 Series resonance trainer kit 230 V, 50 Hz 1

2 Function Generator 3 MHz 1
3 Connecting wires 1.5 mm2 L.S
4 Multimeter Digital 01
5 Patch chord SP-7 As per requirement

THEORY

Resonance is a typical state or condition in RLC circuit during which the capacitance and
inductive reactance are equal in magnitude. There by resulting in purely resistive impedance
 1 
Z = R + j  L −  , where Z is the impedance of a circuit under resonance
 c 
1 1 1
0 L =  0 =  f0 =
0 C LC 2 LC
f0 = resonating frequency.

An RLC circuit under resonance attains a maximum value for magnitude of current. The
impedance attains a lowest value as (XL - XC) reduces to zero. So, Z equals to R. Hence power
factor is equal to unity which means current and voltage are in phase.

Under series resonance condition, the circuit is also called as acceptor circuit, as it draws
maximum current at resonance.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

(0 - 20) mA R = 22 Ω L = 20 mH
A

AC C = 2 µF

V, f

Fig1. Series RLC circuit with variable frequency AC supply

PROCEDURE

(i) Set the resistance, inductance and capacitance values as given in the circuit diagram.
(ii) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
(iii) Calculate the value of resonant frequency (as per the values of R, L, C taken), theoretically.
(iv) Switch ON the function generator and set the output Vmax at 18 V (P-P).
(v) Apply different frequency to the series RLC circuit and note down the corresponding
ammeter reading.
(vi) Mark the resonance frequency at which the current reading reaches maximum value.
(vii) Plot the graph of inductive reactance, capacitive reactance, impedance and current with
respect to frequency.

OBSERVATION
Applied
Sl. Current (I)
frequency XL (in Ω) XC (in Ω) X (in Ω) R (in Ω) Z (Ω)
No in mA
in Hz

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CALCULATION

1
Resonant frequency (fo) = = _________
2 LC
Resonant frequency (from graph) = _________

GRAPH
Draw and attach the graph of the followings for series RLC circuit in a single graph.
(a) I vs. f
(b) XL vs. f
(c) XC vs. f
(d) Z vs. f

PRECAUTION
1. Connection should be right and tight
2. Check the circuit before switching on the supply
3. Instruments should be connected in proper polarity.
CONCLUSION

ASSIGNMENT
1. If the value of C in a series RLC circuit is decreased, what will happen to the resonant
frequency?
2. Series resonance RLC circuit is called as voltage magnification circuit. Justify.
3. In a series RLC circuit, if the current legs the applied voltage then does the circuit operate
above the resonant frequency, below the resonant frequency or at the resonant frequency.
Explain with proper reason.
4. The impedance at the resonant frequency of a series RLC circuit with L = 20 mH, C =
0.02 μF, and RW = 90 Ω is ------------.
5. A 24 Ω resistor, an inductor with a reactance of 120 Ω, and a capacitor with a reactance of
120 Ω are in series across a 60 V source. The circuit is at resonance. Find the voltage across
the inductor.
6. Why a series resonance circuit is called acceptor circuit?

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NOTE

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EXPERIMENT NO. 03
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

Determination of circuit parameters: open circuit (Z), short circuit (Y), Hybrid (h) and
Transmission line (ABCD) parameters of a two-port network.

OBJECTIVE
(a) To find the practical values of Z, Y, h and ABCD parameters.
(b) To compare the practical values of Z, Y, h and ABCD parameters with their theoretical
values.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

SL. NO. Name of the Instruments Specification Quantity

(110 Ω,2 A) 04
1 Rheostat
(50 Ω,2 A) 01
2 Multi-meter Digital 01
3 MC Ammeter (0-250) mA 02
4 Connecting wire 3/20 SWG, Cu As per required

THEORY
If a circuit has two input terminals and two output terminals, it could be classified as a two-port
network. A terminal pair could be categorized as a port. Thus, a two-port network has four
terminals, two input terminals and two output terminals or one input port or output port. A two-
port network is shown in the below figure.

The behaviour of the systems of a two-port network under predetermined conditions are
represented by well-defined terms called two port network parameters. The two-port network.
Parameters are classified as

(i) Impedance parameter or Z parameter

(ii) Admittance parameter or Y parameter
(iii) Hybrid parameter or h-parameter
(iv) Transmission parameter or ABCD parameter

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Z-parameter (open circuit /impedance parameter):

In equation form,
V1= Z11I1+ Z12l2
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2

Where Z11 = V1/I1 when I2 = 0, Z12 = V1 / I2 when I1 =0

Z21= V2/ I1 when I2 = 0, Z22 = V2/ I2 when I1 = 0.

Where Z11, Z12, Z21, Z22 are open circuit impedance parameters.

Y – Parameter (short circuit /admittance parameters):

In equation form,
Y11 V1 + Y12V2 = I1
Y21V1 + Y22V2 = I2
Where
Y11 = I1 / V1 whenV2 = 0, Y12 = I1/ V2 when V1 =0
Y21 =I2 / V1 whenV2 = 0, Y22 = I2 / V2 when V1 = 0.

When Y11, Y12, Y21, Y22 are short circuit admittance parameter.

h-parameter (Hybrid parameter):

In equation form,

V1= h11I1 + h12V2

I2 = h21 I1 + h22V2

Where h11 = V1/I1 when V2 = 0, h12 = V1 / V2 when I1 =0

h21= I2/ I1 when V2 = 0, h22 = I2/ V2 when I1 = 0.
Where h11, h12, h21, h22 are hybrid parameters.

ABCD Parameter (Transmission line parameters):

In equation form,
AV2-BI2=V1
CV2-DI2=I1
Where
A = V1 / V2 when I2 = 0, -B = V1/ I2 when V2 =0
C =I1 / V2 when I2 = 0, -D = I1 / I2 when V2 = 0.
When A, B, C and D are transmission parameter.

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CIRCUITDIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
(i) Set the resistance value of each rheostat as given in the circuit diagram. R1 = 50 Ω, R2 = 80
Ω, R3 = 60 Ω, R4 = 70 Ω, R5 = 90 Ω.
(ii) Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
(iii) Set the voltage in rectifier unit as mentioned in the circuit diagram and switch ON the DC
power supply to the network.
(iv) Note down the ammeter and voltmeter readings by making input and output port either short
circuited or open circuited.
(v) Calculate all the parameters from the observation taken and find the percentage of error.

OBSERVATION
SL
NO
When I2 =0 When V2 = 0 When I1 = 0 When V1 = 0

1 V1= I1= I2= V2=

2 V2= I2= V1= I1=

3 I1= V1= V2= I2=

CALCULATION

Parameters Z11 (Ω) Z12 (Ω) Z21 (Ω) Z22 (Ω)

Theoretical
Practical
% error

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Parameters Y11(Ω-1) Y12(Ω-1) Y21(Ω-1) Y22(Ω-1)

Theoretical
Practical
% error

Parameters h11 h12 h21 h22

Theoretical
Practical
% error

Parameters A B C D

Theoretical

Practical

% error

PRECAUTION
1. Connection should be right & tight.
2. Check the circuit before switching on the supply.
3. Instruments should be connected in proper polarity.
4. Don’t touch any non-insulated part of an Instruments/equipment.

CONCLUSION

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ASSIGNMENT
1. If we make any changes to the sources, do the parameter values change?
2. Why the Z-parameters are called as open circuit parameters?
3. Why the Y-parameters are called as short circuit parameters?
4. Why ABCD parameters are called transmission line parameters?
5. What are the two dependent and two independent variables in the hybrid parameters?
6. What is the condition for symmetry of a network in terms of ABCD parameters?
7. Justify the negative sign with I2 in the transmission parameters representation of a two-port
network.
8. What are the units of hybrid parameters?
9. Draw the h-parameter equivalent circuit.
10. Find the h-parameters of a T network configuration.
11. With 10 V dc connected at port A in the linear nonreciprocal two-port network shown
below, the following were observed:
(i) 1 Ω connected at port B draws a current of 3 A
(ii) 2.5 Ω connected at port B draws a current of 2 A
12. For the same network, with 6 V dc connected at port A, 1 Ω connected at port B draws 7/3
A. If 8 V dc is connected to port A, the open circuit voltage at port B is

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NOTE

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EXPERIMENT NO. 04

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

Determination of frequency response of Low pass and high pass active filter.

OBJECTIVE

(a) To plot the frequency response of 1st order High pass and Low pass active filter.
(b) To find the cut off frequency for both the filters.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

Name of the instrument

SL NO Specification Quantity
/ Equipment
1. Active filter trainer kit 230 V, 50 Hz 1
2. DSO 50 MHz 1
3. DSO probes BNC 1
4. Function Generator 3 MHz 1
5. Patch Chords SP-7 4

THEORY
An electric filter is often a frequency selective circuit that passes signals of specified band of
frequencies and attenuates the signals having frequency outside this band.

Types of Filters:

(i) Based upon elements used in construction

Passive Filter: - The filter which are constructed by the use of passive elements i.e. resistor,
capacitors & inductor are known as passive filter.

Active Filter: - The filters that are constructed by transistor or op-amps in addition to resistors
and capacitors are known as active filter.

(ii) Based upon Range of Frequency Accepted

Low pass filters: - It allows signals with lower frequencies to pass from input to output, while
attenuating all higher frequencies. The maximum frequency that it allows to pass through is
called cut off frequency (fc).

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High pass filters: - It allows signals with higher frequencies to pass from input to output, while
rejecting all lower frequencies. The minimum frequency that it allows to pass through is called
cut off frequency (fL).

Order of filter: - The rate at which the gain of the filter changes in the stop band is determined
by the order of the filter.

First order Filter: - For first order low pass filter the gain rolls off at the rate of 20 dB/decade in
the stop band, That is, for f >fH

By contrast, for the first order high pass filter the gain increases at the rate of 20 dB/decade in the
stop band, That is, until f =fL

Second order Filter: - For Second order low pass filter, the gain rolls off at the rate of 40
dB/decade in the stop band.

By contrast, for the Second order high pass filter the gain increases at the rate of 40 dB/decade in
the stop band.

CIRCUIT DIGRAM

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PROCEDURE
For the first order Low Pass Filter
(i) Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
(ii) Connect the output of function generator to input of DSO. Set the voltage as given in the
circuit diagram by switching ON the power supply of supply of function generator & DSO.
(iii) Connect the function generator output to the input low pass filter (1st or 2nd order) in the
trainer kit.
(iv) Connect the output of the low pass filter (1st or 2nd order) to the one channel of the DSO.
Vary the frequency of input signal step by step and note down each Vout for corresponding
frequency till attenuation is reached.
(v) Calculate gain in dB and plot the frequency response graph.
(vi) Find the cut off frequency from the graph and calculate the percentage of error.

For the first order High Pass Filter

(i) Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.

(ii) Connect the output of function generator to input of DSO. Set the voltage as given in the
circuit diagram by switching ON the power supply of supply of function generator & DSO.
(iii) Connect the function generator output to the input high pass filter (1st or 2nd order) in the
trainer kit.
(iv) Connect the output of the high pass filter (1st or 2nd order) to the one channel of the DSO.
Vary the frequency of input signal step by step and note down each Vout for corresponding
frequency.
(v) Calculate gain in dB and plot the frequency response graph.
(vi) Find the cut off frequency from the graph and calculate the percentage of error.

OBSERVATION
For first order Low Pass Filter

Input Voltage of Voltage of

SL Voltage gain Voltage gain in dB
frequency, f in i/p signal, Vin o/p signal, Vout
NO = (Vout / Vin) = 20 log (Vout / Vin)
Hz in volt in volt

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For first order High Pass Filter

Input Voltage of Voltage of

SL Voltage gain Voltage gain in dB
frequency, f in i/p signal, Vin o/p signal, Vout
NO = (Vout / Vin) = 20 log (Vout / Vin)
Hz in volt in volt

CALCULATION (Calculation of cut off frequencies)

1
For first order Low Pass Filter: f C = = __________
2RC

1
For first order High Pass Filter: f C = = ____________
2RC

Cut-off frequency for LPF (from graph) = ____________

Cut-off frequency for HPF (from graph) = ____________

PRECAUTION
1. Connection should be right & tight.
2. Check the circuit before switching on the supply.
3. Instruments should be connected in proper polarity.
4. Don’t touch any non-insulated part of an Instruments/equipment.

CONCLUSION

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ASSIGNMENT

1. Find the cut off frequency of a first order high pass filter with R = 10 ohm and C = 1
microfarad.
2. Draw the characteristic of low pass filter showing pass band, stop band and cut off
frequency.
3. A voltage of V = 15 + 20 sin 314t + 5 sin 628t volts passes through an ideal high pass filter
having unit pass band gain and cut off frequency 500 rad/sec. Find the output of the filter.
4. A voltage of V = 15 + 20 sin 314t + 5 sin 628t volts passes through an ideal low pass filter
having unit pass band gain and cut off frequency of 75 Hz. Find the output of the filter.
5. Explain the characteristic of high pass filter showing pass band, stop band and cut off
frequency.
6. Write some applications of High pass filter and Low pass filter.

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NOTE

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EXPERIMENT NO. 05
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

Determination of coefficient of coupling and equivalent inductance of a single-phase transformer

representing a coupled circuit.

OBJECTIVE

(a) To find the self-inductance, mutual inductance and coefficient of coupling of the
transformer.
(b) To find equivalent inductance for series aiding and series opposition of the two coils of the
given single-phase transformer.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

Name of the instrument /

SL. NO. Specification Quantity
Equipment
1. 1- Φ Transformer 3 KVA, 50 Hz 1
2. 1- Φ Variac (0-270) V, 50 Hz 1
(0-250) mA 1
3. MI Ammeter
(0-15) A 1
4. Digital multimeter Digital, 230 V, 50 Hz 1
5. Connecting Wires 3/20 SWG, Cu As per required

THEORY:
Coupled circuit: The common circuit element used for energy transfer could be a resistance,
inductance or a capacitance and accordingly the circuit is called as resistive coupled, inductive
coupled or capacitive coupled respectively. If the circuits are coupled in this way, where the
energy transfer takes place by direct conduction through the coupling element, the circuits are
called conductively coupled circuits. Very often the two circuits are coupled by indirect means
through a circuit element inductance. This type of coupling is known as magnetic coupling and
the circuit are called as magnetically coupled circuit or inductively coupled circuit. In these
circuits the energy transfer from the input to the output circuit takes place through induction but
not by conduction as in the case direct coupled circuits.

Transformer as a coupled circuit:

A changing magnetic flux linking any coil generates an induced emf in the coils. The unique
feather of this phenomenon is the magnetic coupling which results when two coils are placed

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nearby, on a common magnetic core, when current is made to pass through one coil, due to
mutual coupling between the two coils there exists an emf in the other coil. The best example of
magnetic coupled circuit is the transformer.

+ Fig. Transformer as Coupled Circuit

Here,

di1 (t ) di (t )
In loop-1, putting KVL: v1 (t ) = i1 (t ) R1 + L1 +M 2
dt dt

In frequency domain: V1 ( j) = (R1 + jL1 )I1 ( j) + jMI 2 ( j)

di2 (t ) di (t )
In loop-2, putting KVL: v2 (t ) = i2 (t ) R2 + L2 +M 1
dt dt

In frequency domain: V2 ( j) = (R2 + jL2 )I 2 ( j) + jMI1 ( j)

Where,

L1 = Self-inductance of coil-1

L2 = Self-inductance of coil-2

M = Mutual inductance between coil-1 and coil-2

R1 & R2 = Primary and Secondary winding resistances respectively.

Combination of conductively connected but mutual coupled coils

Consider two coils of self-inductances L1 & L2. Let M be the mutual between them these two
coils can be connected in the following ways, i.e.

(i) Series connection.

(ii) Parallel connection.

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Again, series connection can be

a) Series aiding or cumulative

b) Series opposition or differential

Similarly, the series connection can be

a) Parallel aiding or cumulative

b) Parallel opposition or differential

Series aiding mode:

In the above figure the current is entering both the coils at the dotted terminals so it is called
series adding combination

Here, Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M

Leq = equivalent inductance of the combination shown in figure.

Series opposition mode:

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In the above figure the current is entering first coils at the dotted terminals and leaving the other
coil at dotted terminal, so it is called series opposition combination

Here, Leq = L1 + L2 - 2M

Leq = equivalent inductance of the combination shown in figure.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE:

Case -1: Transformer as a coupled circuit and determination of self & mutual
inductance.

1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.

2. Set the rheostat at its maximum value.
3. Set the Variac as mentioned in the circuit diagram and switch on it.
4. Note down the ammeter & voltmeter reading.
5. Vary the resistance and note down the ammeter & voltmeter reading for different value of
resistance.
6. Calculate self and mutual inductance from the observation.

Case 2: Conductively connected mutual coupled series aided or opposite coupled coil
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
2. Set the rheostat at its maximum value.
3. Set the Variac as mentioned in the circuit diagram and switch on it.
4. Note down the ammeter & voltmeter reading.
5. Calculate the equivalent inductance from the observations.

OBSERVATIONS:

Case 1: Transformer as a coupled circuit

SL Supply voltage Resistance in Current in Voltage at coil-1 Voltage at coil-2

NO in volt (v) ohm (R) Amp (I1) in volt (VL1) in volt (VL2)
1
2
3

Case 2: For series aiding connection

Supply Resistance Current Voltage at Voltage at

VL3
voltage in in ohm (R in Amp coil-1 in coil-2 in Leq (in H)
in volt
volts = R1 + R2) (I1) volt (VL1) volt (VL2)

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Case 3: For series opposition connection

Supply Resistance in Voltage at Voltage at VL3

Current in
voltage in ohm (R = R1 + coil-1 in coil-2 in in Leq (in H)
Amp (I1)
volts R2) volt (VL1) volt (VL2) volt

CALCULATION:

Transformer as a coupled circuit:

To find self-inductance:
𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿1 𝐼1
𝑉1
= 𝑅1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿1 = 𝑍1
𝐼1
𝑍12 = 𝑅12 + 𝜔2 𝐿21

𝑍12 − 𝑅12
𝐿1 = 𝐿2 = √
𝜔2
To find mutual inductance:
𝑉2 = 𝑗𝜔𝑀𝐼1
𝑉2
= 𝑗𝜔𝑀 = 𝑍𝑀
𝐼1
𝜔𝑀 = 𝑍𝑀
𝑍𝑀
𝑀=
𝜔
𝑴
Coefficient of coupling, 𝒌 =
√𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐
To find Leq for series aiding and series opposition:
𝑉𝐿3 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐼
𝑉𝐿3
= 𝑅𝑒𝑞 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞
𝐼
2 − 𝑅2
𝑍𝑒𝑞 𝑒𝑞
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = √
𝜔 2

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Where, R1 = resistance of the primary winding, R2 = resistance of the secondary winding
*All above calculations are in steady-state condition.

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PRECAUTION:

1. Connection should be right & tight.

2. Check the circuit before switching on the supply.
3. Instruments should be connected in proper polarity.
4. Don’t touch any non-insulated part of an Instruments/equipment.

CONCLUSION:

DISCUSSION:
1. In an ideal transformer show that L1L2-M2 = 0.

2. Determine the inductance of the three series-connected inductors of figure given.

3. Two coils with self-inductance of L1 = 25 mH, L2 = 60 mH, and k = 0.5 are connected in
series. Calculate the equivalent inductance in aiding and opposing mode.

4. Find the equivalent inductance between the terminals.

5. Two coupled coils connected in series have an equivalent inductance of 16 mH or 8 mH

depending on the inter-connection. Then calculate ‘M’ between the coils.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 06

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

To generate various types of continuous and discrete signals using MATLAB software.

OBJECTIVE

To generate various standard signals in continuous and discrete domain.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED
MATLAB Software Programming/Simulink

THEORY
A signal may be defined as any physical quantity that varies with time, space or any independent
variables.

a) Unit Impulse: It is denoted by (n). Its value at certain place is ‘1’ and ‘0’ elsewhere.
1 for n=0
 (n ) = 
0 elsewhere

b) Unit Step: It is denoted by u(n). Its value is equal to ‘1’ when n≥0 and ‘0’ when n<0.
1 for n  0
 (n ) = 
0 for n  0

c) Ramp: Ramp is denoted by r(n). Its value is n when n≥0 and ‘0’ when n<0.
n for n  0
r (n ) = 
0 for n  0

d) Sine Wave: Sinusoidal wave represented as sin symbolically. Its value is represented by equation.
x(n) = a * sin(2 * pi * f * n)

Where a = Amplitude of signal

f = frequency of signal

PROGRAM QUESTIONS
Plot following functions:

a. -10u(t-5)

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b. 5δ(t-3)
c. 20sin(2π100t)
d. 2exp(0.05t)
e. 4r(4-n)

CONCLUSION

ASSIGNMENT
1. Define signal and system.
2. Define Continuous Time Signal and Discrete Time Signal.
3. List out the standard signals.
4. Write the types of Signals and its representation.
5. Write down all the types of systems.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 07

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

Linear convolution of signals (with and without using the inbuilt conv. function) using
MATLAB.

OBJECTIVE
(a) To find convolution of two sequence with using inbuilt command.
(b) To find convolution of two sequence without using inbuilt command.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED

MATLAB Software Programming/Simulink

THEORY
If the input is an arbitrary signal that is expressed as a sum of weighted impulse that is,

x (n) =  x (k ) (n − k )
k =−

y has the response of system to x(n) is the corresponding sum of the weighted outputs that is

  
y (n ) = T x(n ) = T   x(k ) (n − k )
 k = − 

=  x(k )T  (n − k )
k = −


=  x (k )h(n, k )
k = −

The above operation is known as superposition summation, if the response of the LTI system to
the unit sample sequence (n) is denoted as h(n).


So, y (n ) =  x(k )h(n − k )

k = −

Where y(n) is the convoluted output.

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The formula gives the response y(n) of the LTI system as a function of the input signal x(n) and
the unit sample (impulse) response h(n) called a convolution sum. We say that the input x(n) is
convolved with the impulse response h(n) to yield the output y(n). The process if computing the
convolution between x(k) and h(k) involves the following four steps.

1. Folding: Fold h(k) about k = 0 to obtain h(-k).

2. Shifting: Shift h(-k) by n to the right (left) if n is positive (negative), to obtain h(n-k).
3. Multiplication: Multiply x(k) by h(n-k) to obtain the product sequence n(k)  x(k)h(n-k).
4. Summation: Sum all the values of the product sequence n(k) to obtain the value of the
output at time n.
In order to gain a better understanding of the procedure for evaluating the convolution sum, we
shall demonstrate the process graphically. The graphs will aid us in explaining the four steps
involved in the computation of the convolution sum.

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PROGRAM QUESTIONS
Hint: Use functions like conv, stem, subplot

Q1: Find the linear convolution of x(n) = [7 5 4 0] and h(n) = [0 3 6 2 9]. Solve first theoretically
and then using MATLAB.
Q2: Find the linear convolution of x(n) = [1 2 3 4 5] and h(n) = [5 8 3 5 4 6]. Solve first
theoretically and then using MATLAB.

CONCLUSION

ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the significance of convolution.
2. Define linear convolution.
3. Why zero padding is used in linear convolution?
4. What are the four steps to find linear convolution?
5. What is the length of the resultant sequence in linear convolution?
6. List few applications of linear convolution in LTI system design.
7. Give the properties of linear convolution.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 08

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

Computation of autocorrelation of a signal, cross correlation of two signals using MATLAB.

OBJECTIVE
(a) To find autocorrelation of a given sequence.
(b) To find cross correlation between two given sequences.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED

MATLAB Software Programming/Simulink

THEORY
Correlation is defined as a similarity between a pair of signals. Basically, it is used to compare
two signals. The application of correlation is in radar system where the location of the target is
measured by comparing the transmitted and reflected signals.

There are two types of correlation: Auto correlation, Cross correlation

Auto correlation: The auto correlation of a sequence is correlation with itself. The auto
correlation of a sequence x(n) is given by


Rxx ( l ) =  x (n) x (n − l )
n =−
l = 0,1,2,......

OR, Rxx ( l ) =  x (n + l ) x (n)

n =−
l = 0,1,2,......

Cross correlation: The cross correlation of a sequence is correlation with another sequence. The
auto correlation of a sequence x(n) with another sequence y(n) is given by


Rxy ( l ) =  x (n) y (n − l )
n =−
l = 0, 1, 2,......


OR, Rxy ( l ) =  x (n + l ) y (n)

n =−
l = 0, 1, 2,......

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PROGRAM QUESTIONS
Hint: Use, r = xcorr(x,y) and r = xcorr(x)

r = xcorr(x,y) returns the cross-correlation of two discrete-time sequences. Cross-correlation

measures the similarity between a vector x and shifted (lagged) copies of a vector y as a function
of the lag. If x and y have different lengths, the function appends zeros to the end of the shorter
vector so it has the same length as the other.

r = xcorr(x) returns the autocorrelation sequence of x. If x is a matrix, then r is a matrix whose

columns contain the autocorrelation and cross-correlation sequences for all combinations of the
columns of x.

Q1: Two given sequences are 𝑥(𝑛) = [1 2 3 4], 𝑦(𝑛) = [4 3 2 1]. Determine the auto
correlation and cross correlation sequence. Also plot the correlation sequence.
Q2: Create a vector x and a vector y that is equal to x shifted by 5 elements to the right. Compute
and plot the estimated cross-correlation of x and y.
Q3: Compute and plot the estimated autocorrelation of a vector x
Q4: Find the correlation of the sequences of Q1 without using predefined command. Use basics
of problem-solving technique with pointer concept.

CONCLUSION

ASSIGNMENT
1. Define auto and cross correlation.
2. How correlation is related with convolution.
3. Write any practical application where correlation concept is used.
4. What is the length of the resultant sequence of auto correlation?
5. Give the properties of auto correlation.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 09

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

To study the spectral analysis of non-sinusoidal waveform using MATLAB/SIMULINK

software.

OBJECTIVE
To plot the amplitude and phase spectrum of a periodical non-sinusoidal waveform.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED
MATLAB Software Programming/Simulink

THEORY

Recall that a periodic function is one that repeats every T seconds. In other words, a periodic
function f(t) satisfies
f(t) = f (t+ n T) where, n is an integer and T is the period of the function.
According to the Fourier theorem, any practical periodic function of frequency ω 0 can be
expressed as an infinite sum of sine or cosine functions that are integral multiples of ω 0. Thus,
f(t) can be expressed as
∞

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑎0 + ∑(𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜔0 𝑡)

𝑛=1

Where, 𝑎0 is the dc component, ∑∞𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜔0 𝑡) is the ac component, 𝜔0 =

2𝜋/𝑇 is the fundamental frequency in rad/s. The sinusoid 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜔0 or 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜔0 is called the nth
harmonic of f(t).
The Fourier series of a periodic function of f(t) is a representation that resolves f(t) into a dc
component and an ac component comprising an infinite series of harmonic sinusoids.
The Fourier coefficients are as follows:

1 𝑇
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

2 𝑇
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

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2 𝑇
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜔0 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

The amplitude-phase form of Fourier series is

∞

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑎0 + ∑ 𝐴𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑𝑛 )
𝑛=1

𝑎𝑛 = 𝐴𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 = −𝐴𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑𝑛

𝑏𝑛
𝐴𝑛 = √𝑎𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑛2 , 𝜑𝑛 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛

The plot of amplitude 𝐴𝑛 of the harmonics versus 𝑛𝜔0 is called the amplitude spectrum of f(t);
the plot of the phase 𝜑𝑛 versus 𝑛𝜔0 is the phase spectrum of f(t). Both the amplitude and phase
spectra form the frequency spectrum of f(t).
The frequency spectrum of a signal consists of the plots of the amplitudes and phases of the
harmonics versus frequency.

PROGRAM QUESTION
Q: Draw the amplitude and phase spectrum of a periodical non-sinusoidal waveform.

CONCLUSION

ASSIGNMENT
1. State Dirichlet’s conditions for a function to be expanded as a Fourier series.
2. What are Fourier series?
3. What are the two types of Fourier series?
4. How is a trigonometric Fourier series represented?
5. Write the application of Fourier series .

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EXPERIMENT NO. 10
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT
Study of DC and AC transients in R-L, R-C, and R-L-C series circuit.
OBJECTIVE
a. To study the transients in R-L and R-C series circuit when DC excited.
b. To study the overdamped, underdamped and critically damped response of R-L-C series
circuit to DC excitation
SOFTWARE REQUIRED
MATLAB Software Programming/Simulink

THEORY

The complete response of a circuit consists of two parts, transient and steady state response.
Steady State: A circuit having constant source for long time is said to be steady state. A state
that remains constant with respect to time.
Transient State: The response of the circuit from the time it is switched from one state to
another till it reaches steady state is called as transient response.
Response of DC series circuit:
(i) Response of an R-L circuit:
Consider an R-L series circuit as shown in figure with switch “S” and applied DC
voltage “V”.
S R L

It

DC
Vin

Series RL Circuit
When switch “S” is closed at t=0, referring to the circuit and writing balance equation using
Kirchhoff’s voltage law in terms of instantaneous values, we get,
𝑑𝑖
𝑉 = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) + 𝐿 ---------------- (1)
𝑑𝑡

Taking Laplace and inverse Laplace transformer of the equation-1, we get,

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𝑅
𝑉
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑅 [1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 ]----------- (2)
𝑡
𝑉
OR 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑅 [1 − 𝑒 −𝜏 ]----------- (3)
𝐿
Where τ = 𝑅 is called as time constant of R-L circuit.
𝑡
𝑉 𝑉 –( )
In the above equation (3), the steady state part is , and the transient part is ( 𝑅) e 𝜏
𝑅

The time response of current in the circuit is as shown in figure below.

(ii) Response of an R-C circuit:

Consider an R-C series circuit as shown in figure with “S” and applied DC voltage “V”

S R C

It

DC
Vin

Series RC Circuit
When switched “S” is closed at t=0, referring to the circuit and writing balance equation using
Kirchhoff’s voltage law in terms of instantaneous values, we get,
1
V = i(t)R + 𝐶 ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 ----------------------- (4)
Hence taking Laplace and inverse Laplace transform of the equation (4), we get,
1
V
i(t) = 𝑅 e– (𝐶𝑅)t --------------------- (5)
or

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𝑡
V
i(t) = 𝑅 e– (𝜏)----------------(6)
Where τ = CR is called as time constant of R-C circuit.
The time response of current in the circuit is as shown in figure below.

(iii) Response of an R-L-C circuit:

Consider an R-L-C series circuit as shown in figure with “S” and applied DC voltage “V”.
S R C
L

It

DC
Vin

Series RLC Circuit

When switched “S” is closed at t=0, referring to the circuit and writing balance equation using
Kirchhoff’s voltage law in terms of instantaneous values, we get,
𝑑i(t) 1
V = i(t)R + L 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 ------------------- (7)
Hence taking Laplace and inverse Laplace transform of the equation (7), we get,

i(t) = K1𝑒 𝑆1𝑡 + K2𝑒 𝑆2𝑡 ---------------------------(8)

𝑅 𝑅 1
Where S1, S2 = - ± √( )2 - ----------------- (9)
2𝐿 𝐿 𝐿𝐶
The nature of the response depends on the nature of the roots and the natures of roots depend on
term under the radial sign.
Case-1
𝑅 1
If (2𝐿)2 > 𝐿𝐶 , the roots S1 & S2 are real, positive and unequal. The response of such a case is
known as over damped as shown in figure.

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Case-2
𝑅 1
If (2𝐿)2 = 𝐿𝐶 , the roots S1 & S2 are equal. The response of such a case is known as critical
damped as shown in figure.

Case-3
𝑅 1
If (2𝐿)2 < 𝐿𝐶 , the roots S1 & S2 are in complex conjugate form. The response of such a case is
known as under damped as shown in figure.

Response of series circuit to sinusoidal excitation:

Response of an R-L series circuit: Let v = Vm sin(ωt + φ) where φ varies from 0-2π depending
on the switching instant. Application of KVL at 𝑡 = 0+ in the figure below after the switch is
closed, gives
di
Ri + L = Vm sin(ωt + φ)
dt
After solving the above equation we get,

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−R Vm ωL Vm ωL
i = e L t [− sin (φ − tan−1 )] + [ sin (ωt + φ − tan−1 )]
√R2 + ω2 L2 R √R2 + ω2 L2 R

Response of an R-C series circuit: Let v = Vm sin(ωt + φ) is applied to the circuit. Application
of KVL in the series R-C circuit to the figure yields
1
Ri + C ∫ i dt = Vm sin(ωt + φ)
After solving the above equation, we get,

−1 Vm Vm 1
i = eRCt sinφ − sin (φ + tan−1 )
R ωRC
√R2 + ( 1 )2
[ ωC ]

Vm 1
+ sin (ωt + φ + tan−1 )
1 2 ωRC
√ 2
[ R + (ωC) ]

Response of an R-L-C series circuit: Let v = Vm sin(ωt + φ) is applied to the circuit.

Application of KVL in the series R-C circuit to the figure yields
di 1
Ri + L dt + C ∫ i dt = Vm sin(ωt + φ)
After solving the above equation, we get,
R 1
Case 1: over damped case, when (2L)2 > LC
1
Vm − ωL
αt βt −βt −1 ωC
i = e (C1 e + C2 e )+ sin (ωt + φ + tan )
1 R
√R2 + (ωC − ωL)2

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R 1
Case 2: under damped case, when (2L)2 < LC

1
Vm − ωL
i = eαt (C1 cosβt + C2 sinβt) + sin (ωt + φ + tan−1 ωC )
R
√R2 + ( 1 − ωL)2
ωC
R 1
Case 3: critically damped case, when (2L)2 = LC

1
Vm − ωL
i = eαt (C1 + C2 t) + sin (ωt + φ + tan−1 ωC )
R
√R2 + ( 1 − ωL)2
ωC

The values for R, L, and C are

50Ω, 120mH, 0.01µF
respectively.

PROGRAM QUESTIONS
Q: Plot the growth and decay of voltage and current in RL and RLC Circuit excited by DC
supply
Q: Plot different damping conditions in the response of a RLC circuit excited by DC supply.
Q: Plot the change in current and voltage in RL, RC circuits excited by AC supply.

CONCLUSION

ASSIGNMENT
1. What is transient state & steady state?
2. What is a time constant and how it affects a system?
3. How the transients can be minimised?
4. What are the characteristics of the roots of the denominator of current function for different
cases for series R-L-C circuit when subjected to step input?
5. What do you mean by the initial conditions of the passive elements?
6. How solving transients in Laplace domain takes care of the initial conditions? Explain with a
suitable example.

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