MICROBIAL DIVERSITY (BMCBMAJ02T)

Semester II | MAJ-2 | Credits: 6

UNIT 3: ALGAE
No. of Hours: 10

1. Introduction to Algae
Algae (singular: alga) are a large, diverse group of photosynthetic, eukaryotic (and some prokaryotic)
organisms. They are not a formal taxonomic group but a polyphyletic assemblage unified by their ability
to perform oxygenic photosynthesis. Algae are primarily aquatic and represent one of the most
ecologically significant groups of organisms on Earth, forming the base of aquatic food chains and
contributing approximately 50% of global oxygen production.

Quick Facts at a Glance

Study of Algae Phycology (Algology)
Cell Type Mostly Eukaryotic; Cyanobacteria are prokaryotic
Photosynthesis Oxygenic (produce O₂)
Organization Unicellular, colonial, filamentous, or multicellular
Size Range Microscopic (1μm) to macroscopic (60m kelp)
Habitat Aquatic (fresh & marine), moist terrestrial, snow, hot springs
Oxygen Contribution ~50% of Earth’s total oxygen production

2. Habitat and Distribution

A. Aquatic Habitats
• Freshwater: Lakes, ponds, rivers, streams (e.g., Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, Volvox)
• Marine: Oceans and seas — planktonic (phytoplankton) and benthic (attached) forms
• Brackish water: Estuaries and mangrove regions

B. Terrestrial & Extreme Habitats

• Moist soil, bark of trees, damp walls, and moist rocks
• Cryophilic algae: Found on snow and ice (e.g., Chlamydomonas nivalis — red snow)
• Thermophilic algae: Found in hot springs (up to 70°C)
• Desert soil crust: Contribute to soil stabilization
• Symbiotic habitats: Lichens (algae + fungi), coral reefs (Zooxanthellae)
3. Structure of Algae
A. Cell Wall
• Composed of cellulose (most algae), pectin, algin (brown algae), carrageenan (red algae)
• Diatoms: Wall made of silica (silicon dioxide) — called frustule, with two overlapping halves
(epitheca & hypotheca)
• Dinoflagellates: Armored with cellulosic plates (thecae)

B. Chloroplast & Pigments

Algae contain diverse photosynthetic pigments, which is the basis of their classification:
Pigments by Algal Group
Green Algae (Chlorophyta) Chlorophyll a, b; β-carotene; xanthophylls
Red Algae (Rhodophyta) Chlorophyll a; phycoerythrin (red); phycocyanin
Brown Algae (Phaeophyta) Chlorophyll a, c; fucoxanthin (brown/gold)
Diatoms (Bacillariophyta) Chlorophyll a, c; fucoxanthin
Dinoflagellates Chlorophyll a, c; peridinin
Euglenophyta Chlorophyll a, b; carotenoids

C. Reserve Food Material

• Green Algae: Starch (same as higher plants)
• Brown Algae: Laminarin (polysaccharide) and mannitol
• Red Algae: Floridean starch (similar to glycogen)
• Diatoms: Chrysolaminarin and lipid oils

D. Flagella
• Used for motility in many unicellular and colonial algae
• Green algae: Whiplash (smooth) flagella — equal in length (isokont)
• Brown algae: One forward-pointing tinsel flagellum, one backward-pointing whiplash
• Red algae: Completely non-motile (no flagella at any stage)

4. Classification of Algae
Algae are broadly classified into several divisions based on pigmentation, cell wall chemistry, reserve
food, and flagella:

Division Common Name Pigments Reserve Food Examples

Chlorophyta Green Algae Chl a, b Starch Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas,
Volvox, Ulva, Chlorella
Rhodophyta Red Algae Chl a, Floridean starch Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gelidium,
 phycoerythrin Gracilaria
Phaeophyta Brown Algae Chl a, c; Laminarin, Fucus, Sargassum, Laminaria,
fucoxanthin mannitol Macrocystis
Bacillariophyta Diatoms Chl a, c; Chrysolaminarin Navicula, Pinnularia, Cyclotella,
fucoxanthin Nitzschia
Dinophyta Dinoflagellates Chl a, c; Starch, oils Ceratium, Noctiluca, Gonyaulax,
peridinin Symbiodinium
Euglenophyta Euglenoids Chl a, b Paramylon Euglena, Phacus, Trachelomonas
Chrysophyta Golden-brown Chl a, c; Chrysolaminarin Ochromonas, Chrysamoeba
fucoxanthin

5. Reproduction in Algae
Algae exhibit three main methods of reproduction, often showing all three within the same organism
depending on environmental conditions:

A. Vegetative Reproduction (Asexual — No Spores)

• Fragmentation: Thallus breaks into pieces, each regenerates (e.g., Spirogyra, Ulothrix)
• Cell division (fission): Simple binary fission in unicellular algae (e.g., Diatoms, Chlamydomonas)
• Budding: In some unicellular algae
• Hormogonia: Short fragments with specialized intercalary cells (in filamentous cyanobacteria)

B. Asexual Reproduction (Spore Formation)

• Zoospores: Flagellated, motile spores (e.g., Chlamydomonas, Ulothrix) — formed in
zoosporangia
• Aplanospores: Non-motile, thin-walled spores (e.g., Chlorella)
• Autospores: Miniature versions of parent cell (e.g., Chlorella)
• Akinetes: Thick-walled resting spores resistant to harsh conditions (e.g., Cladophora)
• Hypnospores: Thick-walled dormant spores (in Chlamydomonas)
• Tetraspores: In red algae (Polysiphonia) — produced in tetrasporangia

C. Sexual Reproduction
• Isogamy: Fusion of morphologically identical gametes (e.g., Spirogyra by scalariform / lateral
conjugation)
• Anisogamy: Fusion of morphologically different gametes (one larger, both motile) (e.g., Ulva)
• Oogamy: Fusion of large non-motile egg with small motile sperm (e.g., Volvox, Fucus,
Oedogonium)

D. Alternation of Generations
• Haplontic: Dominant haploid thallus; diploid only as zygote (e.g., Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas)
• Diplontic: Dominant diploid thallus; haploid only as gametes (e.g., Fucus, Diatoms)
 • Diplobiontic (Alternation of Generations): Both haploid gametophyte & diploid sporophyte are
multicellular (e.g., Ulva lactuca — isomorphic alternation)

6. Important Genera (Detailed Study)

A. Spirogyra (Conjugating Green Algae)
• Habitat: Freshwater ponds and slow streams; forms bright green masses
• Structure: Unbranched filamentous alga; cells cylindrical with spiral chloroplasts
• Chloroplast: Ribbon-like, spiral, with multiple pyrenoids (starch synthesis centers)
• Reproduction: Vegetative (fragmentation), Asexual (rare aplanospores), Sexual (conjugation)
• Conjugation types: Scalariform conjugation (between two filaments) and Lateral conjugation
(within same filament)
• Zygospore: Thick-walled resistant structure formed after conjugation

B. Chlamydomonas (Unicellular Green Alga)

• Habitat: Freshwater, soil, snow (Chlamydomonas nivalis — causes 'red snow')
• Structure: Unicellular; ovoid/pear-shaped; 2 equal apical flagella; cup-shaped chloroplast with
pyrenoid
• Has eyespot (stigma): Photoreceptor for phototaxis
• Asexual: Produces 2, 4, 8 or 16 zoospores or aplanospores within mother cell wall
• Sexual: Isogamy (+ and - mating types) or anisogamy; forms zygospore (4n→2n after meiosis)
• Palmella stage: Cells lose flagella and secrete mucilage — adaptation to adverse conditions

C. Volvox (Colonial Green Alga)

• Habitat: Freshwater ponds and ditches
• Structure: Hollow spherical colony (coenobium) of 500–60,000 biflagellate cells embedded in
gelatinous matrix
• Cell types: Somatic (vegetative) cells connected by cytoplasmic strands; Gonidia (reproductive
cells — larger, internal)
• Division of labor: Vegetative cells handle photosynthesis and movement; gonidia handle
reproduction
• Asexual: Daughter colonies (daughter spheroids) formed by gonidia; inverted during
development (inversion process)
• Sexual: Oogamous; antheridial cells produce sperm; oospheres (eggs) fertilized to form
zygospores
• Significance: Represents transition from unicellularity to multicellularity — model organism for
this study
7. Economic Importance of Algae
A. Beneficial Roles
• Food for humans: Porphyra (nori) used in sushi; Ulva (sea lettuce); Chlorella — protein-rich
health food supplement
• Animal feed: Algae used as feed for livestock, poultry, and aquaculture fish
• Photosynthesis & O₂ production: Phytoplankton contribute ~50% of global O₂; major CO₂ sink
• Fertilizers: Cyanobacteria (e.g., Anabaena, Nostoc) fix atmospheric nitrogen; blue-green algae
used as biofertilizers in rice paddies
• Agar production: From Gelidium and Gracilaria (red algae); used in microbiology culture media,
food industry (jellies, ice cream)
• Alginates: From Laminaria and Macrocystis (brown algae); used as thickeners, emulsifiers in
food, pharmaceuticals, textiles, and paper
• Carrageenan: From Chondrus crispus (Irish moss); used as stabilizer and emulsifier in dairy
products, cosmetics
• Biofuel production: Algal oils (lipids) used for biodiesel; high lipid content in Chlorella,
Nannochloropsis
• Pharmaceutical applications: Chlorella produces interferon-like substances; algae produce
antifungal, antibacterial compounds
• Diatomaceous earth: Silica-rich diatom frustules used as abrasives, filtration media, insecticides
• Water quality indicators: Algal bloom presence/absence indicates eutrophication; diatoms are
bioindicators of water quality
• Carbon cycling: Major producers in aquatic ecosystems; basis of aquatic food webs

B. Harmful Roles
• Algal blooms: Explosive growth (eutrophication) depletes dissolved O₂, causing fish kills
• Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs): Toxic species like Karenia brevis (red tide), Alexandrium
(paralytic shellfish poisoning)
• Water contamination: Algae impart unpleasant taste and odor to drinking water; block filters
• Biofouling: Marine algae colonize ship hulls, increasing drag and corrosion
• Toxic cyanobacteria: Microcystis, Anabaena produce hepatotoxins and neurotoxins dangerous
to livestock and humans
• Nuisance growth: Spirogyra, Cladophora form dense mats that clog irrigation channels and
waterways

8. Comparison of Major Algal Groups

Feature Green Algae Brown Algae Red Algae
Pigments Chl a, b; carotenoids Chl a, c; fucoxanthin Chl a; phycoerythrin,
phycocyanin
Color Green Brown/Olive-green Red/Purplish
Reserve food Starch Laminarin, mannitol Floridean starch
Cell wall Cellulose Cellulose + algin Cellulose + carrageenan
Flagella 2 equal whiplash 2 unequal (tinsel + Absent (no flagella)
whiplash)
Habitat Freshwater & marine Mainly marine (cold) Mainly marine (warm,
deep)
Thallus Simple to complex Complex Complex (pseudo-
(parenchymatous) parenchymatous)
Examples Spirogyra, Volvox, Ulva Fucus, Kelp, Sargassum Porphyra, Gracilaria,
Polysiphonia

9. Key Terms & Definitions

Glossary
Phycology Scientific study of algae
Thallus Undifferentiated plant body lacking true roots, stems, leaves
Pyrenoid Protein body in chloroplast associated with starch synthesis (CO₂
fixation center)
Coenobium Colony with a definite number of cells (e.g., Volvox)
Frustule Silicified cell wall of diatoms with two halves (epitheca & hypotheca)
Conjugation Sexual reproduction in Spirogyra by transfer of contents between
filaments
Zoospore Flagellated, motile asexual spore
Akinete Thick-walled resting spore resistant to unfavorable conditions
Phytoplankton Microscopic photosynthetic organisms floating in aquatic systems
Eutrophication Excessive nutrient enrichment causing algal blooms and O₂
depletion
Gonidia Reproductive cells in Volvox colony
Stigma (Eyespot) Photoreceptor organelle in motile algae for light detection
Algin/Alginate Polysaccharide from brown algae; commercial thickening agent
HABs Harmful Algal Blooms — toxic algal proliferations affecting aquatic
health
Bioindicator Organism used to assess environmental quality (diatoms for water
quality)

10. Important Questions for Exam Preparation

Short Answer (2–5 marks):
• What is the ecological significance of algae?
• Describe the structure of Spirogyra with a diagram.
• What are pyrenoids? State their function.
• Differentiate between isogamy, anisogamy, and oogamy.
• Name two red algae and their commercial uses.
 • What is alternation of generations? Give an example from algae.
• Write a note on diatomaceous earth and its uses.

Long Answer (10 marks):

• Describe the general characteristics, habitat, structure, and reproduction of algae with suitable
examples.
• Give a detailed account of the economic importance of algae.
• Write an essay on Volvox highlighting its structure, reproduction, and evolutionary significance.
• Compare and contrast green, brown, and red algae with respect to pigments, cell wall, reserve
food, and reproduction.
• Describe sexual reproduction in Spirogyra. Why is it called conjugation?

BMCBMAJ02T — Microbial Diversity | Unit 3: Algae | Semester II