UNIT II- PHRASES AND ITS TYPES

Types of Phrases
A phrase is a group of related words (within a sentence) without both subject and verb. For
example, He is laughing at the joker.
A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence. The function
of a phrase depends on its construction (words it contains). On the basis of their functions and
constructions, phrases are divided into various types i.e. noun phrase, verb phrase, adverb
phrase, adjective phrase, appositive phrase, infinite phrase, participle phrase and gerund
phrase.

Noun Phrase
A noun phrase consists of a noun and other related words (usually modifiers and determiners)
which modify the noun. It functions like a noun in a sentence.

A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually modifiers and
determiners) which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase works as a noun in a
sentence.

Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers (the modifiers can be after or before noun)
Examples.
He is wearing a nice red shirt. (as noun/object)
She brought a glass full of water. (as noun/object)
The boy with brown hair is laughing. (as noun/subject)
A man on the roof was shouting. (as noun/subject)
A sentence can also contain more noun phrases.
For example. The girl with blue eyes bought a beautiful chair.
Prepositional phrase.
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, object of preposition(noun or pronoun) and
may also consist of other modifiers.
e.g. on a table, near a wall, in the room, at the door, under a tree

A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun.
Whatever prepositional phrase ends with is called object of preposition. A prepositional phrase
functions as an adjective or adverb in a sentence.
Examples.
A boy on the roof is singing a song. (As adjective)
The man in the room is our teacher. (As adjective)
She is shouting in a loud voice. (As adverb)
He always behaves in a good manner. (As adverb)
Adjective Phrase.
An adjective phrase is a group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence. It
consists of adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun.
An adjective phrase functions like an adjective to modify (or tell about) a noun or a pronoun in a
sentence.

Examples.
He is wearing a nice red shirt. (modifies shirt)
The girl with brown hair is singing a song. (modifies girl)
He gave me a glass full of water. (modifies glass)
A boy from America won the race. (modifies boy)

Prepositional phrases and participle phrases also function as adjectives so we can also call them
adjective phrases when they function as adjective. In the above sentence “The girl with brown
hair is singing a song”, the phrase “with brown hair” is a prepositional phrase but it functions as
an adjective.

Adverb Phrase
An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It consists of
adverbs or other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that make a group with works like an
adverb in a sentence.
An adverb phrase functions like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

Examples
He always behaves in a good manner. (modifies verb behave)
They were shouting in a loud voice. (modifies verb shout)
She always drives with care. (modifies verb drive)
He sat in a corner of the room. (modifies verb sit)
He returned in a short while. (modifies verb return)
A prepositional phrase can also act as an adverb phrase. For example in above sentence “He
always behaves in a good manner”, the phrase “in a good manner” is a prepositional phrase but it
acts as adverb phrase here.

Verb Phrase
A verb phrase is a combination of main verb and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence.
Examples.
He is eating an apple.
She has finished her work.
You should study for the exam.
She has been sleeping for two hours.
According to generative grammar, a verb phrase can consist of main verb, its auxiliaries, its
complements and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the whole predicate of a sentence.
Example. You should study for the exam.

Infinitive Phrase
An infinitive phrase consist of an infinitive(to + simple form of verb) and modifiers or other
words associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase always functions as an adjective, adverb
or a noun in a sentence.

Examples.
He likes to read books. (As noun/object)
To earn money is a desire of everyone. (As noun/subject)
He shouted to inform people about fire. (As adverb, modifies verb shout)
He made a plan to buy a car. (As adjective, modifies noun plan)

Gerund Phrase
A gerund phrase consists of a gerund(verb + ing) and modifiers or other words associated with
the gerund. A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a sentence.

Examples
I like writing good essays. (As noun/object)
She started thinking about the problem. (As noun/object)
Sleeping late in night is not a good habit. (As noun/subject)
Weeping of a baby woke him up. (As noun/subject)

Participle Phrase
A participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb ending
in -ed or other form in case of irregular verbs) and modifiers or other associate words. A
participle phrase is separated by commas. It always acts as an adjective in a sentence.

Examples
The kids, making a noise, need food. (modifies kids)
I received a letter, mentioning about my exam. (modifies letter)
The table, made of steel, is too expensive. (modifies table)
We saw a car, damaged in an accident. (modifies car)

Absolute Phrase
Absolute phrase (also called nominative phrase) is a group of words including a noun or pronoun
and a participle as well as any associated modifiers. Absolute phrase modifies (give information
about) the entire sentence. It resembles a clause but it lack a true finite verb. It is separated by a
comma or pairs of commas from the rest sentence.
 Examples
He looks sad, his face expressing worry.
She was waiting for her friend, her eyes on the clock.
John is painting a wall, his shirt dirty with paint.

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CLAUSES

Understanding clauses in English is a fundamental part of learning grammar,

especially when preparing for the IELTS test. Clauses come in various forms,
so organizing your knowledge clearly will help you score higher and express
your ideas effectively.
In this article, IDP will guide you through the definitions and functions of
different types of English clauses.

1. What Is a Clause?
A clause is a basic grammatical unit that contains a subject and a verb,
working together to express a complete or partial idea. Sometimes, a clause
also includes a complement or an object to provide full meaning.
Examples:
 I will buy it if it is on discount.
 Yesterday I played games with my brother.

2. Main Types of Clauses in English

Clauses in English are mainly divided into two categories:
 Independent Clauses
 Dependent Clauses
 2.1. Independent Clause
An independent clause (also called a main clause) contains a subject and a
predicate and can stand alone as a complete sentence. It may also be joined
with other clauses to form compound or complex sentences.

Examples:
 He sings beautifully.
 They have gone to the museum.
You can combine independent clauses in two ways:
 By using subordinating conjunctions such as although, despite, unless,
while to create complex sentences.
Example: Singapore invested up to 3 million USD in tourism, while Vietnam
only invested 1 million USD.
 By using coordinating conjunctions such as and, but, or, for, yet to
create compound sentences.
Example: Drinking water is good for our health, yet many people rarely drink
enough water per day.

2.2. Dependent Clause

A dependent clause (also called a subordinate clause) cannot stand alone
and must be connected to an independent clause to form a complete
sentence. It provides additional information such as time, reason, condition, or
description.
 Example:
 I will call you back when I finish my meeting.
➡ When I finish my meeting is a dependent clause that adds time information
to the main clause I will call you back.
Dependent clauses help form complex sentences and are usually connected
using subordinating conjunctions (although, despite, unless, while) or relative
pronouns/adverbs (who, which, where).

Example:
 The girl who is wearing a red dress is my sister. → Who is wearing a red
dress is a relative clause that describes the noun the girl.

3. Common Types of Dependent Clauses

There are four major types of dependent clauses in English:
 Noun Clauses
 Adverbial Clauses
 Adjective Clauses
 Conditional Clauses
3.1. Noun Clause
A noun clause (also called a nominal clause) functions as a noun in the
sentence. It can act as a subject, object, or complement.
Noun clauses usually begin with question words (what, where, why, who,
when, whose) or subordinating conjunctions like that, whether, if.
Example:
 What she said surprised everyone.
 3.2. Adverbial Clause
An adverbial clause modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb. It gives
information about time, reason, purpose, condition, or result.
Common subordinating conjunctions for adverbial clauses include when,
where, while, as, so that, because, if.
Examples:
 If you work hard, you will succeed.
 When I arrived, the party had already started.

3.3. Adjective Clause

An adjective clause (also called a relative clause) acts as an adjective that
describes a noun. It often begins with relative pronouns/adverbs such
as who, whom, which, that, whose, when, where, why.
Examples:
 The house which is painted blue belongs to my friend.
 She loves dresses that have floral patterns.
3.4. Conditional Clause
A conditional clause describes a condition that must be fulfilled for
something to happen. It usually starts with if, unless, provided that, in
case and is combined with an independent clause to form a complete
sentence.
Examples:
 Unless you hurry, you will miss the train.
 If she had studied harder, she would have passed the exam.
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Fragments and Run-ons

What this handout is about
If instructors have ever returned your papers with “frag,” “S.F.,” “R.O.,” or “run-on” written in the margin,
you may find this handout useful. It will help you locate and correct sentence fragments and run-ons.

The basics
Before we get to the problems and how to fix them, let’s take a minute to review some information that is so
basic you’ve probably forgotten it.

What is a complete sentence? A complete sentence is not merely a group of words with a capital letter at the
beginning and a period or question mark at the end. A complete sentence has three components:

1. a subject (the actor in the sentence)

2. a predicate (the verb or action), and
3. a complete thought (it can stand alone and make sense—it’s independent).

Some sentences can be very short, with only two or three words expressing a complete thought, like this:

They waited.

This sentence has a subject (They) and a verb (waited), and it expresses a complete thought. We can
understand the idea completely with just those two words, so again, it’s independent—an independent clause.
But independent clauses (i.e., complete sentences) can be expanded to contain a lot more information, like this:

They waited for the bus all morning.

They waited for the bus all morning in the rain last Tuesday.

Wishing they’d brought their umbrella, they waited for the bus all morning in the rain last Tuesday.

Wishing they’d brought their umbrella and dreaming of their nice warm bed, they waited for the bus
all morning in the rain last Tuesday, determined to make it to class for their test.

As your sentences grow more complicated, it gets harder to spot and stay focused on the basic elements of a
complete sentence, but if you look carefully at the examples above, you’ll see that the main thought is still that
they waited—one main subject and one main verb. No matter how long or short the other sentence parts are,
none of them can stand alone and make sense.

Being able to find the main subject, the main verb, and the complete thought is the first trick to learn for
identifying fragments and run-ons.

Sentence fragments
A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence. Some fragments are incomplete because they lack either a
subject or a verb, or both. The fragments that most students have trouble with, however, are dependent clauses
—they have a subject and a verb, so they look like complete sentences, but they don’t express a complete
thought. They’re called “dependent” because they can’t stand on their own (just like some people you might
know who are SO dependent!). Look at these dependent clauses. They’re just begging for more information to
make the thoughts complete:

Because their car was in the shop (…What did they do?)

After the rain stops (…What then?)

When you finally take the test (…What will happen?)

Since you asked (…Will you get the answer?)

If you want to go with me (…What should you do?)

Does each of these examples have a subject? Yes. Does each have a verb? Yes. So what makes the thought
incomplete? It’s the first word (Because, After, When, Since, If). These words belong to a special class of
words called subordinators or subordinating conjunctions. If you know something about subordinating
conjunctions, you can probably eliminate 90% of your fragments.

First, you need to know that subordinating conjunctions do three things:

1. join two sentences together

2. make one of the sentences dependent on the other for a complete thought (make one a dependent
clause)
3. indicate a logical relationship
Second, you need to recognize the subordinators when you see them. Here is a list of common subordinating
conjunctions and the relationships they indicate:

 Cause / Effect: because, since, so that

 Comparison / Contrast: although, even though, though, whereas, while
 Place & Manner: how, however, where, wherever
 Possibility / Conditions: if, whether, unless
 Relation: that, which, who
 Time: after, as, before, since, when, whenever, while, until

Third, you need to know that the subordinator (and the whole dependent clause) doesn’t have to be at the
beginning of the sentence. The dependent clause and the independent clause can switch places, but the whole
clause moves as one big chunk. Look at how these clauses switched places in the sentence:

Because their car was in the shop, they took the bus.

They took the bus because their car was in the shop.

Finally, you need to know that every dependent clause needs to be attached to an independent clause
(remember, the independent clause can stand on its own).

How do you find and fix your fragments? Remember the basics: subject, verb, and complete thought. If you
can recognize those things, you’re halfway there. Then, scan your sentences for subordinating conjunctions. If
you find one, first identify the whole chunk of the dependent clause (the subject and verb that go with the
subordinator), and then make sure they’re attached to an independent clause.

They took the bus. (Independent clause. So far, all is well!)

Because their car was in the shop. (Dependent clause all by itself. Uh oh! Fragment!)

They took the bus because their car was in the shop.

Run-ons
These are also called fused sentences. You are making a run-on when you put two complete sentences (a
subject and its predicate and another subject and its predicate) together in one sentence without separating
them properly. Here’s an example of a run-on:

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus it is very garlicky.

This one sentence actually contains two complete sentences. But in the rush to get that idea out, I made it into
one incorrect sentence. Luckily, there are many ways to correct this run-on sentence.

You could use a semicolon:

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus; it is very garlicky.

You could use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so):

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus, for it is very garlicky. -OR- My favorite Mediterranean
spread is hummus, and it is very garlicky.

You could use a subordinating conjunction (see above):

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus because it is very garlicky. -OR- Because it is so

garlicky, my favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus.

You could make it into two separate sentences with a period in between:

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus. It is very garlicky.

You could use an em-dash (a long dash) for emphasis:

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus—it is very garlicky.

NOTE: You CANNOT simply add a comma between the two sentences, or you’ll end up with what’s called a
“comma splice.” Here’s an example of a comma splice:

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus, it is very garlicky.

You can fix a comma splice the same way you fix a run-on—either change the punctuation or add a
conjunction. The good news is that writers tend to be either comma splicers or run-on artists, but almost never
both. Which one are you? If you have particular trouble with comma splices, try looking at our handout
on commas.

Finding run-ons
As you can see, fixing run-ons is pretty easy once you see them—but how do you find out if a sentence is a
run-on if you aren’t sure? Rei R. Noguchi, in his book Grammar and the Teaching of Writing, recommends
two methods for testing your sentences. Try these two tests:

1. Turn your sentences into yes/no questions.

 2. Turn your sentences into tag questions (sentences that end with a questioning phrase at the very end—
look at our examples below).

These are two things that nearly everyone can do easily if the sentence is not a run-on, but they become next to
impossible if it is.

Look at the following sentence:

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus.

If you turn it into a question that someone could answer with a yes or no, it looks like this:

Is my favorite Mediterranean spread hummus?

If you turn it into a tag question, it looks like this:

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus, isn’t it?

The first sentence is complete and not a run-on, because our test worked.

Now, look again at the original run-on sentence:

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus it is very garlicky.

The yes/no question can only be made with each separate thought, not the sentence as a whole:

Is my favorite Mediterranean spread hummus? Is it very garlicky?

But not:

Is my favorite Mediterranean spread hummus is it very garlicky?

The tag question can also only be made with each separate thought, rather than the whole:

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus, isn’t it? It’s very garlicky, isn’t it?

But never:

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus it is very garlicky, isn’t it?

Unlike the complete sentence, the run-on sentence doesn’t pass these tests. When you try to turn the run-on
sentence into a single question, you immediately see that the sentence has more than one complete concept.
Make sure you try both tests with each of your problem sentences, because you may trick yourself by just
putting a tag on the last part and not noticing that it doesn’t work on the first. Some people might not notice
that “My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus it is very garlicky isn’t it?” is wrong, but most people will
spot the yes/no question problem right away.

Every once in a while, you or your instructor will see a really long sentence and think it’s a run-on when it
isn’t. Really long sentences can be tiring but not necessarily wrong—just make sure that yours aren’t wrong by
using the tests above.

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UNIT III- MECHANICS

Capitalization Rules

Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the
remaining letters in lowercase. Experienced writers are stingy with capitals. It
is best not to use them if there is any doubt.

Rule 1. Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a
period.

Rule 2. Capitalize proper nouns—and adjectives derived from proper nouns.

Examples:
the Golden Gate Bridge
the Grand Canyon
a Russian song
a Shakespearean sonnet
a Freudian slip
 With the passage of time, some words originally derived from proper nouns
have taken on a life, and authority, of their own and no longer require
capitalization.

Examples:
herculean (from the mythological hero Hercules)
quixotic (from the hero of the classic novel Don Quixote)
draconian (from ancient-Athenian lawgiver Draco)

The main function of capitals is to focus attention on particular elements within

any group of people, places, or things. We can speak of a lake in the middle
of the country, or we can be more specific and say Lake Michigan, which
distinguishes it from every other lake on earth.

Capitalization Reference List

 Brand names
 Companies
 Days of the week and months of the year
 Governmental matters
Congress (but congressional), the U.S. Constitution (but constitutional), the
Electoral College, Department of Agriculture. Note: Many authorities do not
capitalize federal or state unless it is part of the official title: State Water
Resources Control Board, but state water board; Federal Communications
Commission, but federal regulations.
 Historical episodes and eras
the Inquisition, the American Revolutionary War, the Great Depression
 Holidays
 Institutions
Oxford College, the Juilliard School of Music
 Manmade structures
the Empire State Building, the Eiffel Tower, the Titanic
 Manmade territories
Berlin, Montana, Cook County
 Natural and manmade landmarks
Mount Everest, the Hoover Dam
 Nicknames and epithets
Andrew "Old Hickory" Jackson; Babe Ruth, the Sultan of Swat
 Organizations
American Center for Law and Justice, Norwegian Ministry of the Environment
 Planets
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, but policies vary on
capitalizing earth, and it is usually not capitalized unless it is being discussed
specifically as a planet: We learned that Earth travels through space at
66,700 miles per hour.
 Races, nationalities, and tribes
Eskimo, Navajo, East Indian, Caucasian, African American
 Religions and names of deities
Note: Capitalize the Bible (but biblical). Do not capitalize heaven, hell, the
devil, satanic.
 Special occasions
the Olympic Games, the Cannes Film Festival
 Streets and roads

Lowercase Reference List

Here is a list of categories not capitalized unless an item contains a proper

noun or proper adjective (or, sometimes, a trademark). In such cases, only the
proper noun or adjective is capitalized.

 Animals
antelope, black bear, Bengal tiger, yellow-bellied sapsucker, German
shepherd
 Elements
Always lowercase, even when the name is derived from a proper
noun: einsteinium, nobelium, californium
 Foods
Lowercase except for brand names, proper nouns and adjectives, or custom-
named recipes: Tabasco sauce, Russian dressing, pepper crusted bluefin
tuna, Mandy's Bluefin Surprise
 Heavenly bodies besides planets
Never capitalize the moon or the sun.
 Medical conditions
Epstein-Barr syndrome, tuberculosis, Parkinson's disease
 Minerals
 Plants, vegetables, and fruits
poinsettia, Douglas fir, Jerusalem artichoke, organic celery, Golden Delicious
apples
 Seasons and seasonal data
spring, summertime, the winter solstice, the autumnal equinox, daylight saving
time

Rule 3. A thorny aspect of capitalization: where does it stop? When does

the Iraq war become the Iraq War? Why is the legendary Hope Diamond not
the Hope diamond? Everyone writes New York City, so why does
the Associated Press Stylebook recommend New York state? There aren't
always easy formulas or logical explanations. Research with reference books
and search engines is the best strategy.

In the case of brand names, companies are of little help, because they
capitalize any word that applies to their merchandise. Domino's
Pizza or Domino's pizza? Is it Ivory Soap or Ivory soap, a Hilton Hotel or
a Hilton hotel? Most writers don't capitalize common nouns that simply
describe the products (pizza, soap, hotel), but it's not always easy to
determine where a brand name ends. There is Time magazine but also
the New York Times Magazine. No one would argue with Coca-Cola or Pepsi
Cola, but a case could be made for Royal Crown cola.

If a trademark starts with a lowercase word or letter (e.g., eBay, iPhone),

many authorities advise capitalizing it to begin a sentence.

Example: EBay opened strong in trading today.

Rule 4. Capitalize titles when they are used before names, unless the title is
followed by a comma. Do not capitalize the title if it is used after a name or
instead of a name.

Examples:
The president will address Congress.
Chairman of the Board William Bly will preside at the conference.
The chairman of the board, William Bly, will preside.
The senators from Iowa and Ohio are expected to attend.
Also expected to attend are Senators Buzz James and Eddie Twain.
The governors, lieutenant governors, and attorneys general called for a
special task force.
Governor Fortinbrass, Lieutenant Governor Poppins, and Attorney
General Dalloway will attend.

NOTE

Out of respect, some writers and publishers choose to capitalize the highest
ranks in government, royalty, religion, etc.

Examples:
The President arrived.
The Queen spoke.
The Pope decreed.
Many American writers believe this to be a wrongheaded policy in a country
where, theoretically, all humans are perceived as equal.

Rule 5. Titles are not the same as occupations. Do not capitalize occupations
before full names.

Examples:
director Steven Spielberg
owner Helen Smith
coach Biff Sykes

Sometimes the line between title and occupation gets blurred. One example
is general manager: is it a title or an occupation? Opinions differ. Same
with professor: the Associated Press Stylebook considers professor a job
description rather than a title, and recommends using lowercase even before
the full name: professor Robert Ames.

However, titles replacing someone's first name are generally capitalized.

Example: Here comes Professor Ames.

Rule 6a. Capitalize a formal title when it is used as a direct address. The
more formal the title, the more likely it is to be capitalized.

Examples:
Will you take my temperature, Doctor?
We're sorry to report, Captain, that we're headed for choppy waters.
That's what you say, mister.
Good afternoon, sweetheart.
Rule 6b. Capitalize relatives' family names (kinship names) when they
immediately precede a personal name, or when they are used alone in place
of a personal name.

Examples:
I found out that Mom is here.
You look good, Grandpa.
Andy and Opie loved Aunt Bee's apple pies.

However, these monikers are not capitalized when they are used with
possessive nouns or pronouns; when preceded by articles such as a, an,
or the; when they follow the personal name; or when they do not refer to a
specific person.

Examples:
I found out that my mom is here.
Joe's grandpa looks good.
He's the father of her first child.
The James brothers were notorious robbers.
There's not one mother I know who would allow that.

Rule 6c. Capitalize nicknames in all cases.

Examples:
Meet my brothers, Junior and Scooter.
I just met two guys named Junior and Scooter.

Rule 7. Capitalize specific geographical regions. Do not capitalize points of

the compass.

Examples:
We had three relatives visit from the West.
Go west three blocks and then turn left.
We left Florida and drove north.
 We live in the Southeast.
We live in the southeast section of town.
Most of the West Coast is rainy this time of year. (referring to the United
States)
The west coast of Scotland is rainy this time of year.

Some areas have come to be capitalized for their fame or notoriety:

Examples:
I'm from New York's Upper West Side.
I'm from the South Side of Chicago.
You live in Northern California; he lives in Southern California.

Rule 8. In general, do not capitalize the word the before proper nouns.

Examples:
We visited the Grand Canyon.
They're fans of the Grateful Dead.

In special cases, if the word the is an inseparable part of something's official

title, it may be capitalized.

Example: We visited The Hague.

Rule 9. It is not necessary to capitalize city, town, county, etc., if it comes

before the proper name.

Examples:
the city of New York
New York City
the county of Marin
Marin County
Rule 10a. Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even
midsentence.

Example: Lamarr said, "The case is far from over, and we will win."

Rule 10b. Do not capitalize quoted material that continues a sentence.

Example: Lamarr said that the case was "far from over" and that "we will
win."

Rule 11. For emphasis, writers sometimes capitalize a midsentence

independent clause or question.

Examples:
One of her cardinal rules was, Never betray a friend.
It made me wonder, What is mankind's destiny?

Rule 12. Capitalize the names of specific course titles, but not general
academic subjects.

Examples:
I must take history and Algebra 101.
He has a double major in European economics and philosophy.

Rule 13. Capitalize art movements.

Example: I like Surrealism, but I never understood Abstract

Expressionism.

Rule 14. Do not capitalize the first item in a list that follows a colon.

Example: Bring the following: paper, a pencil, and a snack.

 For more on capitalization after a colon, go to "Colons," Rules 1, 3, and 4.

Rule 15. Do not capitalize "the national anthem."

Rule 16a. Composition titles: which words should be capitalized in titles of

books, plays, films, songs, poems, essays, chapters, etc.? This is a vexing
matter, and policies vary. The usual advice is to capitalize only the "important"
words. But this isn't really very helpful. Aren't all words in a title important?

The following rules for capitalizing composition titles are virtually universal.

 Capitalize the title's first and last word.

 Capitalize all adjectives, adverbs, and nouns.
 Capitalize all pronouns (including it).
 Capitalize all verbs, including all forms of the state of being verbs
(am, is, are, was, will be, etc.).
 Capitalize no, not, and the interjection O (e.g., How Long Must I Wait, O
Lord?).
 Do not capitalize an article (a, an, the) unless it is first or last in the title.
 Do not capitalize a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, for, yet, so)
unless it is first or last in the title.
 Do not capitalize the word to, with or without an infinitive, unless it is first or
last in the title.

Otherwise, styles, methods, and opinions vary; for instance, certain short
conjunctions (e.g., as, if, how, that) are capped by some, lowercased by
others.

A major bone of contention is prepositions. The Associated Press

Stylebook recommends capitalizing all prepositions of more than three letters
(e.g., with, about, across). Other authorities advise lowercase until a
preposition reaches five or more letters. Still others say not to capitalize any
preposition, even big words like regarding or underneath.
Hyphenated words in a title also present problems. There are no set rules,
except to always capitalize the first element, even if it would not otherwise be
capitalized, such as to in My To-go Order (some would write My To-Go
Order). Some writers, editors, and publishers choose not to capitalize words
following hyphens unless they are proper nouns or proper adjectives (Ex-
Marine but Ex-husband). Others capitalize any word that would otherwise be
capped in titles (Prize-Winning, Up-to-Date).

Rule 16b. Many books have subtitles. When including these, put a colon after
the work's title and follow the same rules of composition capitalization for the
subtitle.

Example: The King's English: A Guide to Modern Usage

Note that A is capitalized because it is the first word of the subtitle.

Suppose you are reviewing a book whose title on the cover is in capital
letters: THE STUFF OF THOUGHT. Beneath, in smaller capital letters, is the
subtitle, LANGUAGE AS A WINDOW INTO HUMAN NATURE. All sides
would agree that the main title should be written, The Stuff of Thought. But
depending on which capitalization policy you choose, the subtitle might be any
of the following:

Language As a Window Into Human Nature

Language as a Window Into Human Nature
Language As a Window into Human Nature
Language as a Window into Human Nature

Any title of more than two words can be a challenge. How would you
capitalize a title such as not yet rich? Since the first and last word in any title
are always capitalized, the only question is whether to cap yet. In this
case, yet is an adverb, and adverbs are always capped. So make it Not Yet
Rich.
Now suppose the title is rich yet miserable. This time yet is one of the seven
coordinating conjunctions (the others are and, or, nor, but, for, and so). Since
coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized in titles, the right answer is Rich
yet Miserable.

Here are two correctly capitalized titles: Going up the Road and Going Up in a
Balloon. In the first title, up is a preposition, and short prepositions are not
capitalized. In the second title, Up is an adverb and should be capped.

Along the same lines, compare the following three titles: I Got It off the
Internet, Please Put It Off for Today, and I Hit the Off Switch. In the first
example, the preposition off is lowercase. But the word must be capped in the
second example because put off, meaning "to postpone," is a two-word
phrasal verb (a verb of two or more words). One-word verbs, helping verbs,
and phrasal verbs are always capitalized. Off is also capped in the third
sentence because the word functions as an adjective in that title, and
adjectives are always capitalized.

Although the seven coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized, you may
have noticed there are many more than seven conjunctions in English. Most
of these are called subordinating conjunctions, because they join a
subordinate clause to a main clause. Familiar examples
include as, although, before, since, until, when.

There are three approaches to capping subordinating conjunctions: capitalize

them all, lowercase them all, or capitalize them if they are words of four letters
or more. Take your pick.

//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
 PUNCTUATION MARKS
Language makes it possible for us to communicate effectively. But poor
grammar can completely lose everything you are trying to say. Marks of
punctuation are one of the most important aspects of written English, but they
are often taken lightly. This feature of writing not only gives meaning to the
written words, but also indicates pauses and changes in tones of the voice
when speaking. A mistake in punctuation can express a completely different
meaning to the one that is intended.
Full stops (.)
Full stops are generally used to mark the end of a sentence that is a complete
statement, such as:
 She is reading in her room.
 Please close the door on your way out.
Full stops are also used for abbreviations:
 Dr. (Doctor)
 Prof. (Professor)
 Etc. (etcetera)
Question marks (?) and exclamation marks (!)
Use question marks (?) to indicate that what is said is a question. When we
use a question mark, we don’t use a full stop:
 How was your day?
 Did you receive my parcel today?
Use exclamation marks (!) to express excitement, surprise, astonishment, or
any other strong emotion. In informal writing, many people use more than one
exclamation mark to emphasise their excitement. Some also choose to
 include exclamation points with question marks to express shock, protest or
dismay:
 No way! This behaviour is not acceptable at all.
 “Get out of my house!” Steven yelled
 How did you forget the concert tickets?!?!
Commas (,)
Use commas to separate a list of similar words or phrases:
 We adore Emma because she is kind, loving and responsible.
 Daisy was more open, more comfortable and more willing to share her
feelings with us this time.
A comma isn’t commonly used before “and” at the end of a list of single
words:
 We visited Vietnam, Malaysia and Singapore this month.
A comma is commonly used in list before “and” in American English:
 We brought bread, butter, and jam for everyone.
Commas are used to separate words or phrases that indicate where the one
would pause slightly:
 James, the math teacher, got married this morning.
 They are, in reality, very inconsiderate people.
If the clauses have the same subject, a comma isn’t commonly used when
main clauses are separated by and, or, but. However, commas are normally
used if the clauses have different subjects:
 Danny is teaching English and learning Chinese in China. (same subject)
 Doctors make a healthy living but health care reform and efforts to control
medical costs are affecting the way they do business. (same subject)
 Lydia wants to live in Sydney, but she decided work prospects are better in
Melbourne. (different subjects)
 When a subordinate clause comes before the main clause, it’s common to use
a comma to separate the clauses. However, it’s not always done in short
sentences:
 If you want to update the company website, please feel free to email or phone
me.
 If you want the website updated just call us.
when using subordinate or non-finite comment clauses to give further details
or more information, it is common to use commas to separate the clauses:
 In my honest opinion, their performance was extremely good.
 You do need more exercise, if I may say so.
Commas and relative clauses: Commas are used to mark non-defining
clauses. Such clauses normally add extra, non-essential information about the
noun or noun phrase:
 Her aunt, who arrived one hour late, was the first person to get on the dance
floor.
 Bathurst, the city where I lived throughout my childhood, is home to many of
my friends.
Commas are not used to mark defining clauses:
 Blackburn is the eastern suburb that has been selected for the Eastern
District Junior Basketball tournament.
Commas and speech forms: Normally tags and yes-no responses are
separated with commas:
 You are attending Joanne’s wedding, aren’t you?
 Yes, please. I would love another slice of the cheese cake.
Commas are used to show that direct speech is following or has just
occurred:
 He declared to everyone, “I am getting married.”
 When the direct speech is first, use a comma before the closing of the
quotation marks:
 “Please make sure this doesn’t happen again,” he said sternly.
Colons (:) and semi-colons (;)
Use colons to introduce lists:
 He wanted to see three cities in Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur, Penang and Ipoh.
Use colons to indicate a subtitle or to indicate a subdivision of a topic:
 The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century
Colons are normally used to introduce direct speech:
 She kept repeating: “I really want that car!”
A colon is normally used between sentences when the second sentence
explains or justifies the first sentence:
 The town reminded me of my childhood vacations: both were on the beach.
Semi-colons are not commonly used in contemporary English. Full stops and
commas are more common. Semi-colons are used instead of full stops to
separate two main clauses. In such cases, the clauses are related in meaning
but are separated grammatically:
 I had a huge meal; however, I am already hungry again.
Quotation marks (‘…’ or “…”)
Quotation marks in English are ‘…’ or “…”. In direct speech, what is said is
enclosed within a pair of single or double quotation marks, although single
quotation marks are becoming more common. Direct speech begins with a
capital letter and can be preceded by a comma or a colon:
 The king shouted, “Let the games begin!”
The reporting clause can be placed in three different positions. Note the
position of commas and full stops here:
 My mother always said, “A penny saved is a penny earned.” (quotation mark
after comma introducing speech and after full stop)
 “I hope you will be here,” he said. (comma before closing quotation mark)
 “What would you do,” I asked, “if money didn’t matter?” (commas separating
the reporting clause)
Question marks are commonly used inside the quotation marks unless the
question is part of the reporting clause:
 “Do you know where the toilet is?” she asked.
 Did the manager just announce “Tomorrow is a company holiday”?
A single quotation mark is used to draw attention to a word. Quotation marks
can be used in this way when we want to question the exact meaning of the
word:
 I am not happy with his ‘explanation’. It doesn’t make sense.
Articles or chapters within books, or titles of short stories, are normally
punctuated by single quotation marks:
 The most popular song voted by her fans is called ‘Love Galore’.
Dashes (–) and other punctuation marks
Dashes are more common in informal writing. They can be used in similar
ways to commas or semi-colons. Both single and multiple dashes may be
used:
 All of my work—articles, videos, photos, blogs—got wiped away when my
computer crashed.
 My mum – who often gets upset when I bring my boyfriend home – wasn’t
concerned at all. I could not believe it!
Source: Cambridge Dictionary & Grammarly

Want to learn about commonly confused words?

In written English, it is important to know the correct spelling of a word you
want to use. You don’t want to write “weak” when you mean “week” even
though they sound the same. In spoken English, spelling is less important, but
pronunciation is. Think about the word “lead” which can be pronounced as
“led”/led/ or “leed”/li:d/. Because these words cause a lot of confusion, it’s well
worth to spend a few minutes to know the difference: homophones vs
homographs vs homonyms.
People often use elude when they mean allude, or write allude when they
should really write elude. There are other commonly confused words too: Do
you know the difference between belief or believe? That is the question of
another article where we explain the difference between these two commonly
misused words: Check out Belief vs believe
 10 Confused Words in English
(and how to use them correctly)

Learning English is fun but, like all languages, it comes with some challenges.
English has words that look or sound very similar to each other but have different meanings or
are pronounced differently. The good news is that once you’re able to recognise these tricky
words, and the common mistakes people make with them, your English will advance much
faster. You’ll also pick up some rules and patterns that help you learn new vocabulary and
develop your confidence in English.

Here are the 10 most commonly confused words in English, with explanations about why they’re
confusing, and simple explanations to help you avoid making mistakes.

1. Pacific / Specific

These two words sound alike. As a result, people often drop the ‘s’ sound when pronouncing
‘specific’ – they would say ‘pecific’, which isn’t a word in English. It’s important to get the
pronunciation right because ‘Pacific’ and ‘specific’ have different meanings.

 Pacific: the name of the Pacific Ocean.

Example: “Hawaii is in the Pacific.”

 Specific: to be clear, exact or detailed.

Example: “Please give a specific example in your report.”

Tip: Remember that ‘specific’ starts with ‘spe’ like the word ‘speech’, so it relates to saying
things clearly.

2. Generally / Genuinely

As you can see, these two words have a similar spelling. We often see English learners mix these
words up when writing and speaking.

 Generally: usually, in most cases.

Example: “Our team generally meets every Monday.”

 Genuinely: truly, honestly.

Example: “She was genuinely happy with the results.”

Tip: ‘Genuine’ is about honesty. ‘General’ is about most cases.

 3. Desert / Dessert

One of the most common language mistakes in both writing and speaking. Although the only
difference between ‘desert’ and ‘dessert’ is an extra ‘s’, the pronunciation and the meanings are
distinct.

 Desert: a dry, sandy area.

Example: “Camels live in the desert.”

 Dessert: sweet food at the end of a meal.

Example: “Chocolate cake is my favourite dessert.”

Tip: Remember that ‘desert’ starts strong ‘des‘ and ends weak ‘ert’, whereas ‘dessert’ starts
weak ‘dess’ and ends strong ‘ert’. In dessert, the final ‘e’ is a longer sound.

4. Forth / Fourth

Another common error when writing in English. These words are pronounced the same, but refer
to different things.

 Forth: forward, onwards.

Example: “The team went forth into the mountains.”

 Fourth: the number four in order.

Example: “She finished fourth in the race.”

Tip: Remember that when you come fourth, you put the ‘u’ in the spelling.

5. Lose / Loose

Even native English speakers sometimes confuse ‘lose’ and ‘loose’. Both words are said the
same way, but their meanings are not the same.

 Lose: to misplace something, or to not win.

Example: “We don’t want to lose this client.”

 Loose: not tight.

Example: “My jacket is too loose.”

Tip: When writing, remember that you lose the second ‘o’ in ‘lose’. When speaking,
overemphasise the ‘oo’ sound in ‘loose’.
 6. Meter / Metre

These are commonly misused words because the right option depends where you’re from. British
English uses ‘metre’, whereas American English uses ‘meter’. The ‘re/er’ ending commonly
changes based on what style of English you’re using.

 Metre: British spelling, a measure of length.

 Meter: American spelling, a measure of length.

Example: “The desk is two metres long.”

However, in the UK, ‘meter’ can also refer to another thing.

 Meter: British spelling, a device that measures something, like electricity or gas.
Example: “The electricity meter is outside the house.”

Tip: The pronunciation of both words is the same.

7. Quiet / Quite

These words have all the same letters, but they’re pronounced differently and have different
meanings.

 Quiet: silent, not noisy.

Example: “The library is quiet.”

 Quite: fairly, or completely (depending on the context).

Example: “The film was quite good.”

Tip: ‘Quiet’ is two syllables when said outloud, while ‘quite’ is just one.

8. Anymore / Any more

‘Anymore’ and ‘any more’ are pronounced the same way and people tend to use them
interchangeably. However, there’s a grammatical difference between the words.

 Anymore: usually used in negatives, meaning ‘no longer’.

Example: “We don’t work with that company anymore.”

 Any more: refers to an amount.

Example: “Do you have any more questions?”

Tip: ‘Anymore’ refers to time. ‘Any more’ is about quantity.

 9. Especially / Specially

Comparable to ‘specific’ and ‘Pacific’, people sometimes drop the ‘s’ on ‘especially’. This is
common among people who speak languages where the ‘e’ sound doesn’t feature at the
beginning of words. ‘Especially’ and ‘specially’ are spelled and pronounced differently, and
have different definitions.

 Especially: used for emphasis, meaning ‘particularly’.

Example: “I like tea, especially green tea.”

 Specially: used when something is done for a specific purpose.

Example: “The meeting room was specially prepared for the event.”

Tip: ‘Especially’ is an exception, so it begins with an ‘e’.

10. Lend / Borrow

Not all languages differentiate between the verb to give and receive when it’s a favour or an item
that comes from someone else. In English, people can confuse the direction of lending and
borrowing something.

 Lend: to give something temporarily.

Example: “Can you lend me a pen?”

 Borrow: to take something temporarily.

Example: “Can I borrow your pen?”

Tip: The subject decides the word. If you give, you ‘lend’. If you take, you ‘borrow’.

From confusion to clarity

By taking note of the above confused words in English, you’ll be aware of what not to do. You’ll
be more likely to use the right terms in the right places, and your English will be clearer at work,
home, and in general conversations.

Try writing your own sentences or saying sentences aloud using the words above to put what
you’ve learned into practice. Want more advice, tips, and pathways to fluent corporate
English? Get in touch with us.
 10 Confused Words in English
(and how to use them correctly)

Learning English is fun but, like all languages, it comes with some challenges.
English has words that look or sound very similar to each other but have different meanings or
are pronounced differently. The good news is that once you’re able to recognise these tricky
words, and the common mistakes people make with them, your English will advance much
faster. You’ll also pick up some rules and patterns that help you learn new vocabulary and
develop your confidence in English.

Here are the 10 most commonly confused words in English, with explanations about why they’re
confusing, and simple explanations to help you avoid making mistakes.

1. Pacific / Specific

These two words sound alike. As a result, people often drop the ‘s’ sound when pronouncing
‘specific’ – they would say ‘pecific’, which isn’t a word in English. It’s important to get the
pronunciation right because ‘Pacific’ and ‘specific’ have different meanings.

 Pacific: the name of the Pacific Ocean.

Example: “Hawaii is in the Pacific.”

 Specific: to be clear, exact or detailed.

Example: “Please give a specific example in your report.”

Tip: Remember that ‘specific’ starts with ‘spe’ like the word ‘speech’, so it relates to saying
things clearly.

2. Generally / Genuinely

As you can see, these two words have a similar spelling. We often see English learners mix these
words up when writing and speaking.

 Generally: usually, in most cases.

Example: “Our team generally meets every Monday.”

 Genuinely: truly, honestly.

Example: “She was genuinely happy with the results.”

Tip: ‘Genuine’ is about honesty. ‘General’ is about most cases.

 3. Desert / Dessert

One of the most common language mistakes in both writing and speaking. Although the only
difference between ‘desert’ and ‘dessert’ is an extra ‘s’, the pronunciation and the meanings are
distinct.

 Desert: a dry, sandy area.

Example: “Camels live in the desert.”

 Dessert: sweet food at the end of a meal.

Example: “Chocolate cake is my favourite dessert.”

Tip: Remember that ‘desert’ starts strong ‘des‘ and ends weak ‘ert’, whereas ‘dessert’ starts
weak ‘dess’ and ends strong ‘ert’. In dessert, the final ‘e’ is a longer sound.

4. Forth / Fourth

Another common error when writing in English. These words are pronounced the same, but refer
to different things.

 Forth: forward, onwards.

Example: “The team went forth into the mountains.”

 Fourth: the number four in order.

Example: “She finished fourth in the race.”

Tip: Remember that when you come fourth, you put the ‘u’ in the spelling.

5. Lose / Loose

Even native English speakers sometimes confuse ‘lose’ and ‘loose’. Both words are said the
same way, but their meanings are not the same.

 Lose: to misplace something, or to not win.

Example: “We don’t want to lose this client.”

 Loose: not tight.

Example: “My jacket is too loose.”

Tip: When writing, remember that you lose the second ‘o’ in ‘lose’. When speaking,
overemphasise the ‘oo’ sound in ‘loose’.
 6. Meter / Metre

These are commonly misused words because the right option depends where you’re from. British
English uses ‘metre’, whereas American English uses ‘meter’. The ‘re/er’ ending commonly
changes based on what style of English you’re using.

 Metre: British spelling, a measure of length.

 Meter: American spelling, a measure of length.

Example: “The desk is two metres long.”

However, in the UK, ‘meter’ can also refer to another thing.

 Meter: British spelling, a device that measures something, like electricity or gas.
Example: “The electricity meter is outside the house.”

Tip: The pronunciation of both words is the same.

7. Quiet / Quite

These words have all the same letters, but they’re pronounced differently and have different
meanings.

 Quiet: silent, not noisy.

Example: “The library is quiet.”

 Quite: fairly, or completely (depending on the context).

Example: “The film was quite good.”

Tip: ‘Quiet’ is two syllables when said outloud, while ‘quite’ is just one.

8. Anymore / Any more

‘Anymore’ and ‘any more’ are pronounced the same way and people tend to use them
interchangeably. However, there’s a grammatical difference between the words.

 Anymore: usually used in negatives, meaning ‘no longer’.

Example: “We don’t work with that company anymore.”

 Any more: refers to an amount.

Example: “Do you have any more questions?”

Tip: ‘Anymore’ refers to time. ‘Any more’ is about quantity.

 9. Especially / Specially

Comparable to ‘specific’ and ‘Pacific’, people sometimes drop the ‘s’ on ‘especially’. This is
common among people who speak languages where the ‘e’ sound doesn’t feature at the
beginning of words. ‘Especially’ and ‘specially’ are spelled and pronounced differently, and
have different definitions.

 Especially: used for emphasis, meaning ‘particularly’.

Example: “I like tea, especially green tea.”

 Specially: used when something is done for a specific purpose.

Example: “The meeting room was specially prepared for the event.”

Tip: ‘Especially’ is an exception, so it begins with an ‘e’.

10. Lend / Borrow

Not all languages differentiate between the verb to give and receive when it’s a favour or an item
that comes from someone else. In English, people can confuse the direction of lending and
borrowing something.

 Lend: to give something temporarily.

Example: “Can you lend me a pen?”

 Borrow: to take something temporarily.

Example: “Can I borrow your pen?”

Tip: The subject decides the word. If you give, you ‘lend’. If you take, you ‘borrow’.

From confusion to clarity

By taking note of the above confused words in English, you’ll be aware of what not to do. You’ll
be more likely to use the right terms in the right places, and your English will be clearer at work,
home, and in general conversations.

Try writing your own sentences or saying sentences aloud using the words above to put what
you’ve learned into practice. Want more advice, tips, and pathways to fluent corporate
 Top 30 Commonly Confused Words
in English

Everyone knows the problem with spell-check: your word might be spelled
right, but it may be the wrong word. English is full of confusing words that
sound alike but are spelled differently. It’s also full of words that
share similar (but not identical) meanings that are easy to misuse. Below are
some of the most commonly confused and misused words in English.

Give your writing extra polish

Grammarly helps you communicate confidently
Write with Grammarly

Advice/Advise Advice is a noun: Chester gave Posey good advice. Advise is

a verb: Chester advised Posey to avoid the questionable chicken salad.
Affect/Effect Affect is usually a verb: Chester’s humming affected Posey’s
ability to concentrate. Effect is usually a noun: Chester was sorry for the effect
his humming had. If you find yourself stumped about which one to use in a
sentence, try substituting the word “alter” or “result.” If “alter” fits (Chester’s
humming altered Posey’s ability to concentrate), use affect. If “result” fits
(Chester was sorry for the result his humming had), use effect.

Among/Amongst Among is the preferred and most common variant of this

word in American English. Amongst is more common in British English.
Neither version is wrong, but amongst may seem fussy to American readers.

Among/Between Among expresses a collective or loose relationship of

several items: Chester found a letter hidden among the papers on the
desk. Between expresses the relationship of one thing to another thing or to
many other things: Posey spent all day carrying messages between Chester
and the other students. The idea that between can be used only when talking
about two things is a myth—it’s perfectly correct to use between if you are
talking about multiple binary relationships.

Assure/Ensure/Insure Assure means to tell someone that something will

definitely happen or is definitely true: Posey assured Chester that no one
would cheat at Bingo. Ensure means to guarantee or make sure of
something: Posey took steps to ensure that no one cheated at
Bingo. Insure means to take out an insurance policy: Posey was glad the
Bingo hall was insured against damage caused by rowdy Bingo players.

Breath/Breathe Breath is a noun; it’s the air that goes in and out of your
lungs: Chester held his breath while Posey skateboarded down the
stairs. Breathe is a verb; it means to exhale or inhale: After Posey’s
spectacular landing, Chester had to remind himself to breathe again.

Capital/Capitol Capital has several meanings. It can refer to an uppercase

letter, money, or a city where a seat of government is located: Chester visited
Brasίlia, the capital of Brazil. Capitol means the building where a legislature
meets: Posey visited the cafe in the basement of the capitol after watching a
bill become a law.

Complement/Compliment A complement is something that completes

something else. It’s often used to describe things that go well together:
Chester’s lime green boots were a perfect complement to his jacket.
A compliment is a nice thing to say: Posey received many compliments on her
purple fedora.

Disinterested/Uninterested Disinterested means impartial: A panel

of disinterested judges who had never met the contestants before judged the
singing contest. Uninterested means bored or not wanting to be involved with
something: Posey was uninterested in attending Chester’s singing class.

Defence/Defense Defense is standard in American English. Defence is found

mainly in British English.

Emigrate/Immigrate Emigrate means to move away from a city or country to

live somewhere else: Chester’s grandfather emigrated from Canada sixty
years ago. Immigrate means to move into a country from somewhere else:
Posey’s sister immigrated to Ireland in 2004.

E.g./I.e. These two Latin abbreviations are often mixed up, but e.g. means “for
example,” while i.e. means “that is.”
Empathy/Sympathy Empathy is the ability to understand another person’s
perspective or feelings. Sympathy is a feeling of sorrow for someone else’s
suffering. A sympathizer is someone who agrees with a particular ideal or
cause.

Farther/Further Farther refers to physical distance: Posey can run farther

than Chester. Further refers to metaphorical distance: Chester is further away
from finishing his project than Posey is.

Flaunt/Flout Flaunt means to show off: Chester flaunted his stylish new
outfit. Flout means to defy, especially in a way that shows scorn: Posey
flouted the business-casual dress code by wearing a tiara and flip-flops.

Gaff/Gaffe A gaff is a type of spear or hook with a long handle: Chester

completed his sailor costume with a gaff borrowed from his uncle’s fishing
boat. A gaffe is a faux pas or social misstep: Posey made a gaffe when she
accidentally called Chester by the wrong name.

Gray/Grey Gray is the standard American English spelling. Grey is the

standard British English spelling.

Historic/Historical Historic means famous, important, and influential: Chester

visited the beach in Kitty Hawk where the Wright brothers made their historic
first airplane flight. Historical means related to history: Posey donned a
historical bonnet for the renaissance fair.

Imply/Infer Imply means to hint at something without saying it directly:

Chester implied that Posey was in trouble, but he wouldn’t tell her
why. Infer means to deduce something that hasn’t been stated directly: Posey
inferred that Chester was nervous about something from the way he kept
looking over his shoulder.

It’s/Its It’s is a contraction of “it is”: Posey needs to pack for her trip because
it’s only two days away. Its is a possessive pronoun that means “belonging to
it”: Chester is obsessed with both the book and its author.

Lay/Lie To lay means to put or to place. One way to remember this is that
there is an a in both to lay and to place: Posey will lay out her outfit before she
goes to bed. To lie means to recline. One way to remember this is that there is
an e in both to lie and to recline: Chester will lie down for a nap. Be careful,
though. The past tense of to lay is laid: Posey laid out her outfit. The past
tense of to lie is lay: Chester lay down for a nap over an hour ago.

Lead/Led Lead, when it rhymes with “bed,” refers to a type of metal: Posey
wore a lead apron while the dentist X-rayed her teeth. Led is the past tense of
the verb to lead, which means to guide or to be first: Chester led the way.

Learned/Learnt Learned is standard in American English. Learnt is standard

in British English.

Loose/Lose Loose is usually an adjective: Posey discovered that the cows

were loose. Lose is always a verb. It means to misplace something or to be
unvictorious in a game or contest: Chester was careful not to lose his ticket.

Principal/Principle Principal can be a noun or adjective. As a noun, it refers

to the person in charge of a school or organization: Posey was called into the
principal’s office. As an adjective, it means most important: The principal
reason for this meeting is to brainstorm ideas for the theme of Chester’s
birthday party. A principle (always a noun) is a firmly held belief or ideal:
Posey doesn’t like surprise parties as a matter of principle.

Inquiry/Enquiry Inquiry and enquiry both mean “a request for

information.” Inquiry is the standard American English spelling. Enquiry is the
British spelling.

Stationary/Stationery Stationary means unmoving: The revolving door

remained stationary because Posey was pushing on it the wrong
way. Stationery refers to letter writing materials and especially to high quality
paper: Chester printed his résumé on his best stationery.

Than/Then Than is used for comparisons: Posey runs faster than

Chester. Then is used to indicate time or sequence: Posey took off running,
and then Chester came along and finished her breakfast.

Their/There/They’re Their is the possessive form of “they”: Chester and

Posey took their time. There indicates a place: It took them an hour to get
there. They’re is a contraction of “they are”: Are Chester and Posey coming?
They’re almost here.

To/Too To is a preposition that can indicate direction: Posey walked to

school. She said hello to Chester when she saw him. To is also used in the
infinitive form of verbs: Chester waited until the last minute to do his
homework. Too is used as an intensifier, and also means “also”: Posey waited
too long to do her homework, too.

Toward/Towards Toward is standard in American English. Towards is

standard in British English.
 Who’s/Whose Who’s is a contraction of “who is”: Who’s calling Chester at
this hour? Whose is a possessive pronoun that means “belonging to
[someone]”: Chester, whose phone hadn’t stopped ringing all morning, barely
ate anything for breakfast.

UNIT IV

4 Types of Sentences to Use in Your

Writing (With Examples)
Written by
Updated November 20, 2025
On this page:

 What is a sentence?
 4 types of sentences to use in your writing
 4 types of sentence structures
 Why using different sentence types and structures in your writing is important

Most written pieces, such as essays, cover letters, and literary works, consist of multiple
sentences. Strong writers can use sentences to communicate ideas effectively and help
ensure their writing is easy to read. Whether you're a student with a writing assignment
or a professional who wants to improve your writing skills, you can benefit from learning
more about sentences. In this article, we discuss what a sentence is, explain four types
of sentences you can use, share various sentence structures, and highlight why using
different sentence types is important.
What is a sentence?
A sentence is a set of words that writers join together to communicate an idea.
Sentences can vary in length and convey a statement, command, question, or
exclamation. In English, a sentence contains the following elements:

 Capital letter: Sentences begin with a capital letter. For example, The boy shut the
door.
 Punctuation: Writers indicate the end of sentences using a punctuation mark, such as
a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point. For example, Do you prefer apples
or bananas?
 Subject: The subject of a sentence is the person, place, object, or idea performing an
action. For example, Larry ran a marathon.
 Predicate: A predicate is an action that the subject is performing. For
example, Michele ate an apple.
 Proper word order: Sentences follow the subject, verb, and object word order. For
example, He grabbed his bag, where he is the subject, grabbed is the verb, and
his bag is the object.
 Complete idea: Proper sentences are complete ideas, which writers call independent
clauses. They don't require additional information.

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4 types of sentences to use in your writing
There are four types of sentences that you can use in your writing, including:
1. Declarative sentences
You can use a declarative sentence to make a statement, offer an explanation, provide
a fact, or share information. Typically, declarative sentences appear in writing more
than the other three kinds of sentences. When you write a declarative sentence, use the
present tense, ensure the subject comes before the verb, and always end the
sentences with a period. Here are five examples of declarative sentences:

 That bee is yellow and black.

 I love you.
 She wants to drink lemonade, but she doesn't know how to make it.
 While dog food contains meat, cat food usually contains fish.
 Although the amusement park is clean, the entrance fee is expensive, and three rides
are not operating.

2. Interrogative sentences
You can use an interrogative sentence to ask a question. Typically, this kind of
sentence begins with words like who, what, when, where, why, whose, whom,
and which. You can also begin these sentences with a verb, in which case the response
is likely yes or no. For example, Remember that time at camp? is an interrogative
sentence that begins with a verb. Be sure to signal the end of all interrogative
sentences with a question mark. These sentences still require a noun and verb to be
complete. Here are five examples of interrogative sentences:

 Why are bees yellow and black?

 Are Don and Deb getting married next summer?
 I'm unsure what they look like, so can you show me their pictures on social media?
 Did you eat the pie because you forgot to eat lunch?
 Is the money in the bank, and is it available for withdrawal, or did you decide to keep
the money for yourself?

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Workplace?
 3. Exclamatory sentences
Use an exclamatory sentence to express a powerful emotion, such as anger, pain, or
surprise. While they provide information similar to declarative sentences, exclamatory
sentences end with an exclamation mark. You can use exclamatory sentences when
writing dialogue. For example, Mary's face flushed crimson, and she seethed, "Mark!
Don't you dare!". Typically, writers only use this kind of sentence in creative writing or
narrative essays. Avoid using exclamatory sentences in most formal and academic
writing assignments. Here are five examples of exclamatory sentences:

 That bee just stung me!

 I can't believe we won! Let's celebrate!
 Kyle didn't expect to get into Western Toronto Academy, but he just received his
acceptance letter!
 I get really worried when I see you driving without a seatbelt!
 Roger is always mad because he never wins in basketball, but it's because he never
practises!

4. Imperative sentences
You can use an imperative sentence to express a command, invitation, instruction,
request, or warning. Writers can use imperative sentences to offer friendly advice,
forceful commands, or explain how to perform a task. Typically, imperative sentences
end with a period unless it's a firm command, in which it may end in an exclamation
mark. This kind of sentence doesn't have a subject, but is a direction the speaker gives
to the reader. For example, in the sentence, First, place the dishes on the table, the
speaker directs the implied subject to place the dishes on the table. Here are five
examples:

 Don't swat at the bee.

 Stop shouting right now!
 They're discussing his behaviour with the principal, but please don't worry.
 Since the baby didn't sleep last night, please ensure she naps during the day.
 Don't drive past midnight or stay up too late, even if you don't have school tomorrow.

4 types of sentence structures

There are also four types of sentence structures you can use in your writing, including:
1. Simple sentences
 Simple sentences include a subject and a predicate. They're complete thoughts, free of
dependent and subordinate clauses. Simple sentences can also contain objects and
prepositional phrases. Here are five examples of simple sentences:

 She jumped.
 Janice ate dinner.
 They organized their books by colour.
 He studied biology all night.
 The cheetah ate the rat.

2. Compound sentences
Compound sentences include a minimum of two independent clauses. Although you
might separate the clauses into two different sentences, they can form a compound
sentence when joined. You can use a comma and a coordinating junction to achieve
this, such as or, and, or but. Conversely, you can also join the two sentences using a
semicolon. Here are five examples of compound sentences:

 Lucas finished his chemistry homework, and he studied for his French exam.
 She cited her sources by the author's last name; then updated her reference list.
 They tried to leave the house before the traffic worsened, but they encountered traffic
anyway.
 Ali went to the mall, but Lexie went to the supermarket, and I went to the beach.
 We went to see the newborn lion cubs at the zoo; then, we went to a pizza restaurant
for lunch.

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3. Complex sentences
Complex sentences include an independent clause and at least one dependent clause,
also called a subordinate clause. A dependent clause consists of a subject and a verb,
but isn't a complete thought. For example, when dinner is ready, is a dependent clause.
In a complex sentence, when the dependent clause precedes the independent clause,
use a comma to join them. Conversely, if the independent clause comes before the
dependent clause, use subordinating conjunctions, like how, if, and when to join the
[Link] are five examples of complex sentences:

 Although she didn't study for the geometry exam, she earned the highest mark in her
class.
 While Geoffrey likes basketball, he prefers hockey.
 Whenever it snows, the dog won't go outside.
 The students watched the entire documentary because they thought it was interesting.
 I like to eat chocolate while I watch television.

4. Compound-complex sentences
 Compound-complex sentences are sentences that include a minimum of three clauses.
These sentences have two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Typically, these sentences are long and contain a lot of information. Use a comma
followed by a coordinating conjunction to make compound-complex sentences. Here
are five examples of compound-complex sentences:

 She finished her lunch, but she still ate her dessert even though she said she was full.
 Although Roger organized his books by colour, he decided to arrange them by the
author's last name, and he followed the system the librarian taught him.
 Although I love watching movies, I don't like scary movies, but my brother loves them.
 Mackenzie's grandfather went to the mall because it's her birthday, and he bought her a
gift.

Why using different sentence types and structures in

your writing is important
When you write, it's important to use various types of sentences and sentence
structures. This writing practice can help you communicate your message effectively
and avoid confusing your readers. For example, in the sentence, Go away, Penelope!, if
a writer accidentally uses a period instead of an exclamation mark, the reader may not
realize that a character is shouting. Instead of the reader realizing the character is
angry, they might think they're sad or upset. Varying your sentence structures can make
reading your writing easier and more enjoyable. For example, you may follow a simple
sentence with a compound-complex sentence.
 
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only. Indeed is not a career or legal advisor and does not guarantee job interviews or
offers.
Basic Paragraph Writing
A paragraph is a distinct and separate piece of writing that forms part of an overall text.
Each paragraph contains one key idea or topic and at least one controlling idea. When
writing a larger text, such as an essay, the writer must also consider how the ideas in
each paragraph connect to each other. Types of Academic Writing are discussed in
Chapter 15 of this resource, therefore this chapter examines only the BODY paragraph.

This chapter explores a useful academic structure for a basic body paragraph
and the elements that contribute to its cohesiveness.

Beginner writers should follow the simple acronym explained below (TEEL) as it will
help to organise your academic writing and make the meaning and aim of each
paragraph clear to the reader.

Intermediate writers should work towards refining sentence structures and academic
language choices to develop more cohesive and coherent paragraphs.

Experienced writers should consider how they can augment the basic paragraph
structure with more sophisticated examples, linking arguments, and logical conclusions.

Many readers of this chapter may have already encountered the T.E.E.L. (or P.E.E.L.)
structure of a body paragraph in school and have a good understanding of general
paragraph structure, however, now would be a good opportunity to refresh your
memory. Review the following diagram that demonstrates where the acronym comes
from:
T – Topic sentence with a controlling idea
E – Explain and make a claim (about the controlling idea)
E – Evidence from academic sources (plus evaluate how this
supports the claim)
L – Link back to the key idea or argument (or to the topic of the next
paragraph)
This simple paragraph structure will introduce your ideas to the reader, add additional
explanations and evidence for support and then link all this information back to the main
idea of the overall paragraph or essay. Perhaps it could be more effectively displayed
as a series of gears working together to make the whole machine move forward.

What is a topic sentence?

[1]

A topic sentence makes a connection between the overall topic or main idea of the
essay and a controlling idea. For example, the overall topic of an essay could be
sustainable energy. The controlling ideas might examine solar, wind, and hydro
electricity. Each controlling idea becomes the basis for a paragraph, whereas the overall
topic remains the same throughout the essay.

It is often taught that each new paragraph represents a new topic, though in actuality
the topic remains the same and the controlling idea changes.

What is a controlling idea?

A controlling idea limits, restricts or controls what is being discussed in relation to the
main topic.

For example:

Sustainable energy (topic) has long been a topic of discussion and solar energy
(controlling idea), in particular, has had a great deal of attention.

This signals to the reader that the essay is about sustainable energy, though in this
particular paragraph only solar energy will be discussed. Therefore, the topic is
restricted to only solar energy (controlling idea). It may go on to discuss both the
positive and negative attributes of solar energy, however, it is still being controlled by
one idea.

In the next paragraph the topic would remain sustainable energy, but the controlling
idea would change to wind power; the third paragraph would discuss hydro power.
When you understand the building blocks behind good paragraph structure, the essay
begins to write itself.
What am I explaining to the reader?
The next sentence or sentences should elaborate on the controlling idea and may make
an assertion or claim about it.

For example:

Modern Australian home owners are turning to solar panels to offset their electricity
costs (fact), however, their effectiveness is greatly depleted in sustained cloudy weather
(claim).

What is the evidence meant to support?

Given that the claim is often unsupported initially, the next sentences should provide
supporting information for the controlling idea and the claim made in relation to it.

For example:

According to Energy Australia (2020)[2] solar panels operate at 10-25% capacity in

cloudy weather, although this varies depending on the type of panel.

Writers can build on their discussion or argument by adding more evidence to support
the claim. Use reputable academic sources (refer to Chapter 14).

What am I evaluating?
It is important not to assume that the reader will make the mental connection between
the claim and the evidence. Therefore, evaluate the relevance and explicitly state the
connection to the reader.

For example:

This demonstrates that solar energy, while environmentally supportive, may not be a
solution to all of Australia’s energy needs.

How do I link my topic, claim, and evidence?

If we use the analogy of the gears working together, think of the linking sentence as the
one that turns back in on the contents of the paragraph and locks it all together.

For example:
Sustainable energy is currently being debated and solar power offers one alternative,
though it may be less productive on cloudy days depending on the quality of solar
panels being installed on Australians’ rooves.

A linking sentence can also be used to draw the reader onto the next paragraph and
provide a mental bridge between controlling ideas for the reader. This creates
good cohesion and coherence throughout the essay.

For example:

While there are benefits to using solar energy to offset household electricity costs, even
if somewhat inconsistent in cloudy weather, wind power (next controlling idea) also
offers a more sustainable energy source than our finite fossil fuel supplies.

The next paragraph could discuss how wind power is infinite and therefore far more
sustainable than fossil fuels.

Now let’s put it all together:

Sustainable energy (topic) has long been a topic of discussion and solar energy
(controlling idea), in particular, has had a great deal of attention. Modern Australian
home owners are turning to solar panels to offset their electricity costs (fact), however,
their effectiveness is greatly depleted in sustained cloudy weather (claim). According to
Energy Australia (2020) solar panels operate at 10-25% capacity in cloudy weather,
although this varies depending on the type of panel (evidence). This demonstrates that
solar energy, while environmentally supportive, may not be the solution to all of
Australia’s energy needs (evaluation and explanation of evidence). **Sustainable
energy is currently being debated and solar power offers one alternative, though it may
be less productive on cloudy days depending on the quality of solar panels being
installed on Australians’ rooves (links back to claim).

Or

**While there are benefits to using solar energy to offset household electricity costs,
even if somewhat inconsistent in cloudy weather, wind power (next controlling idea) also
offers a more sustainable energy source than our finite fossil fuel supplies (links to next
controlling idea in the essay).

Recap
These are the basics of writing a well structured academic body paragraph. Repeat this
process to structure an essay that demonstrates a logical progression of thoughts,
claims, and supporting evidence. T.E.E.L. is an easy acronym to remember and great to
fall back on if you begin to get a little lost in your writing. You can augment your
 paragraphs with further evidence, explanations, and elaborations; you are not limited to
only two “E” sentences.

1. Adapted from Slide Geeks [Link] ↵

[Link] ↵
2. Energy Australia. (2020). 8 surprising facts about solar.

The Beginner's Guide to Writing an Essay | Steps & Examples

An academic essay is a focused piece of writing that develops an idea or argument using evidence,
analysis, and interpretation.

There are many types of essays you might write as a student. The content and length of an essay
depends on your level, subject of study, and course requirements. However, most essays at university
level are argumentative—they aim to persuade the reader of a particular position or perspective on a
topic.

The essay writing process consists of three main stages:

Preparation: Decide on your topic, do your research, and create an essay outline.

Writing: Set out your argument in the introduction, develop it with evidence in the main body, and wrap
it up with a conclusion.

Revision: Check your essay on the content, organization, grammar, spelling, and formatting of your
essay.

In this guide, we walk you through what to include in the introduction, body, and conclusion of an
academic essay, using paragraphs from our interactive essay example.

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