References:
1-American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. (2025). Diagnosis and
classification of diabetes: Standards of care in diabetes—2025. Diabetes Care, 48(Suppl 1),
S27–S49. [Link]
2-Adams, M. P., Urban, C. Q., & Sutter, R. E. (2019). Pharmacology: Connections to nursing
practice (4th ed.). Pearson. (p. 1221).
3-Sealock, K., Seneviratne, C., Lilley, L. L., Collins, S. R., & Snyder, J. S. (Eds.). (2021). Lilley’s
pharmacology for Canadian health care practice (4th ed., p. 550). Elsevier.
4-Vanderah, T. W. (Ed.). (2024). Katzung's basic & clinical pharmacology (16th ed.). McGraw Hill
5-Garg, G. R., & Gupta, S. (2020). Review of pharmacology (14th ed.). Jaypee Brothers Medical
Publishers.
6-Rosenthal, L. D.& Burchum, J. R. (2021). Lehne's pharmacotherapeutics for advanced practice
nurses and physician assistants (2nd ed.). Elsevier
7-Katzung, B. G., Kruidering-Hall, M., Tuan, R., Vanderah, T. W.& Trevor, A. J. (2021). Katzung &
Trevor's Pharmacology: Examination & Board Review(13th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
8-Willihnganz, M. J., & Clayton, B. D. (2017). Basic pharmacology for nurses (17th ed.). Mosby.
9-Hilal-Dandan, R., & Brunton, L. L. (Eds.). (2014). Goodman & Gilman's manual of pharmacology
and therapeutics (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Education
10-Tripathi, K. D. (2019). Essentials of medical pharmacology (8th ed.). (Chapter 19). (Section 5).
Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers. (Chapter 19). (Section 5)
11-Hitner, H., & Nagle, B. T. (2021). Pharmacology: An introduction (8th ed.). Mcgraw-hill
Education.
12-Emmett, S. R., Hill, N., & Dajas-Bailador, F. (2019). Clinical pharmacology for prescribing.
Oxford University press.
(Emmett et al., 2019, p. 217)
13-Shanbhag, T. V., & Shenoy, S. (2019). Pharmacology for medical graduates (4th ed.). Elsevier
India.
14-Udaykumar, P. (2025). Medical Pharmacology (8th ed, p. 514). New Delhi: CBS Publishers &
Distributors.
15-Sharma, H. L.& Sharma, K. K. (2023). Principles of Pharmacology (4th ed.), p.648. Paras
Medical Publisher.
16-Delhi Academy of Medical Sciences (DAMS). (2018). Last Look: Pharmacology. Delhi Academy of
Medical Sciences (P) Ltd.
17-Fujimoto W. Y. (2000). The importance of insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of type 2
diabetes mellitus. The American journal of medicine, 108 Suppl 6a, 9S–14S. [Link]
10.1016/s0002-9343(00)00337-5
18- Stumvoll M, Goldstein BJ, van Haeften TW. Type 2 diabetes: Principles of pathogenesis and
therapy. Lancet. 2005;365:1333-1346.
19- Taylor R. Type 2 diabetes: Etiology and reversibility. Diabetes Care. 2013;36:1047-1055.
20- Durruty P, Perez-Bravo F. Patogenesis de la diabetes mellitus. In: Garcia de los Rios M, Durruty
P, editors. Diabetes Mellitus. 3era ed. Santiago, Chile: Editorial Mediterraneo Ltda; 2014. pp. 25-39.
21- Ferranini E, Gastaldelli A, Iozzo P. Pathophysiology of prediabetes. Med Clin North Am.
2011;95:327-339.
22- Meigs JB, Cupples LA, Wilson PW. Parental transmission of type 2 diabetes: The Framingham
study. Diabetes. 2000;49:2201-2207.
23- Ridderstrale M, Groop L. Genetic dissection of type 2 diabetes. Mol Cell Endocrinol.
2009;297:10-17.
24- Groop L, Lyssenko V. Genes and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Curr Diabetes Rep. 2008;8:192-197.
25- Cusi K, Maezono K, Mandarino L. Insulin resistance differentially affect the PI 3-kinase- and
MAP kinase-mediated signaling in human muscle. J Clin Invest. 2000;105:311-320.
26- Buraczynska M, Wacinski P, Stec A, Kuczmaszewska A. Calpain-10 gene polymorphisms in type
2 diabetes and its micro and macrovascular complications. J Diabetes Complications.
2013;27:54-58.
27- Kimber CH, Doney AS, Pearson ER, et al. TCF7L2 in the Go-DARTS study: Evidence for a gene
dose effect on both diabetes susceptibility and control of glucose levels. Diabetologia.
2007;50:1186-1191.
28- Eckel R, Kahn S, Ferranini E. Obesity and type 2 diabetes: What can be unified and what needs
to be individualized? J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96:1654-1663.
29- Mujica V. Diabetes en el adulto mayor. In: Garcia de los Rios M, Durruty P, editors. Diabetes
Mellitus. 3era ed. Santiago, Chile: Editorial Mediterraneo Ltda; 2014. pp. 314-325.
30- Tabak AG, Abaraly TN, Batty GD, Kivimaki M. Depression and type 2 diabetes: A causal
association? Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2014;2:236-245.
31- Carnethon MR, Biggs ML, Barzilay JI, et al. Longitudinal association between depressive
symptoms and incident type 2 diabetes mellitus in older adults: The cardiovascular health study.
Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:802-807.
32- Reutrakul S, Van Cauter E. Interactions between sleep, circadian function, and glucose
metabolism: Implications for the risk and severity of diabetes. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2014;1311:151-173.
33- Durruty P, Garcia de los Rios M. Glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity: Factors in the pathogenesis and
evolution of type 2 diabetes. Rev Med Chile. 2001;129:671-679.
34- Rains JL, Jain SK. Oxidative stress, insulin signalling, and diabetes. Free Radic Biol Med.
2011;50:567-574.
35- Mancuso P. The role of adipokines in chronic inflammation. ImmunoTargets Ther. 2016;5:47-56.
36- Neel BA, Sargis RM. The paradox of progress: Environmental disruption of metabolism and the
diabetes epidemic. Diabetes. 2011;60:1838-1846.
37- Ghemrawi R, Battaglia-Hsu SF, Arnold C. Endoplasmic reticulum stress in metabolic disorders.
Cell. 2018;7:1-35.
38- Bradford BL, Shulman GI. Mitochondrial dysfunction and type 2 diabetes. Science.
2005;307:384-387.
39- Mirtschink P, Jang C, Arany Z, Krek W. Fructose metabolism, cardiometabolic risk, and the
epidemic of coronary artery disease. Eur Heart J. 2018;39:2497-2505.
40- Mirmiran P, Esfandyari S, Moghadam SK, et al. Fatty acid quality and quantity of diet and risk of
type 2 diabetes in adults: Tehran lipid and glucose study. J Diabetes Complications.
2018;32:655-659.
2018;32:655-659.
41- Yerlikaya A, Dagel T, King CH, et al. Dietary and commercialized fructose: Sweet or Sour? Int
Urol Nephrol. 2017;49:1611-1620.
42- Zong G, Lebwohl B, Hu F, et al. Gluten intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in three large
prospective cohort studies of US men and women. Diabetologia. 2018;61:2164-2173.
43- Mathieu CH. Vitamin D and diabetes: Where do we stand? Diabetes Res Clin Pract.
2015;108:201-209.
44- Stumvoll M, Haring H, Fritsche A. For debate: Starling’s curve of the pancreas overuse of a
concept? Horm Metab Res. 2003;35:391-395.
45- Robertson RP, Harmon J, Tran PO, Tanaka Y, Takahashi H. Glucose toxicity in beta-cells: Type 2
diabetes, good radicals gone bad, and the glutathione connection. Diabetes. 2003;52:581-587.
46- O’Rahilly S, Turner RC, Mathews DR. Impaired pulsatile secretion of insulin in relatives of
patients with non insulin-dependent diabetes. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:1225-1230.
47- DeFronzo RA. From the triumvirate to the ominous octet: A new paradigm for the treatment of
type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes. 2009;58:773-795.
48- Hayden M. Islet amyloid, metabolic syndrome, and the natural progressive history of type 2
diabetes mellitus. J Pancreas. 2002;3:126-138.
49- Yokoi N. Epigenetic dysregulation in pancreatic islets and pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. J
Diabetes Investig. 2018;9:475-477.
50- Bogardus C, Lillioja S, Stone K. Correlation between glycogen synthase activity and in vivo
insulin action in man. J Clin Invest. 1984;73:1185-1900.
51- Draznin B. Molecular mechanisms of insulin resistance: Serine phosphorylation of insulin
receptor substrate-1 and increased expression of p85alpha: The two sides of a coin. Diabetes.
2006;55:2392-2397.
52- Unger RH, Orci L. Glucagon and the cell physiology and pathophysiology. N Engl J Med.
1981;304:1518-1524.
53- Drucker DJ, Nauck MA. The incretin system: Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and
dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes. Lancet. 2006;368:1696-1705.
54- Munoz-Garach A, Diaz-Perdigones C, Tinahones FJ. Gut microbiota and type 2 diabetes
mellitus. Endocrinol Nutr. 2016;63:560-568.
55- Cani P, Bibiloni R, Knauf C, et al. Changes in gut microbiota control metabolic endotoxemia-
induced inflammation in high-fat diet-induced obesity and diabetes in mice. Diabetes.
2008;57:1470-1481.
56- Pussinen P, Havulinna A, Lehto M, Sundvall J, Salomaa V. Endotoxemia is associated with an
increased risk of incident diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2011;34:392-397.
57- Abdul-Ghani M, Norton L, DeFronzo R. Role of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2)
inhibitors in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Endocr Rev. 2011;32:515-531.
58- Wright E, Hirayama B, Loo F. Active sugar transport in health and disease. J Intern Med.
2007;261:32-43.
59-Bakris G, Fonseca V, Sharma K, Wright E. Renal sodium-glucose transport: Role in diabetes
mellitus and potential clinical implications. Kidney Int. 2009;75:1272-1277.
60-Schwartz S, Epstein S, Corkey B, et al. The time is right for a classification system for diabetes:
Rationale and implications of the b-cell-centric classification schema. Diabetes Care.
2016;39:179-186.
61-Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes 2018 (ADA). Pharmacologic approaches to glycemic
treatment. Diabetes Care. 2018;41(Suppl. 1):S73-S85.
62-Zelniker TA, Wivioytt SD, Raz I, et al. SGLT2 inhibitors for primary and secondary prevention of
cardiovascular and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
Lancet. 2019;393:31-39.
63-Durruty P, Sanhueza L. Complicaciones cronicas de la diabetes mellitus. Impacto clinico y
fisiopatologia. Rev Med Chile. 2019.
64-Durruty, P., Sanzana, M., & Sanhueza, L. (Year). Pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus. In
IntechOpen. Retrieved from [Link]
[Link]