CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

From the mid-'80s till date, Nigeria has witnessed a series of ethnic clashes, political

disruptions, religious conflicts, cruel and gruesome murders, violent attacks on worship

centres and worshippers alike, and unprecedented kidnapping and killings of innocent,

harmless citizens. For instance, the Saint Theresa Catholic Church Madala, a suburb in

the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja was bombed on the 24th of December 2011,

by a radical Islamist sect suspected to have been trained by Al Qaeda, when members

gathered for Christmas Eve (Adam, 2011.)

There have been cases of conflicts across the nation over these years that have

undermined our co-existence as a people. The resultant effects are the massive loss of

lives and properties, and the despair, grief, and pains that permeate the land. Even the

government across all tiers is not spared the ripple effect of those conflicts. Again and

again, resources earmarked for developmental projects are being diverted and churned

out to either service wars or fend for the numerous displaced victims. Religious crisis is

thus responsible for perpetrating distress and aridness in Nigeria and the African

continent at large (Adetula, 2006.) It’s widely confirmed that, religious conflicts are the

major obstacles to the development of the African continent in general, and the Nigerian

society in particular. It inflicts sufferings, deaths, destruction of livelihoods, internal

displacement and insecurity.

Churches in Nigeria have largely been at the receiving end of these unfortunate violent

attacks. They have suffered different kinds of violent attacks during conflicts as they are

mostly the target of the perpetrators in several states. While many worshippers have been

killed during Church services, thousands of Church properties that cost millions of Naira

have also been looted and destroyed (Barash, 2000.)These and many more such

occurrences informed the outspokenness of the church, championing the cause for

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peaceful co-existence and harmonious inter-ethnic relationships across the length and

breadth of the nations. Albeit, peace is usually acknowledged as the absence of hostility,

it also encapsulates the presence of harmonious, interpersonal or universal relationships,

socio-economic prosperity, the presence of equality, and a functioning political order that

suits the benefits of all people. Peace is also seen as the presence of law or orderly

governance, the prevalence of justice, and a balance of powers, without which the

breakdown of law is inevitable. The concept of peace is not man made; it is a virtue

expounded by Christ himself. It is a term that has spiritual and scriptural bearing, and

Christians are enjoined to both promote and practice it. Romans 12:18, “If it be possible,

as much as lieth in you, live peaceably with all men.” At no time did the Lord who is

called the Prince of Peace authorized his followers to adopt violence as a means of

defense. Even at his arrest culminating in death he was yet quick to sue for peace as

contained in the book of Matthew 26:51-53 among others, entrenching the undeniable

need for peace. “And, behold, one of them which were with Jesus stretched out his hand,

and drew his sword, and struck a servant of the high priest's, and smote off his ear. Then

said Jesus unto him, Put up again thy sword into his place: for all they that take the sword

shall perish with the sword. Thinkest thou that I cannot now pray to my Father, and he

shall presently give me more than twelve legions of angels?” The need for peace is

encompassing and cannot be overemphasized because nothing remarkable can be

achieved away from its reign. It is a critical and sensitive phenomenon in any human

society that ensures both the stability and the survival of the human society. Therefore, a

discussion on peace is very crucial and hence should attract the interest of all

stakeholders, and particularly, the church in this regard.

The Church which is believed to be the emitter of peace is neither a building nor an

organisation. It is a living organism, an assembly of the called out (ekklesia.) It is a

Christian community of believers devoted to a holistic dedication to Christ and of definite

beliefs emanating from that devotion. Such beliefs are seen to be very relevant for the

concretization of their humanity. According to Asante, “all of this is to stress that the

Church is a distinctive community of believers who profess Jesus Christ as the risen

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Lord, irrespective of their race, nationality, complexion or language, and are united in a

loving, caring, servicing, worshipping, witnessing and expectant fellowship.” The church

today has survived for generations, sustained by the norms and values of the society, and

has perpetually become a resilient part of society. Its involvement in society does not

necessarily mean that it has compromised its essential values, no. It yet retains the ability

to protest injustice and immorality; improving the standards of society. According to

Asante, “Jesus’ ministry which is barely the most crucial ministry of the Church,

fundamentally has a positive implication for the evolution of human society not only in

terms of personal thoughts and feelings, but also publicly in terms of law and

governance.” He further posits that the participation of the Church in the socio-cultural,

economic and political development of human society has demonstrated that, whereas the

Church strives to prevent any political affiliation of Christianity, the Church is

significantly conscious that Christianity has a solid dimension relating to socio-political

attitudes and commitments. The prophetic role of the Church, for Asante, is to encourage

and empower Christians to devote action toward service to the society. The conditions of

human society in the realms of injustice, human right abuse, economic inequality and

moral decadence should be of serious interest to the Church’ and it must practically make

a bold and uninterrupted move directed at safeguarding peace in the human society. The

churches in Nigeria have operated under a singular body known as The Pentecostal

Fellowship of Nigeria (PFN) in a bid to have a credible voice. In view of the Church

being a body pre-conditioned and governed by biblical teachings, it is therefore

imperative to examine some biblical expositions on peace, then engage in a discussion

through the prism of the umbrella body – PFN on how the Church, whose teachings and

practices are defined and informed by the message of the Bible, plays a role in ensuring

peace in the society.

This study intends to delve into the role of the church in maintaining peace and harmony

in Nigeria while giving credence by way of identifying the factors infringing on the peace

and harmony of the country.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

If war is destructive, the aftermath effect is more destructive due to the ruins, despair and

hopelessness it spells. Several locations in Nigeria have been reduced to rubble by reason

of the destructive conflicts that have erupted in such places. And to assert that they are

densely bereft of any atom of peace is not a misnomer. The church in the midst of these

crippling crises have held sway with her doctrine of peace, unapologetically frowning at

any attempt at retaliation by any of her own however the fierceness of the battle against

them. The Apostles of old and early Christian martyrs amidst the inhumane treatments

and recurrent persecutions rather sacrificed their lives than resist to live.

Today’s Christian is admonished to uphold same non-resistance or non-retaliation

method as taught, practiced, and promoted by the Lord Jesus Christ as the proven

antidotal measure against conflicts. The crux of this research work is a holistic look atthe

church which is here saddled with the responsibility of ensuring and maintaining peace

and harmony in the land.

1.3 Purpose of the Study.

The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the role of the church in the

maintenance of peace and harmony in our society, using the Pentecostal Fellowship of

Nigeria - PFN (2015 - 2022) as a case study. Moreover, it will seek to identify the

possible factors militating against the peaceful co-existence and the harmonious

relationships of all ethnic groups in the land.

1.4 Research Questions

 Is there a relationship between the church and the society?

 Has the church through PFN taken her place as a peace broker agent?

 To what extent can the church ensures peace and harmony in the society?

 Are there socio-cultural factors disrupting peace and harmony in the society?

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1.5 Scope of Study

The study focuses on the church through the prism glass of the Pentecostal Fellowship of

Nigeria (PFN) since it is the umbrella body of churches in Nigeria. Peace – the subject of

discourse is a very coveted virtue for all and sundry, consequently, it will examine how it

enhances productivity when promoted and underdevelopment when prohibited.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This research is first, poised to lend some credulity to the on-going discussion on the

need for the church to arise and ensure the reign of peace and harmony in the society

today; and in the long run contributes to the body of knowledge, particularly in the area

of its attendant effects on the development of the society, find lasting solutions to the

challenges bedeviling our society and aborting our peace.

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

Role: The expected behavior of an individual in a society; the function or position of

someone or something in the face of an event

Church: An assembly of believers who are called out; a group of people who believe in

Christ Jesus and worship God. The body of people who attend or belong to a particular

denomination.

Peace: A state of tranquility, quiet and harmony; absence of violence and war.

Harmony: An agreement or accord.

Society: A long-standing group of people sharing cultural aspects such as language,

dress, norms of behaviour and artistic forms; meeting together from time to time to

engage in common interest.

Conflict: A clash or disagreement, often violent, between two or more opposing groups

or individuals.

Love: A deep caring for the existence of another; strong, profound affection.

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 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

This chapter examines the conceptual framework, theoretical framework, and review

existing research done in relation to this study, thereby filling the gap this research is

expected to fill.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

The Church

The area of theology that seeks to understand all aspects of the church is known as

ecclesiology. It is derived from the Greek word ekklesia, which is a general term

referring to a gathering or assembly. There are a number of aspects to the subject of

ecclesiology, but this article will focus on defining the term church, understanding its

nature and purpose, looking at some biblical images of the church, and emphasizing

church unity on essential truths.

The term ‘Church’ in popular minds is generally likened to buildings and synonymous

with worship centres and structures. First-century Christians were often persecuted and,

as a result, often met in secret, usually in homes. As the influence of Christianity spread,

eventually, buildings dedicated to worship were established and became what we know

today as churches. In this sense, the church consists of people, not buildings. Fellowship,

worship, and ministry are all conducted by people, not buildings. Therefore, the church is

neither a building nor an organisation. It is a living organism. Speaking further about the

church, the infallible word of God describes it in multiple bible verses as being:

1. The body of Christ. It is the spiritual body of Christ. Christ is its head (Ephesians

5:23.) There is but one body (Ephesians 4:4.) The one body is the one church (Colossians

1:18.)

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2. The household of God. The word "house" in the Bible suggests family. This helps us to

understand that the church is the family of God. In 1 Timothy 3:15, Paul says that the

house of God is the church of the living God. God is the Father and we are His children

(Galatians 3:26-27.)

3. The kingdom of God. Kingdom suggest a King. Christ is the King (Revelation 17:14.)

But to be a king, the kingdom has to exist, and it does (Acts 8:12.) We are Christ’s

people, the world is His territory, and the New Testament is His law. This is the church

(Matthew 16:18-19.) The kingdom and the church are the same.

4. The vineyard of the Lord. Christ is the vine. Individual Christians are the branches

(John 15:1-8.) Christians must work in the church and bear fruit for the Lord. We now

can see what the church is.

The term is derived from the Greek word – “ekklesia,” which is formed from two Greek

words: “ek” (from or out of) and “ka-leo” (to call, invite, or name.) Ekklesia, which is

the term that refers to the church therefore means “to call out of,” or, the “called out

ones.”

The term lays greater emphasis on people being ‘called out’ by God instead of their

meeting together. Referencing the scripture, we observe the first use of the word church

in the book of Matthew by Jesus when he responded to Peter’s acknowledgment that He

was “the Christ, the Son of the living God” in chapter 16:18, “And I say also to you,

that you are Peter; but upon this Rock I will build my church, and the gates of the

grave shall not prevail against it” – (American Standard Version.) Jesus also used the

term when He taught His disciples how to restore unrepentant believers in Matthew

18:17: “And if he refuse to hear them, tell it unto the church: and if he refuse to hear

the church also, let him be unto thee as the Gentile and the publican” - (American

Standard Version.)

Even though ekklesia can refer to any “called out” group assembled for a specific

purpose, the New Testament church differs from all other assemblies, groups, or

gatherings. Thus, a New Testament church is a divinely birthed organism (emphasizing

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life, growth, love, relationships) that is fundamentally different from a humanly formed

organization (emphasizing structure, authority,) John, 2012. Robert (2013) explains that

the church is a body of individuals saved by Jesus Christ and regenerated by the Holy

Spirit who live to glorify God. The Church is beyond building and gathering of people. It

is a Christian community of believers devoted to a holistic dedication to Christ and of

definite beliefs emanating from that devotion. Such beliefs are seen to be very relevant

for the concretization of their humanity. According to Asante (1999,) “all of this is to

stress that the Church is a distinctive community of believers who profess Jesus Christ as

the risen Lord, irrespective of their race, nationality, complexion or language, and are

united in a loving, caring, servicing, worshipping, witnessing and expectant fellowship.”

Louis Berkh of asserted that in a more general sense, the word serves to denote the whole

body, throughout the world, of those who outwardly profess Christ and organize for

purposes of worship, under the guidance of appointed officers. This meaning of the word

is somewhat in the foreground in the First Epistle to the Corinthians, 10:32; 11:22; 12:28,

but was, it would seem, present also in the mind of Paul, when he wrote the letter to the

Ephesians, though in that letter the emphasis is on the Church as a spiritual organism, cf.

especially Eph. 4:11–[Link], the word in its most comprehensive meaning signifies

the whole body of the faithful, whether in heaven or on earth, who have been or shall be

spiritually united to Christ as their Saviour. This use of the word is found primarily in the

Epistles of Paul to the Ephesians and the Colossians, most frequently in the former, Eph.

1:22; 3:10, 21; 5:23–25, 27, 32; Col. 1:18, [Link] refers to it as the “mother of the

faithful” (mater fidelium.) A term of affectionate respect found in ecclesiastical

documents and especially in the writings of the saints. Thus, the first Norm of Catholic

Orthodoxy in the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius reads: “We must put aside all

judgment of our own, and keep the mind ever ready and prompt to obey in all things the

true Spouse of Christ, our Lord, our Holy Mother, the hierarchical Church,” (John, 2012.)

According to Yil (2016,) the church is a “serving people.” It is called to serve God and

neighbours and cannot use its authority for selfish gains and dominate others. In contrast,

the church must sacrifice willingly and be ready to serve as Jesus taught his disciples in

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the book of Matthew 20:25-27 – “But Jesus called them unto him, and said, ye know that

the rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their great ones exercise authority over

them. Not so shall it be among you: but whosoever would become great among you shall

be your minister; and whosoever would be first among you shall be your servant.” When

the various issues and perspectives are recognized and evaluated in the light of scripture,

then the church can more clearly emerge and bring glory and honour to God, while

imposing benefits on adherents. In this discussion, the Church is in reference to the entire

Christian body which is universal and not limited to any place or people, but contains true

believers of all places, times, and peoples.

The Christian Church is the assembly or association of followers of Jesus Christ. There

are four traditional notes of the Christian Church and they include unity, holiness,

catholicity and apostolicity, (McKim, 2014.) In the phenomenological sense, there are

many associations that call themselves Christian churches. In New Testament the term is

used for local communities and in a universal sense to mean all believers. Traditionally,

only orthodox believers are considered part of the true Church, but convictions of what is

orthodox vary, (Harper, 2001)

The Visible and Invisible Church

In his “What is the church,” Robert Velarde (2009) wrote: “when speaking of the church,

theologians often use terms such as the visible and local church as opposed to the

invisible and universal church. The visible and local church is, of course, the physical

churches that we see around us and around the world, as well as the members of those

churches. The invisible and universal church, however, refers to all believers everywhere

and is one church, united in Christ, not many physical churches. Everyone in the

universal church is a true believer, but such is not necessarily the case with visible and

local churches. Why is it relevant to understand some basic differences between the

visible and universal church? One key reason is so that we do not confuse what we

sometimes see fallible churches doing with the reality of the universal church. Not only

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do visible and local churches often host non-believers, but also the believers themselves

are imperfect, resulting in challenges and tensions in every visible church.”

What Does the Church Do?

The church is not a building, but a body of believers with a specific nature and purpose.

These biblical roles or ministries of the church are foundational to it. What are these

roles? They are many; but key to any church are foundations in worship, edification, and

evangelism. Worship is both God and Christ-centered. It is not about entertaining

Christians with flashy displays or presentations, but about expressing our love by

worshiping our Creator. We are to praise and glorify God in worship. As such, every

Christian needs to be part of regular fellowship and worship.

Edification is also a role of the church. It involves edifying believers, but also nurturing,

building up, or helping believers to mature in Christ. To this end, churches are tasked

with a variety of ministries such as Bible study, continuing education in related areas,

praying for one another, acts of genuine hospitality, and more.

Evangelism is also a key role of the church. This means reaching out to a lost world with

the Good News about Jesus. Since people often have questions or doubts about Christ

and Christianity, knowing the truth and being able to defend it (apologetics) is also part

of the role of the church. But beyond evangelism in the sense of reaching out with the

gospel, the church must also express compassion and mercy tangibly by helping others.

In following Christ’s example to love others, the church, too, must seek to make a real

difference in the world while not neglecting to share the message of Christ. If a church

fails to fulfill any of these key roles – worship, edification, and evangelism – then the

church is not functioning as God intends. Granted, there are times when churches face

challenges and struggles, but a healthy church seeks to overcome such challenges in a

way that honours God and His intentions for His church.

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A Church Divided or United?

The concept of the visible and local church also touched briefly on the challenges and

tensions that sometimes occur in churches. Critics point to divisions and disagreements

among Christians as evidence of a lack of unity and, hence, a lack of real biblical support

undergirding the Christian church as a whole. Is this true? In some cases, Christians do

indeed need to admit to shortcomings and, at times, un-Christ-like behaviour. But in

looking at the bigger picture, the Christian church has always been united on key points

of belief such as the reality of a personal, loving God, salvation that is found in Christ

through His death and bodily resurrection, human depravity and the need for redemption

through Christ and more. This “mere” Christianity or core of unshakable truths has united

Christian churches throughout the centuries and continues to do so. As C.S. Lewis

shared, “In spite of all the unfortunate differences between Christians, what they agree on

is still something pretty big and pretty solid: big enough to blow any of us sky-high if it

happens to be true. And if it’s true, it’s quite ridiculous to put off doing anything about it

simply because Christians don’t fully agree among themselves.” In other words, when it

comes to the essentials or primary matters, Christians are united, but when it comes to

nonessentials or secondary matters, there is room for some disagreement. This

disagreement, however, does not change the unity on the foundations of Christianity such

as the person of Christ and His role in human redemption.

Making an Eternal Difference

The Christian church is not a building, but a body of believers united in Christ. Its role is

to worship God, nurture, edify and reach out to a suffering world with the saving message

of the gospel as well as the practical compassion and mercy exemplified in Christ. To this

end, ecclesiology is not some ivory-tower, academic discipline removed from the reality

of daily life. Instead, learning more about the church and what it can do helps us make a

real difference in the world, not just temporally, but for all eternity.

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The Role of Church as an agent of Peace and Harmony

The role of the church in maintaining peace and harmony is strengthened by the fact that

the social and political crisis in the society questions radically the message of the gospel.

The church’s initiatives for peace making were anchored on the concept that peace is the

tranquility that flows from right order (Sindole, 2010.) When we put right order into the

structures of our society, the tranquility that results thereafter is peace (Sindole, 2010.)

However, a lot of individuals see peace as the absence of war or violence, (Kellman,

2014.) In this study, peace is seen as the transformation of contextual and destructive

interactions into more co-operative and constructive existence.

The Church’s charisma and likewise its exceptional nature in relation to resolution, at

whatever level it needs to be achieved, lies in the fact that the church always goes back to

that resolution at the source, (Ayaji, 2015.) Due to the church essential mission, the

church always feels an obligation to go to the roots of the conflict, so as to bring healing

and to reinstate, so to speak, an equally original resolution which will be the effective

principle of all true resolution. Therefore, the Church has the mission of proclaiming this

peacemaking, (Kellman, 2014.) In the context of the change now taking place on the

continent, the church has a role to play in reducing or eliminating all together the root

causes of simmering or open conflicts and effecting true peace. One way of effecting true

peace according to Scheper is by becoming agents of peace building and reconciliation,

(Scheper, 2012.)

It is apparent to note the characteristics and skills of a successful mediator in conflict

situations, in our case, the church. Indeed, the church has neutrality as regards issues of

dispute; the church commands respect of and is acceptable to all protagonists; the church

has the knowledge and skill to address and tackle the challenging issues of conflict,

(Magesa, 2016.) Being a widely discussed issue in the area, it will be important to

address the question of forgiveness before going to explain the meaning of conflict

resolution. In the field of conflict resolution, there are various perspectives as to whether

forgiveness is part of resolution or not. According to several literatures, various scholars

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writing from a theological perspective do include forgiveness in the process of resolution,

(Kelman, 2014.) Peacemaking here is sometimes perceived as part of an overarching

forgiveness reconciliation in this case referring to restored relations in behaviour and

forgiveness to a deeper transformation based on God having forgiven mankind and that

we can extend forgiveness to others, (Scheper, 2012.) Therefore, within the framework of

peace making or resolution, “forgiveness is at the heart of it.”

Though peacemaking may require diverse efforts to deal with grievances and injustices in

the past, it is very much forward-looking in nature, (Sindole, 2010.) As argued above,

peacemaking as well aims at achieving desired purposes in the future such as promoting

human rights, fostering democracy, and entrenching the rule of law. Even the definition

of peace-making as restoring the right relationship between people should not be

(mis)interpreted as going backward to a pre-conflict situation, (Doyle &Sambanis, 2015.)

Instead, restoration in this peacemaking context can be understood as restoring some

transcendental, Platonist concept of justice and right relationship. To reconcile in this

sense means to build relationships based on certain norms. This understanding is as well

a particularly distinctive feature of religious conception of peacemaking, (Kellman,

2014.)

Peacemaking may turn out to be a desired goal in its own merit in divided societies. It

may as well stand for a pragmatic way to deal with profound changes involving past

injustices so as attain some other desired purposes such as building peace, nurturing

democracy, promoting human rights, and delivering justice among others, (Lederach,

2013.) Today, peacemaking and reconciliation has gained a momentous appreciation,

because there is already a very rich literature on various efforts for peacemaking. They

mainly involve truth acknowledgment, reparations, retributive justice, apology and

forgiveness. No single form of peacemaking effort is perfect or satisfactory to all

circumstances and parties involved. Sometimes hard choices have to be made in deciding

whether one form is preferable to another, depending on the specific and temporal

circumstance of each conflict and society, (Reychler, 2013.)

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Like the conception of change in the conflict transformation perspective, peacemaking

can be present and necessarily prescriptive at all personal, relational, structural, and

cultural levels, (Sindole, 2010). At the personal level, for instance, repentance and

apology from offenders have mental effects and discourse impacts on the self-perception,

thus shaping the identities of both victims and offenders. Apology as well serves to build

the unity between victims and offenders, a change desired in the relational dimension of

conflict transformation. At the structural and cultural dimensions, other efforts for

peacemaking like restitution in the forms of negotiated discourse and constructed

narrative could contribute to building new cultural mechanism that can handle conflicts.

In sum, the concept of peacemaking can fit into the framework of conflict transformation

and has great potential to complement practices for transformational strategies, (Zartman,

2013.)

The community level of peacemaking is first and foremost characterized by the massive

numbers of people it is composed of. The actors are the population of the country,

however, as no project can reach everyone, the methods attempt to involve leaders for the

community who then in turn spread knowledge to their communities or villages. A strong

process of peacemaking at the community level will be a difficult threat to belligerent

leaders: experiencing constructive relationships with former enemies with the sufferings

of the past in mind, the peace of the present will be too precious to waste on further war.

To use the principle of Lederach’s peace building: this is the ‘bottom-up’ approach to

reconciliation. By strengthening and empowering the local actors for peace, the

foundations are laid for national reconciliation. In all societies there are capacities for

peace. However, due to the acute nature of conflict that overwhelms, (Lederach, 2013).

Pentecostal Fellowship of Nigeria (PFN)

The Pentecostal Fellowship of Nigeria inaugurated on the 14th of November, 1986 in

Lagos, is the national body binding all Christian churches, organisations and believers

who believe, experience, practice and cherish the Pentecostal experience as found and

described in Acts 24. It is not a union of churches brought together for a central

14
administration and control, rather it’s a body of believers having identical unity of

purpose and corporation in agreed programmes; maintaining the unity of the spirit in the

bond of peace among themselves as well as with the other members of the body of Christ

and other religions in the nation. Consequent upon that mandate, while ensuring the

community of believers maintain the unity of purpose, PFN has constantly lent her voice

to the many unpalatable developments and violent attacks within the geographical

landscape of the [Link] peace can be said to exist anywhere, the citizens must be

free from all forms of violence, be it political, economic, social, or religion. Gaiya

(2011,) is of the opinion that religion infuses every aspect of Nigerian life, from

fundamental greetings (we thank God) to name of businesses (God’s favor restaurant.)

One of the ways Church has helped in securing peace in Nigeria is by appealing to the

conscience of the people through ethical teachings. Conscience is a judge or guide.

According to Abogurin (1986) it is seen as “the science of moral conduct.” The Church in

the course of her humanitarian activities has brought relief to the oppressed by improving

their living standards. In many places, the church has been in the vanguard against crises

and injustice. Using Nigeria as a case study, the church’s peace and humanitarian

initiatives has been demonstrated as follows: Since the start of Nigeria civil war which

lasted from 1967 to 1970, apart from public declaration in condemnation of the civil war,

the church made several efforts to bring assistance to the Biafran people. The church

embarked upon campaigns making several trips abroad to appeal to international

humanitarian agencies to come to the rescue of the Biafran’s. However, food, clothing

and drugs were donated in large quantity by such humanitarian bodies as UNICEF,

WHO, UNESCO, WCC and the Red Cross Society. Long before the outbreak of the war,

Christian leaders campaigned vigorously to stop the war hostilities. On March 21, 1967,

according to Okwueze (2003,) a delegation of church leaders made up of representatives

of the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Methodist, the

Presbyterian Church and the Salvation Army called on the Military Head of State, Col

Yakubu Gowon (as he then was,) the aim of this visit was to appeal to the head of the

military faction to see reason and vote for peace. To alleviate the sufferings of the

15
helpless civilians on the Biafra side, the church got Caritas International, a humanitarian

organization, who supplied food and medication in abundance. Among the Biafran’s, the

name Caritas became synonymous with charity. While the war was on, the church was

helping to fight hunger and disease and this was possible by the assistance which they got

from the World Council of Churches (WCC) and the Vatican. Religious organizations did

not keep quiet in all these crises. The Pentecostal Fellowship of Nigeria (PFN), issued a

statement aimed at achieving peace. The statement as signed by its erstwhile president,

Dr. Mike Okonkwo read: “The spate of ethnic and religious violence and the kid gloves

with which the federal government is handling the matter is fast sending dangerous

signals to this nascent democracy. PFN noted that the federal government is quick to take

very hard decisions on helpless civilians whenever there is social unrest in areas that are

predominantly inhabited by Christians. The statement went further to add: we are

therefore, calling on the federal government to do everything possible to call these

Jihadists to order, so as to avoid a looming crisis.” The Christian Association of Nigerian

(CAN) also rose in condemnation of the crises. The Christian Association of Nigeria

(CAN) made headlines statements about Boko Haram. Oritsejafor (2012) “I will now

make a final call to the Nigerian government to use allresources available to it to clearly

define and neutralize the problem as other nations have done.” Ayo Oritsejafor, head of

the Christian Association of Nigeria then told reporters. He further stated that “the church

leadership has hitherto put great restraint on the restive and aggrieved millions of

Nigerians but can no longer guarantee such cooperation if the trend of terror is not halted

immediately.”

While felicitating with the Muslim brothers during their Ramadan fasting, National

President of Pentecostal Fellowship of Nigeria (PFN,) Bishop Francis Wale Oke (APRIL

18, 2021) drew the attention of their Muslim leaders to help in tackling Boko Haram and

also on the need for peace and peaceful coexistence, maintaining that the Ramadan

fasting period offered a veritable atmosphere to partner with PFN to bring peace to the

nation. “And we want to urge them, they have told us repeatedly in the past that Islam is a

religion of peace and we want to urge their leaders to persuade their members and

16
followers not only in words but in action to bring to an end the Boko Haram menace.

They, Boko Haram, are using the name of Islam to perpetrate their atrocity and they are

messing the name of Islam. “Leaders of Islam should come together and stop [Link]

the bandits, somebody said they are trying to fight to defend Islam. If Islam is a religion

of peace, we don’t dispute that claim, let them prove it. The Pentecostal Fellowship of

Nigeria, we are ready to partner with our Muslim brothers, sisters and their leaders in

building a progressive, peaceful nation that we all can call home. If we do not have peace

and security it is impossible; so, we invite them into a partnership, let’s cooperate

together to pray for this nation, to work for the peace of this nation, to end banditry, to

end the Fulani herdsmen menace all over the country, to end Boko Haram menace, we

are working for peace; they should join hand together, in prayer in working for peace.”

Oke went further to appeal, “Everybody should be concerned about the security of this

nation. Sometime it was confined to the northeast and then it began to spread to the

northwest, now it is all over, southeast is terribly affected, South-South terribly affected,

southwest terribly affected, we cannot talk about near decimation of the north central.

And we want to charge the federal government to rise to its number one responsibility of

protecting the lives and properties of every Nigerian, and we plead with the newly

appointed security chiefs not just to talk the talk but to walk the talk, bring your skills and

training to bear, let’s deal with insurgency, let’s deal with insecurity.”

Rev. Dr. Felix Omobude, the erstwhile National President of the Pentecostal Fellowship

of Nigeria (PFN)in a press statement in Benin City (Sep 15, 2020), signed by his Media

Aide, Deacon Ralph Okhiria said, “My dear good people of Edo state, I identify and join

my voice to the many other good citizens of the state to call for peace during this

governorship election scheduled for Saturday, this week.” “I want to call on you to do

what is right. Don’t give yourself to violence, don’t allow your children to be used for

violent activities.” He continued,“The election of an individual politician is not worthy of

the blood or life of any resident of the state.”

17
Rev. Omobude in a separate plea, (21st Oct. 2021,) enjoined all Nigerians irrespective of

their ethnic, religious or political affiliations to continuously pray for Nigeria and also

engage in productive activities that would enhance the wellbeing of the country. “For

Nigeria to be greater, well-meaning Nigerians irrespective of their status must be

genuinely united and live in harmony with one another, making sure they’re their

brothers’ keeper. “It is true that we are not where we expect we should be but putting our

total trust in God and working together for peace, unity and progress of the country, there

is hope that God will divinely intervene and turn things around for our good.

In similar fashion, Rev Omobude (June 15th, 2017) said, “The PFN believes in a nation

where every Nigerian is free to live in and to engage in any legitimate business, practice

his/her faith and own property in any part of the country without let or hindrance.“Those

beating the drums of war should be reminded that war is an ill-wind that blows no one

any [Link] recognizes the fact that any threat to any section of Nigeria is a threat to

all Nigerians, irrespective of their tribes or religions. The PFN calls on the various tiers of

government to take the issue of protecting the lives and property of all Nigerians as their

primary responsibility and to be fair to all citizens of Nigeria while reassuring them of

their safety in anywhere they wish to live and transact their businesses.”

Speaking on the role of the Church in nation-building, Apostle Michael Olufunmilade

Alabi, Presiding Apostle of Apostolic Mandate Ministry Intl, Ogba, Lagos cited personal

interest and infiltration of false prophets who preach sensational messages instead of

Holy Spirit-filled and revelatory messages that abode on peace as reasons the church

hasn’t done much in the area of nation building and peace promotion. Obuseh (2016) is

also of the view that Nigeria cannot live in peace because “of selfishness.” Corroborating

that view on why Nigerians may not co-exist peacefully is Oluwaseun (2014) who sees

religion as a threat to Nigeria’s peaceful co-existence. According to him, “it is easy for a

Yoruba to marry an Efik than for a Muslim to marry a Christian” and vice versa.

But according to Pastor Sam Adeyemi of the Daystar Christian Centre, Lagos,(Oct 6th,

2019,) many Churches are doing a lot of social programmes in areas like education and

18
empowerment to promote [Link] Adeyemi, in a press release made available to

SUNDAY INDEPENDENT said, the role of the church in society, particularly in

developing economies like Nigeria, cannot be over emphasised. “The Church constitutes

the social security system. Overtime the Church and related institutions have been

involved in intervention programmes like in education, health, rehabilitation, youth

development and job creation. The Church is also involved in shaping the morals and

values of society.”

Rt. Rev Humprey Olumakaiye, Bishop of Church of Nigeria, Anglican Communion,

Lagos Archdiocese believes the Church has contributed immensely to the peace of the

nation and has also contributed to giving hope to Nigerians through related messages.“In

the midst of difficulties, so many people have committed suicide because some people

are hopeless. The Church has been preaching hope, keeping hope alive, nobody will

come to Church without hearing messages that will lift his hope up and this has

contributed immensely to the peace in the country.“I want to commend the Church for

maintaining peace, the peace we are enjoying in this country; the Church has contributed

to it. But we can do more by living by what we preach.”

What should the church do to ensure peaceful co-existence among different tribes

and religions?

 The church leaders should together with schools encourage students to engage in

meaningful activities such as dramatization, miming, poetry, singing, projects.

According to Adejobi (2009,) “the more children are exposed to reading materials that

promote images of other people’s culture, religion, uniqueness, social identity, among

others, the less likely they are to find faults with one another and the more they are

able to live among and work together for the benefit of mankind and for the good of

the society”. The church leaders should re-orientate the members of the society

towards peace and tolerance rather than towards violence. Adams (2000) affirms that

“church leaders should liaise with curriculum planners, to ensure that the tenets of

promoting peaceful co-existence such as kindness, loyalty, honesty, love, optimism,

19
 compassion, etc. are included in reading comprehension passages of the English

language curriculum.

 The non-governmental organizations (NGO‟s) should redouble their efforts as

facilitator of dialogues and mediators of conflicts between conflicting parties. In

addition, they should “setup their advocacy by sensitizing and conscientizing the

people about their rights and the rights of others especially on peaceful co-existence,

civic and religious rights”, among others (Enukora, 2005.)

 Church leaders should approach politicians and teach them the importance of good

governance and encourage them to avoid discrimination and marginalization of the

people when dealing with developmental projects and religious matters in the country

(Salawu, 2010.) Politicians should not mingle region with politics.

 Church leaders should preach and promote ethno-religious tolerance and

accommodation of opposing views as part of deepening peaceful co-existence and

harmony in the country. In Nigeria, “intolerance of opposing views by adherents of

the major religions has heated the polity and caused tension” (Salawu, 2010.)

 Church leaders should monitor Christian politicians to sponsor bills of peaceful co-

existence.

 Inter-faith training of the youths should be encouraged by the church leaders so as to

enlighten them about the faith of others.

 Church leaders should ensure the protection of religious freedom of the citizens. This

is necessary as one observes that the constitutional provisions for freedom of worship,

religious expression and obligation as entrenched in section 38(1) and (2) of the 1999

constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria are weak. There is need to promote a

human rights-based approach to the protection of religious freedom in Nigeria (US

Department of States Report, 2014.) Most of the tensions and conflicts between

Christians and Muslims in Nigeria is because of the flagrant abuse of the fundamental

individual and group rights in the country.

20
Challenges confronting the role of Church in ensuring Peace and Harmony

Between 1999 till date, Nigeria experienced critical events that undermined her co-

existence. The crisis reached its peak according to Okwueze (2003) during the military

regime especially “under Babangida and Abacha as Nigeria was already facing serious

economic and political problems.”

There are lists of challenges hampering the role of churches in ensuring peace and

harmony in the Nigerian society. Among these challenges are religion, ethnicity,

materialism, political and social structure. The paradox lies in the fact that within this

perspective, the forces of division and antagonism of today seems to be increasing in

strength. Divisions between religious groups, nations (communities), ethnic groups and

classes, today possess new technological instrument of destruction, (Austin, 2012.)

Religion: Religious conflicts whether ‘intra’ or ‘inter’ have been a major factor impeding

the institutionalization of formidable peace and harmony in Nigeria, (Ogbonnaya, 2012).

Many have accused religion, whether modern or traditional of staging threats and

violence in many parts of the country and beyond. This is not to emphasize the

religiously-motivated conflict persistent in most African communities. With beliefs,

practices and doctrines aimed towards the promotion of peace, justice and equality,

religions, however on the African continent, in diverse ways, have served as a threat to

the peace that exist within local African communities, (Ogbonnaya, 2012)

Christianity has (by certain people) been used throughout history as an excuse for some

of the most brutal, heartless and senseless atrocities known to man. The historical

examples are not difficult to recall: the Crusades; the Inquisitions; the witch-burnings.

Many foundations of injustices and violence on the African continent today can be

attributed to the modern religious mishaps, (Ogbonnaya, 2012). Either stemming from

misinterpretation or the works of fanatics, these mishaps have unjustifiably caused the

life of many on the continent. How can an institution indoctrinated to promote equality

turn to do the opposite? Ogbonnaya (2012) for instance, have identified that in

contemporary discussions of ways to attain sustainable and authentic human

21
development, there is a reluctance to consider the influence of religion. The reason for

this stems from the divisiveness and intolerance among various religious groups,

religiously influenced disputes and hostile groups. This occasionally results in violent

conflicts which hampers, if not destroys, developmental projects and can precipitate the

decline of nations. Development institutions and agencies often refer to wars of religions

and their attendant consequences as reasons for a total neglect of religion in civil growth

or as partners in development. This calls for the periodic reflection on the position of the

church in terms of addressing the many conflicts arising out of its actions and inactions in

Africa.

Ethnic Conflict: According to the United Nations’ report on Development’ in 2004,

accommodating people’s growing demands for their inclusion in society, for respect of

their ethnicity and language takes more than democracy and equitable growth. In Nigeria,

there are several diverse tribal groupings demarcating societies. Each group, though

originating from a particular locality, possesses traits which distinguish them from others;

each generally having its own language or dialect and culture. However, this form of

difference has challenged the peace and harmony in many regions on the continent.

There have been hundreds of conflicts within the country emanating from these tribal

groups. There is no doubt that in the world today, there is an upsurge of inter-ethnic

animosities and most of them have resulted in violence and genocide, (Agbogurin, 2018.)

For instance, in Nigeria, upsurge in ethnic conflict mostly in the northern area has made

many people sought refuge in neighbouring states and in the internally displaced camps.

As a matter of fact, the concept of ethnicity has been described by scholar to be the

source of fanatical adherence to the values of a group mostly given rise to the concept of

ethnocentrism -a condition under which a particular tribe sees itself as the centre of the

universe, (Joseph, 2011). There have been many factors identified to be the cause of

tribal conflicts in many countries in Africa. Among them are issues pertaining to

injustice, nepotism, segregation and discrimination. Among other factors is the partial

distribution of wealth and resources. Gurr (2016) in his relative deprivation theory offers

22
an explanation based on an ethnic groups’ access to power and economic resources. This

is closely related to Donald’s viewpoint that that a group’s worth is based on the results

of economic and political competitions, (Donald, 2015). Also, Marshall, Deepla, and

Gurr (2011) identify that most African ethnic conflicts are caused by the combination of

poverty and weak states and institutions.

2.3 Theoretical Framework of the Study

Human Need Theory

Conflict and peace studies absolutely concerns itself with the resolution of conflict, and

the promotion and maintenance of peace and harmony. However, a successful and

effective conflict resolution requires a thorough and systematic understanding of the

remote and or, the proximate cause of such conflict, which would consequently provide

the fundamental ground on which strategies for intervention, resolution and prevention

can be proposed by conflict resolution or negotiation experts, peace researchers, activists,

agents and concerned institution; in this case, the church. In order to understand conflict

resolution mechanisms, a consideration of the theories underpinning the subject is

imperative. And the theories in question must be such that comprehensively aid the

understanding of the causes of the conflicts. Human needs theory is fundamentally

essential in working with violent conflicts given its wide applicability. It is acknowledged

for its non-violent communication mode and diverse acts towards resolution and

reconciliation as evident in some warring parts of Africaand The Middle East. The same

theory can be seen to be applicable in diverse social contexts in multi-ethnic conflict,

interpersonal conflicting interest and the international society, (Rosenberg 2015.)

The emphasis of human needs theory is premised on the origin of conflicting claims most

especially as it seeks to deal with the visibility of meeting parties’ needs while also

considering the expectations of others in it. It provides a framework of analysis that

centres on the unmet human needs. The theory stipulates that unmet human needs are the

remote source of conflict. One of the vital contributions of basic human needs theory
23
(Burton, 1997) is that the individual is the most appropriate unit of analysis. Humans

have ontological needs that they strive to fulfill under all circumstances. Some of the

basic needs of humans include identity, security, recognition, development, as well as

basic physiological and physical needs. Basic needs are relevant to conflict resolvers

because the source of much conflict comes from the frustration and prevention of basic

needs satisfaction (Burton, 1997.) If humans are prevented from satisfying their needs

due to the perception of conflicting or incompatible goals, then they will fight to

eliminate the frustration in order to satisfy their needs. Edward Azar stated that, “it is the

denial of human needs, of which ethnic identity is merely one, that finally emerges as the

source of conflict, be it domestic, communal, international, or inter-state” (Azar, as cited

in Burton & Dukes, 1990, p.146.)

It is imperative to stress that the human needs theory is premised on the wings of

conventional expectations of humanity as its mode of operation. It reconstructs the notion

unification of all human beings, those who are from different districts and customs. The

synoptic view of needs positioned by scholars like Danielsen (2013,) strongly holds that

there is a big difference between a need and interest as the former is such that can’t be

traded or bargained away for any reason.

It turns out to be obvious for the human needs approach offers a platform for turning

away from the usual traditional model of negotiation that jettisoned non-negotiable issues

on critical issues like those above. Under this theory, interest-based negation persists to

perceive conflicting claims and interest based on the win-win outcomes also as other

consensus-based solution. As a result, the conventional power theory had the shift

towards diplomacy with a strong root on negotiation and international relations which are

relevant in constructing a conflicting scenario. Likewise, it is as well vital in conflict

management that is connected to zero sum game ideas. The view of Galtung and

Danielson (2013), had become so vital in shedding light on literature as regard to peace

building in conflicting regions which should be well tailored. The pioneers of the aspect

of needs approach concerns with the welfare situation of the individuals considered to be

24
in conflicts in order to ensure resolution between the individuals or parties. Galtung

focuses on the indices that are essential in human development, and Danielson solemnly

maintained the thought of Galtung’s as he expanded on the premised by reflecting on the

interconnectivity that exist among human needs in the social system. When conserving

the sociological dimension, he reaffirmed the position of unmet needs in causing violent

conflict around the globe which poises high danger or risk to humanity. One might sum

this analogy up by saying that the purpose is in the prevention of conflict as sacrosanct,

(Danielson 2013).

In the real scenario, the individuals or societies are often confronted with the same

situation such as lack of access to the necessaries of basic needs approach that is

healthcare, descent sanitation, lack of adequate facilities for accommodation or shelter.

Others are entrapped and face the constant challenges of diverse sexual abuse or violence

and human trafficking and denial of justice (Erika 2016). According to Ferris, Mooney,

and Stark, (2014) who maintained that violence is more visible in our society today

simply because no strict international regulation controls or protects the situation of the

victims. The violations that are usually experienced by affected victims range from force

relocation or return, restriction of movement, violation of land, stationary standby of the

member of armed forces in camps or soldiers. The situation of violation could be more

predominant especially in cases of ethnic cleansing were in extraordinary situation

individuals in a particular setting are socially stratified and often face the confrontation of

explosion for the advancement of political-military and territorial objective the actor

responsible for the victims’ or society.

With respect to the human need theory, Rosenburg (2015) maintained that the issue of

conflict and violent circumstances are often caused by unmet human needs. This is the

link to the modern challenges encountered by nation-state identified as terrorism such as

the emergence of the Boko Haram in Nigeria which has contributed to the death of

thousands and displace of millions in the northeast part of Nigeria. For instances, most

authors have often traced this issue to the unmet needs (Rosenburg, 2015).

25
2.3.2. Liberal Peace Theory

Through liberal peace theory, the concept of reconciliation is understood as that specific

process that takes place along approaches of conflict resolution, (Wirmark, 2010.)

Lederach (2013) asserted that reconciliation is a condition that goes beyond the conflict.

As long as you have people previously confronted not reconciled, the conflict is still there

and violence is likely to flourish anytime. Therefore, liberal peace theory underscores that

reconciliation is fundamental in conflictive contexts in order to get people living together

in long term peace, (Yamano& Deininger, 2015).

Liberal peace theory shows the relevance of reconciliation by dealing with the conflict

cycle from the structural causes of the struggle to its resolution and the assurance of a

peaceful living together. According to Lederach (2013), peace theory best explains the

role of the church in building relationships through phases. The first phase of the cycle is

known as conflict prevention, and it copes with structural and cultural violence and

attempts not to allow those to turn into direct violence. Usually, a trigger (be it political,

social, economic or military) is the last and most tangible cause for violence to erupt.

Once violence breaks out, academics introduce into conflict management or

peacemaking, efforts that basically seek to end violence and minimize its consequences.

A ceasefire and/or a peace agreement end with direct violence. At this point, experts of

peace studies face post conflict situations, seeking first to consolidate a non-violent state

by disarming, demobilizing and reintegrating soldiers in society, which is also known as

peacekeeping or peace-enforcing process. This phase takes the society to a state of

negative peace, which consists of a state where the eruption of violence will hardly

happen but the previously confronted communities has not yet resolved the structural

causes of the conflict, (Lederach, 2013).

From liberal peace theory, the church initiated the process of reconciliation from a

comprehensive search of the probable cause of conflict. This is geared towards

unearthing unbiased probable cause of the conflict, (Brown, 2016). Enquiry disregards

ethnic, political or social affiliation because its ultimate end is to get the truth of the

26
matter, (Assefa, 2015). From liberal peace theory, the church plays a leading role towards

facilitating reconciliation by picking submission and confession which is applicable to

peoples within the conflict, (Kobia, 2016). These entail a sincere contrite acceptance of

the mistakes done and readiness to accept forgiveness. The basic tenet that informs this

process is the truth about his or her involvement in the conflicts. Truth entails the

involved parties or ethnic communities disclosing all mistakes and heinous acts done,

(Nation Reporter, 2008.) Reconciliation entails bridging the gap between the warring

communities by capitalizing on the commonalities that act as the connectors, (Tajfel,

2011)

Underlying the tenets of liberal peace theory, the process of reconciliation, anchored on

the premise of church facilitation, led to the transformation of the conflict for amicable

relationship, typically established after a rupture in the relationship involving one-sided

or mutual infliction of extreme injury. Montville breaks down this process of

accommodation into the oft cited formula of acknowledgment and contrition from the

perpetrators, and forgiveness from the victims, (Lederach, 2013). This resonate the

principle that the road to reconciliation is very difficult, and is easily abandoned or

avoided, (Volkan, 2013).

Within the foundation of liberal peace theory, reconciliation must be proactive in seeking

to create an encounter where people can focus on their relationship and share their

perceptions, feelings, and experiences with one another, with the goal of creating new

perceptions and a new shared experience. For Lederach (2013), if new perceptions on

intergroup relations can be gained by group members, those relations themselves are, in

turn, changed and improved: actors who no longer feel the same will no longer act the

same, and are better equipped to deal with the legacy of conflict.

The foundation of the liberal peace theory, it is notable that the forgiveness and

coexistence is the core point of reference for the Church in its effort to reconciliation.

This highlights several principles of peace building and reconciliation including love,

justice, forgiveness and peace, (Wirmack, 2010). These exalt the value of human lives

27
and the rule of law. To maintain the integrity, churches must advocate for peace and love

among their adherents. Ethnic conflicts are threats to the harmony of the society and

integrity of the body of Christ. Peace and the Church are, therefore, inseparable,

(Wirmark, 2010).

Under this theory, interest-based negation persists in perceiving conflicting claims and

interest based on the win-win outcomes as well as other consensus-based solutions. As a

result, the conventional power theory had the shift towards diplomacy with a strong root

on negotiation and international relations which are relevant in constructing a conflicting

scenario. Likewise, it is as well vital in conflict caused by unmet human needs. Violence

occurs when certain individuals or groups do not see any other way to meet theirneed or

when they need understanding, respect and consideration for their needs. Rosenberg

(2003) states that violence is a tragic expression of unmet human needs, implying that all

actions undertaken by human beings are attempts to satisfy their needs. If we are able to

connect with our needs and those of others, we will be able to look at other ways of

meeting such needs, avoiding violence and destruction. Denial by or inability of society

to provide material basic needs, recognition and identity would lead, at all social levels,

to alternative behaviors designed to satisfy such needs, be it ethnic conflict, street gangs,

or domestic violence. The great promise of human needs theory, in Burton’s view, is that

it would provide a relatively objective basis, transcending local, political and cultural

differences for understanding the sources of conflict or designing conflict resolution

processes and for founding conflict analysis and resolution as an autonomous discipline

(Burton, 1990.) Most conflicts have to do with other unmet human needs such as

protection, identity, recognition, participation and understanding. Only by giving more

importance to these latter needs, truly recognising them as human needs essential to the

wellbeing of all human being, will we be able to address current and intractable conflicts.

28
 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Research Design
For the purpose of this research project, the survey research design would be employed.
This design is such that numerical data would be generated from a number of
questionnaires administered to several respondents. The reason for using survey research
design is to assess the respondents’ thoughts, opinions and feelings about the subject
matter.

3.2. Population of study

The population of study is comprised of theThe Redeemed Christian Church of God
(RCCG,) Anglican Church, Christ Apostolic Church (CAC) and Christ Embassy
inDenro/Akute area of Ogun State. Based on the information gathered by the researcher,
the members’ population is estimated to be 215, 67, 115, and 80 respectively. Therefore,
the population of this study comprises of 477 members.

3.3. Sample and Sampling Techniques

The study will adopt the Taro Yamane sampling formula - n= N/ (1+N(e)2)to determine
the most appropriate sample size for a given population. The formula will be applied at
90% confidence interval and 10% margin error.

The variables in Yamane’s formula:n= N/ (1+N(e)2) as mathematically expressed are:

n = the sample size

N= the population of the study (477)

e = margin error in the calculation which is 0.10 and

1=theoretical constant.

n = 477/ (1 + 477(0.10)2

n= 477/ (1+ 477(0.01)

n= 477 (1+ 5)

n= 477/ (6)

n= 80 members

Consequent upon the result of the Yamane’s formula, the sample size is comprised of 80
members of The Redeemed Christian Church of God (RCCG,) Anglican Church, Christ
Apostolic Church (CAC) and Christ Embassy in Denro/Akute area of Ogun State. The
study adopted the multistage sampling technique for the purpose of selecting the four

29
churches and to administer the questionnaire to both male and female members in the
selected churches.

3.3.1. Sampling Technique and Sample

The study adopted the simple random sampling technique to select the four churches used
for this study through the process of balloting, while the stratified sampling technique
was employed for the purpose of administering to members of the churches in a bid to
ensuring that both male and female members alike have an even opportunity of
representation for the study. Sampling techniques makes possible the conduct of
otherwise impossible studies by selecting representative units from the population, so
results can be used to draw inferences about the total population (Osuala, 1982.)

3.4. Instruments
The research instruments used for data collection was a self-structured questionnaire. It
was a self-generated one that would be used for collecting responses from respondents on
the subject selected for the study. The questionnaire is consisting of two parts.
The first part consists of questions that make it possible for the bio-data to be collected.
This part of the questionnaire was intended to elicit information about the gender, age,
name of church, and educational level of the respondents. The second part contains was
organized in line with the research questions aimed at eliciting responses from
respondents on the role of the church in ensuring peace and harmony in Nigerian.

The Likertscale was used to measure opinions; and for positive questions (Strongly Agree
= 5, Agree = 4, Strongly Disagree = 3, Disagree = 2, Undecided = 1), and for negative
questions (Strongly Agree = 1, Agree = 2, Strongly Disagree = 3, Disagree = 4,
Undecided = 5.)

3.5. Validity and Reliability

This research intends to adopt a face and content validity. This would help to minimize
errors that are likely to be committed during designing the questionnaires by the
researcher. On the other hand, a test-retest method will be adopted to measure the
reliability of the research instrument. In other words, the questionnaire will be
administered to some respondents selected from the study area, different from the sample.

3.6. Data Analysis

The data will be analyzed using statistical package for the social sciences, (SPSS) as the
Pearson correlation will be used in analyzing the data. The study will make use of the
descriptive analysis to achieve the mean, frequency distribution and percentage results of
the responses from the instrument.

30
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION

4.0. Introduction

This chapter is concerned with the presentation, analysis and interpretation of data
gathered from the responses to the administered questionnaires. It should be noted that
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) was used for analyzing frequencies and
testing research hypothesis.

4.1. Presentation of Data

The research questionnaire was administered to 156 respondents which is the sample size
representing the study population. Of this said size, one hundred (100) questionnaires
representing (64.1%) were returned, and fifty-six (56) questionnaires representing
(35.9%) were not returned. The table below shows the details at a glance.

4.1.1. Analysis of Response Demographic Data

Table 4.1.1: Showing the number of questionnaires administered and the number of
respondents

QUESTIONNAIR NUMBER OF PERCENTAGE

E RESPONDENTS

ADMINISTERED

Total Administered 156 100%

Returned 100 64.1%

Not Returned 56 35.9%

4.2. Data Analysis and Interpretation

4.2.1. Analysis of Personal Data

Table 4.2.1. Sex
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Vali Male 55 55.0 55.0 55.0
d Female 45 45.0 45.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ gender. From the data gathered, it shows that
55 of the respondents representing (55.0%) were Males, and 45 representing (45.0%)

31
were Females. Therefore, it was concluded that majority of the respondents representing
(55.0%) were Females.

Table 4.2.2. Age

Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Vali 31-35 30 30.0 30.0 30.0
d 36-40 36 36.0 36.0 66.0
41 and above 34 34.0 34.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ age. From the data gathered, it shows that 30
of the respondents representing (30.0%) were between 31-35years, 36 representing
(36.0%) were between 36-40years, and 34 representing (34.0%) were 41years and above.
Therefore, it was concluded that majority of the respondents representing (36.0%) were
between 36-40years

Table 4.2.3. Names of Churches

Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Vali RCCG 35 35.0 35.0 35.0
d Winners 34 34.0 34.0 69.0
Christ Embassy 31 31.0 31.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ names of the churches. From the data
gathered, it shows that 35 of the respondents representing (35.0%) were Redeemed, 34
representing (34.0%) were Winners, and 31 representing (31.0%) were Christ Embassy.
Therefore, it was concluded that the majority of the respondents representing (35.0%)
were Redeemed.

Table 4.2.4. Educational Level

Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Vali ND/NCE 27 27.0 27.0 27.0
d BSC/HND 46 46.0 46.0 73.0

32
 Others 27 27.0 27.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ educational level. From the data gathered it
shows that 27 of the respondents representing (27.0%) were NCE/ND holders, 46
representing (46.0%) were BSC/HND holders, and 27 representing (27.0%) were others.
Therefore, it was concluded that the majority of the respondents representing (46.0%)
were BSC/HND holders.

Table 4.2.5. The church has maintained a cordial relationaship with the community
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
45 45.0 45.0 45.0
Agreed
Agreed 55 55.0 55.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on whethe the church has
maintained a cordial relationship with the community. From the data gathered, it shows
that 45 of the respondents representing (45.0%) strongly agreed, and 55 representing
(55.0%) agreed. Therefore, it was concluded that majority of the respondents representing
(55.0%) agreed that, the church has maintained a cordial relationship with the
community.

Table 4.2.6. The church as a worship centre has engaged in preachings that
ensure peace and harmony
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Valid Strongly Agreed 68 68.0 68.0 68.0
Agreed 26 26.0 26.0 94.0
Disagreed 6 6.0 6.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinions based on whether the church as a
worship centre has engaged in preachings that ensure peace and harmony. From the data
gathered, it shows that 68 of the respondents representing (68.0%) strongly agreed, 26
representing (26.0%) agreed, and 6 representing (6.0%) disagreed. Therefore, it was

33
concluded that the majority of the respondents representing (68.0%) strongly agreed that,
the church as a worship centre has engaged in preachings that ensure peace and harmony.

Table 4.2.7. The church through PFN has played a vital role in fostering peace in
conflict replete zones
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
35 35.0 35.0 35.0
Agreed
Agreed 57 57.0 57.0 92.0
Undecided 8 8.0 8.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on whether the church through
PFN has played a vital role in fostering peace in conflict replete zones. From the data
gathered, it shows that 35 of the respondents representing (35.0%) strongly agreed, 57
representing (57.0%) agreed, and 8 representing (8.0%) undecided. Therefore, it was
concluded that majority of the respondents representing (57.0%) agreed that, the church
through PFN has played a vital role in fostering peace in conflict replete zones.

Table 4.2.8. The church has promoted ethno-religious tolerance of opposing views to
ensure peaceful co-existence and harmony in Nigeria.
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
63 63.0 63.0 63.0
Agreed
Agreed 34 34.0 34.0 97.0
Undecided 3 3.0 3.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on whether the church has
promoted ethno-religious tolerance of opposing views to ensure peaceful co-existence
and harmony in Nigeria. From the data gathered, it shows that 63 of the respondents
representing (63.0%) strongly agreed, 34 representing (34.0%) agreed, and 3 representing
(3.0%) undecided. Therefore, it was concluded that majority of the respondents
representing (63.0%) strongly agreed that, the church has promoted ethno-religious
tolerance of opposing views to ensure peaceful co-existence and harmony in Nigeria.

34
 Table 4.2.9. Has the church been effective in bringing peace and harmony to
the society
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Vali Strongly Agreed 36 36.0 36.0 36.0
d Agreed 47 47.0 47.0 83.0
Disagreed 10 10.0 10.0 93.0
Strongly Disagreed 7 7.0 7.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on whether the church has been
effective in bringing peace and harmony to the society. From the data gathered, it shows
that 36 of the respondents representing (36.0%) strongly agreed, 47 representing (47.0%)
agreed, 10 representing (10.0%) disagreed, and 7 representing (7.0%) strongly disagreed.
Therefore, it was concluded that majority of the respondents representing (47.0%) agreed
that, the church been effective in bringing peace and harmony to the society.

Table 4.2.10. Is the church an effective platform through which peace can be restored
in conflicting zones
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Vali Strongly
65 65.0 65.0 65.0
d Agreed
Agreed 28 28.0 28.0 93.0
Undecided 7 7.0 7.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on whether the church is an
effective platform through which peace can be restored in conflicting zones. From the
data gathered, it shows that 65 of the respondents representing (65.0%) strongly agreed,
28 representing (28.0%) agreed, and 7 representing (7.0%) undecided. Therefore, it was
concluded that majority of the respondents representing (65.0%) strongly agreed that, the
church is an effective platform through which peace can be restored in conflicting zones.

Table 4.2.11. Does the church has the power to guarantee peace in conflicting areas
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent

35
 Vali Strongly
73 73.0 73.0 73.0
d Agreed
Agreed 27 27.0 27.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on whether they think the
church has the power to guarantee peace in conflicting areas. From the data gathered, it
shows that 73 of the respondents representing (73.0%) strongly agreed, and 27
representing (27.0%) agreed. Therefore, it was concluded that majority of the respondents
representing (73.0%) strongly agreed that, the church has the power to guarantee peace in
conflicting areas.

Table 4.2.12. Is the church an agent of peace building

Frequency Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent Percent
Vali Strongly
33 33.0 33.0 33.0
d Agreed
Agreed 46 46.0 46.0 79.0
Undecided 12 12.0 12.0 91.0
Disagreed 6 6.0 6.0 97.0
Strongly
3 3.0 3.0 100.0
Disagreed
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on whether the church is an
agent of peace building. From the data gathered, it shows that 33 of the respondents
representing (33.0%) strongly agreed, 46 representing (46.0%) agreed, 12 representing
(12.0%) undecided, 6 representing (6.0%) disagreed, and 3 representing (3.0%) strongly
disagreed. Therefore, it was concluded that majority of the respondents representing
(46.0%) agreed that, the church an agent of peace building.

Table 4.2.13. Corruption has affected the effectiveness of the church in ensuring peace
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
41 41.0 41.0 41.0
Agreed
Agreed 29 29.0 29.0 70.0
Disagreed 30 30.0 30.0 100.0

36
 Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on whether they think
corruption has affected the effectiveness of the church in ensuring peace. From the data
gathered, it shows that 41 of the respondents representing (41.0%) strongly agreed, 29
representing (29.0%) agreed, and 30 representing (30.0%) disagreed. Therefore, it was
concluded that majority of the respondents representing (41.0%) strongly agreed that,
they think corruption has affected the effectiveness of the church in ensuring peace.

Table 4.2.14. Politics has entered the church and has hindered its effectiveness in
ensuring peace and harmony
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Vali Strongly
27 27.0 27.0 27.0
d Agreed
Agreed 31 31.0 31.0 58.0
Disagreed 29 29.0 29.0 87.0
Strongly
13 13.0 13.0 100.0
Disagreed
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on whether they think the
politics has entered the church and has hindered its effectiveness in ensuring peace and
harmony. From the data gathered, it shows that 27 of the respondents representing
(27.0%) strongly agreed, 31 representing (31.0%) agreed, 29 representing (29.0%)
disagreed, and 13 representing (13.0%) strongly disagreed. Therefore, it was concluded
that majority of the respondents representing (31.0%) disagreed that, they think the
church has been politicized, hindering its effectiveness in ensuring peace and harmony.

Table 4.2.15. The issue of ethnic conflict has affected the effectiveness of the
church in ensuring peace
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Valid Strongly Agreed 77 77.0 77.0 77.0
Agreed 23 23.0 23.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

37
The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on whether the issue of ethnic
conflict has affected the effectiveness of the church in ensuring peace. From the data
gathered, it shows that 77 of the respondents representing (77.0%) strongly agreed, and
23 representing (23.0%) agreed. Therefore, it was concluded that majority of the
respondents representing (77.0%) strongly agreed that, the issue of ethnic conflict has
affected the effectiveness of the church in ensuring peace.

Table 4.2.16. Gender and social class are some other factors hampering the
effectiveness of the church in ensuring peace and harmony
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Valid Strongly Agreed 40 40.0 40.0 40.0
Agreed 41 41.0 41.0 81.0
Undecided 10 10.0 10.0 91.0
Disagreed 9 9.0 9.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on whether gender and social
class are other factors hampering the effectiveness of the church in ensuring peace and
harmony. From the data gathered, it shows that 40 of the respondents representing
(40.0%) strongly agreed, 41 representing (41.0%) agreed, 10 representing (10.0%)
undecided, and 9 representing (9.0%) disagreed. Therefore, it was concluded that
majority of the respondents representing (41.0%) agreed that, gender and social class are
some other factors hampering the effectiveness of the church in ensuring peace and
harmony

Table 4.2.17. Do you think the church should use the avoidance method in
restoring peace
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Vali Strongly Agreed 37 37.0 37.0 37.0
d Agreed 48 48.0 48.0 85.0
Undecided 15 15.0 15.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on whether they think the
church should use the avoidance method in restoring peace. From the data gathered, it

38
shows that 37 of the respondents representing (37.0%) strongly agreed, 48 representing
(48.0%) agreed, and 15 representing (15.0%) undecided. Therefore, it was concluded that
majority of the respondents representing (48.0%) agreed that, they think the church
should use the avoidance method in restoring peace.

Table 4.2.18. The church should adopt peacemaking through faith in action
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Valid Strongly Agreed 88 88.0 88.0 88.0
Agreed 12 12.0 12.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on if the church should adopt
peacemaking through faith in action. From the data gathered, it shows that 88 of the
respondents representing (88.0%) strongly agreed, and 12 representing (12.0%) agreed.
Therefore, it was concluded that majority of the respondents representing (88.0%)
strongly agreed that, the church should adopt peacemaking through faith in action

Table 4.2.19. The church should adopt the negotiation style in conflict resolution
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
75 75.0 75.0 75.0
Agreed
Agreed 25 25.0 25.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on whether the church should
adopt the negotiation style in conflict resolution. From the data gathered, it shows that 75
of the respondents representing (75.0%) strongly agreed, and 25 representing (25.0%)
agreed. Therefore, it was concluded that majority of the respondents representing (75.0%)
strongly agreed that, the church should adopt the negotiation style in conflict resolution

Table 4.2.20. The synergistic style should be adopted by the church in order to ensure
peace and harmony in the society
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent

39
 Vali Strongly
19 19.0 19.0 19.0
d Agreed
Agreed 73 73.0 73.0 92.0
Undecided 8 8.0 8.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0

The table above classifies the respondents’ opinion based on whether the synergistic style
should be adopted by the church in order to ensure peace and harmony in the society.
From the data gathered, it shows that 19 of the respondents representing (19.0%) strongly
agreed, 73 representing (73.0%) agreed, and 8 representing (8.0%) undecided. Therefore,
it was concluded that majority of the respondents representing (73.0%) agreed that, the
synergistic style should be adopted by the church in order to ensure peace and harmony
in the society.

4.3. Discussion of Findings

As obtained from the findings above, it was revealed that, the church in particular plays a
significant role in ensuring peaceful co-existence in conflicting areas, and ensuring peace
and harmony in Nigeria in general.

The study further revealed that, there are factors limiting the effectiveness of the church
in ensuring peace and harmony in Nigeria.

However, the result showed that, the strategies adopted by the church have significant
influence in ensuring peace and harmony in the Nigeria.

40
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1. Summary of the Study

This study examined the role of the church in ensuring peace and harmony in the society

through the prism of PFN. Chapter one of the study discussed the background to the

study, statement of problems, purpose of study, research questions, scope of study, and

significance of the study. It also covered the operational definition of terms. The study

identified two (2) major purposes of study, which are: to evaluate the actual role the

church has played in maintaining peace and harmony using the Pentecostal Fellowship of

Nigeria as a case study, and then, consider the possible factors militating against the

peaceful co-existence and the harmonious relationship of all ethnic groups in the land in a

bid to proffering a lasting solution.

Chapter two of this study examined the review of literature in the subject matter by
looking at the conceptual, and theoretical reviews. This chapter provides us with more
insight into the concept of church, the church as an agent of peace and harmony, the
Pentecostal Fellowship of Nigeria's efforts, the challenges limiting the role of church in
ensuring peace and harmony in the land and the ways through which peace and harmony
can be upheld, . The study however adopts the human need theory. The focus of Human
Needs Theory is premised on the origin of conflicting claims most especially as it seeks
to deal with the visibility of meeting parties’ needs while also considering the
expectations of others in it.

The chapter three of this research work discussed the research methodology employed in
carrying out this study, which involves the research design, population, sampling size,
and sampling technique, method of data collection, validity and reliability of research
instrument, and the method of data analysis.

Chapter four of this study focused on data analysis. As obtained from the data analysed,
the church has a significant role to play in the maintenance of peace and harmony in the
land. It was further found out that, the church has a significant relationship with the
community, thereby leveraging on that to ensure peace and harmony in Nigeria. The
study revealed that, there are obvious factors limiting the effectiveness of the church in
ensuring peace and harmony in the nation. Lastly, the result showed that, the strategies
adopted by the church have significant influence in ensuring peace and harmony in the
Nigeria.

41
Finally, chapter five of this study will discuss the summary, conclusion and as well make
recommendations on the subject matter.

5.2. Conclusion

Literature has shown that Nigeria has been tagged a “security risk nation," that's because
of the constant crises, social vices, and the rather poor relationship among its ethnic and
religious groups. It is crystal clear that religious organisations have played mediatory and
humanitarian roles toward peaceful co-existence in Nigeria. These roles include religious
tolerance, honesty, and impartiality among others. Christian leaders and institutions have
attributes that are considered trustworthy and credible by the local population to their
established roles in their respective communities and as such should be used in conflict
situations as peace broker agents to foster peace. The need for thorough reorientation of
Nigerians to allow the citizens to see themselves as brethren no matter their religious
differences cannot be overemphasised. In order to do this in a satisfactory manner, one
needs to be concerned with the relationship between peace and Christianity, that is, the
spiritual dimensions of human life. Furthermore, our political, social, and Christian
leaders must make concrete and concerted efforts to see that peace reign supreme
throughout the country. However, religious chauvinism should be curbed and proper
tenets of Christianity taught, practiced, and promoted. What needs to be undertaken is the
integration of Christianity into peace. “It is only through this integration that Nigerians
would be motivated to be selfless rather than protecting their self-interest and sacrificing
the interest of others. Thus, when Christianity is rightly handled, it could be the solution
to the incessant violence, confrontation, and conflicts in Nigeria. Christianity is therefore
an indispensable tool in the promotion of peace and harmony in Nigeria.

5.3. Recommendation

Based on the conclusion above, the following recommendations were posed:

• It is recommended that, church leaders should approach politicians and teach them
the importance of good governance and encourage them to avoid discrimination
and marginalization of the people when dealing with developmental projects and
religious matters in the country. That is, politicians should not mingle religion
with politics. They are separate entities that must be treated as such.

• The study recommends that, church leaders should preach and promote ethno-
religious tolerance and accommodate opposing views as part of deepening
peaceful co-existence and harmony in the country.

• The study also recommends that church leaders should monitor Christian
politicians in order to sponsor bills that champion peaceful co-existence.

42
• It was recommended that, inter-faith training of the youths should be encouraged
by the church leaders so as to enlighten them about the faith and belief system of
others who are not of same faith.

• The study also recommends that church leaders should ensure the protection of
religious freedom of the citizens.

• The study further recommends that, due to the flagrant abuse of fundamental
individual and group rights in the country, there is a need to promote a human
rights-based approach to the protection of religious freedom in Nigeria.

• It was also recommended that the church should redouble its efforts as a facilitator
of dialogues and mediator between conflicting parties.

• It was also recommended that the church should set up its advocacy by sensitizing
and orientating the people about their rights and the rights of others especially on
peaceful co-existence, civic and religious rights, among others.

43
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