ELECTROSTATIC FORCE AND FIELD

Electric charge is a fundamental physical quantity due to which electrical and other related effects are produced
in the matter.

Frictional electricity: The electricity developed on the objects when they are rubbed with each other or due to
friction is called frictional electricity.

Methods of Charging
1. Conduction: When an uncharged conductor is brought in contact with a charged conductor, the
uncharged conductor will acquire similar charge to the charged conductor.
2. Frictional electrification: Electricity produced due to rubbing of two suitable materials in suitable
conditions.
3. Induction: When a charged body is placed near an uncharged body, its nearer face attains the
opposite charge to the charged body while the farther face attains the similar charge.

Properties of an electric charge:

1. Additivity of an electric charge
Electric charge is additive i.e. total charge on a body is equal to the algebraic sum of all the charges
distributed on the different parts of the body.

2. Conservation of electric charge:

It states that for an isolated system, the net charge always remains constant. It can neither be created
nor destroyed, it may be transferred from one part of the system to another.

3. Quantization of charge:
The experimental fact that charge on any body exists as an integral multiple of smallest amount ‘e’ is
called quantization of charge.
 e   e  1.6 x10 19 C
q = ± e, ± 2e, ± 3e, …….., ± ne
.

Coulombs law in electrostatics:

It states that the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two charges is directly proportional to
the product of the magnitude of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.

For two charges q1 and q2 placed at a distance r in vacuum, the Coulomb force between them is
q 1q 2
F
r2

q 1q 2
FK
r2
1
proportionality constant K   9x109 Nm 2C2 or Fm1 for the charges in air or vacuum.
4πε 0
ε0 is permittivity of free space or vacuum
ε0 = 8.854 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2
1 q 1q 2
F
4πε 0 r 2

If q1 = q1 = 1C and r = 1m then F = 9 x 109 N

Defn: 1 coulomb is that quantity of charge that exerts a force of 9 x 109 N on an equal charge placed in
vacuum at a distance of 1 m from it.
1 q1q 2
* The force between two charges in air or vacuum F 
4πε 0 r 2
1 q1q 2
* The force between two charges in any other medium F 
4πε r 2
ε : is permittivity of the medium
εair = 1.005 ε0
εwater = 81 ε0

Relative permittivity (εr or k): It is the ratio of permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of air or
vacuum.
It is also called dielectric constant or SIC (specific inductive capacity of the medium)
 ε Fvacuum
εr  k  
ε 0 Fmedium

If q1q2 > 0 force is repulsive, charges are like

If q1q2 < 0 force is attractive, charges are unlike

Electrostatic force Gravitational force

1. may be attractive or repulsive 1. It is always an attractive force
2. It is of the order of 1039 times gravitational 2. a weak fundamental force
force 3. varies inversely as the square of the
3. varies inversely as the square of the distance distance
4. It is a central and also a conservative force 4. It is a central and also a conservative
force
Coulombs law is valid at r ≥ 10-15 m and for point charges or spheres.

Principle of superposition: It states that the force on any charge due to a number of charges is the vector
sum of all the forces on that charge due to the other charges, taken one at a time.
The individual forces are unaffected due to the presence of the other charges.

Electric field:


Electric field intensity or strength of electric field E at a point is defined as the electrostatic force per unit
positive charge acting on a vanishingly small positive test charge placed at that point.
It is a vector quantity.
Its direction is same as that of the force on the test charge.

If force F is the force experienced by a test charge at a point where the electric field is to be determined,
then,

 F
E  lim
q o 0
q0
The test charge should be very small, because it should not disturb the electric field of the source charge
when placed at that point.
 
Force on the test charge in an electric field is F  q 0 E

Unit of electric field is NC-1.

Electric field due to a point charge:

Consider a point charge +q placed at a point A in vacuum. Let a test charge q0 be placed at a point P at a
distance r from charge +q. Acc., to Coulombs law, force on the test charge is
 1 qq 0
F r̂
4πε 0 r 2
r̂ is a unit vector along AP. Electric field at point P is A r P
 1 1 qq 0 +q q0
E  lim r̂
qo 0
q 0 4πε 0 r 2
 1 q
E r̂
4πε 0 r 2
 1 q
E r
4πε 0 r 3
The magnitude of the electric field at point P is
1 q
E
4πε 0 r 2
For a +ve charge, electric field is radially outwards and for a - ve charge, electric field is radially inwards.

Electric field due to a distribution of charges:

Electric field at any point due to a group of charges is equal to the vector sum of the electric fields produced
by each charge individually at that point, when all the charges are assumed to be absent.
 1 q
E1  r̂1
4πε 0 r12
 1 q
E2  r̂2
4πε 0 r22
  1 q
En  r̂n
4πε 0 rn2

r
n
1 q
E r̂i
4πε 0 i 0 i
2

 dl 1   dl q 0

1 q
Electric field due to line distribution of charge E 
L
r 2
r̂ and force F 
4πε 0 4πε 0 L r  2
r̂ also  
2 πr
 1  ds   ds q 0

1 q
Electric field due to surface charge distribution E 
4πε 0 S r 2
r̂ and force F 
4πε 0 S r  2
r̂ also  
4 πr 2
 1  dv   dv q 0

1 3q
Electric field due to volume charge distribution E 
4πε 0 V r 2
r̂ and force F 
4πε 0 V r 
2
r̂ also  
4 πr 3

Electric field lines: An electric field line is a path along which a unit positive charge would move, if it is
free to do so.
An electric field line may be straight of curved.
Incase if it is curved, the direction of the field at any point is given by the tangent to the line of force at that
point.

Properties of electric lines of force:

1. The electric line of force starts from a + ve charge and end on a - ve charge.
2. The lines of force originate or terminate at a surface always at right angle to it.
3. The lines of force do not pass through a conductor i.e. the electric field inside
a conductor is always zero.
4. The lines of force never intersect each other
5. The relative closeness of lines of force in different regions of space gives the idea
about the relative strengths of the electric fields in different regions.
(closer the lines of force in a region, stronger is the electric field )

Electric dipole: An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges, +q and -q, separated by some
distance 2a.
e.g. molecule of water, ammonia, etc

AB = 2a is called length of e dipole and is a vector 2a with direction from -q to +q. A +q
2a B
-q

Electric dipole moment: p
It is defined as the product of either charge and the length of the electric dipole.
 
It is denoted as p and has direction as 2a
 
p  q 2a 
Magnitude of electric dipole moment is p  q 2a 
Unit of electric dipole moment is coulomb metre (C-m)

Electric field at a point along the axis of an electric dipole:

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges -q and +q separated by a distance 2a placed in free space.
Let P be a point on the axis of the dipole at a distance r from the centre O of the dipole.

The net electric field at point P due to the dipole will be the resultant of the electric field E A due to charge -q

and E B due to charge +q.
1 q
EA  ....................along PA
4πε 0 r  a 
2

1 q
EB  ....................along PX
4πε 0 r  a 
2

 
Since E A and E B are along the same axis but in opposite direction, the magnitude of the resultant electric
field is
E = EB - EA since EB > EA
1 q 1 q
E  ....................along PX
4πε 0 r  a  4πε 0 r  a 
2 2

q  r  a   r  a  
2 2

E  
4πε 0  r 2  a 2  
2

q  4ra 
E   ………………….along PX
4πε 0  r 2  a 2  
2

But p  q 2a  , magnitude of the electric dipole moment

 1 2pr
E ………………….1
4πε 0 r  a 2 
2 2

Thus the direction of electric field at a point on the axis of a dipole is same as that of its electric dipole
moment.
For a dipole of very small length r >> a, then a2 can be neglected.
1 2p
E ....................along PX
4πε 0 r 3

Electric field at a point along equator of a dipole:

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges -q and +q separated by a distance 2a placed in free space.
Let P be a point on the equatorial line (perpendicular bisector) of the dipole at a distance r from its centre O.
 
Let E A and E B be the electric field at point P due to charge -q and +q respectively.
The magnitudes of the electric field are
1 q
EA 
4πε 0 r  a 2 
2
....................along PA

1 q
EB 
4πε 0 r 2  a 2 
....................along BP

Thus EA= EB. These fields can be resolved into two components:
EA cos θ along PN and EA sin θ along PO
EB cos θ along PN and EB sin θ along PX
Since EA sin θ and EB sin θ are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, they cancel out.  The resultant
electric field at point P due to the dipole is due to the remaining components as they are directed along the
same line.
The resultant field is,
E = EA cos θ + EB cos θ
E = 2 EA cos θ
1 q a
E  2.
4πε 0 r 2  a 2  r 2  a 2
.

1 q2a 
E ......................along PN
4πε 0 r  a 2 
2 3/ 2

But p  q 2a  , magnitude of the electric dipole moment

1 p
E ......................along PN
4πε 0 r 2  a 2 
3/ 2

Thus the direction of electric field at a point on the perpendicular bisector of a dipole is opposite to that of
the electric dipole moment of the dipole.
For a dipole of very small length r >> a, then a2 can be neglected.
1 p
E ....................along PN
4πε 0 r 3

Electric dipole in a uniform electric field: 

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges -q and +q and length 2a placed in a uniform electric field E
making an angle θ with the direction of the field.
 
Force on charge -q at A =  qE opposite to E
 
Force on charge +q at B =  qE along E
Thus, two equal and opposite forces act on the dipole, hence the net force on the dipole is zero. Thus the
dipole does not undergo any translational motion.
These equal and opposite forces acting along two parallel lines give rise to a torque on the dipole. The
magnitude of the torque is
 = either force x perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the two forces
  qE x AN
  qE x AN
  qE x 2a sin θ
But p  q 2a  , magnitude of the electric dipole moment
  pE sin θ
This torque tends to rotate and align the dipole along the direction of the electric field. Thus
  
τ  pE
Case I: Torque is maximum when θ = 90º i.e. when the dipole is at right angle to the field.
Case II: Torque is zero when θ = 0º i.e. when the dipole aligns along the field.
Area vector: is a vector with the magnitude equal to the area of the surface and directed perpendicular to the
surface.

Electric flux (): It is the measure of the number of electric lines of force passing perpendicular to a surface
held in the electric field. It is a scalar quantity.

Consider a small surface of area ds held perpendicular to an electric field E. Thus the area vector will be
parallel to the electric field.
Thus the electric flux through the surface is
 
d  E.d s
d  E ds cos 
Where θ is the angle between the electric field and area vector.
d  E ds since θ = 0º
For a surface held in an electric field with its area vector at an angle θ to the electric field, the electric flux is
d  E ds cos 
d  E cos  ds
For any closed surface of any shape, electric flux over a small area element ds with electric field E is
 
d  E.d s
total electric flux will be the sum total of all fluxes over such small area elements and is given as
 

  E.d s
Unit of electric flux: Nm2C-1

→ lines of force entering any closed surface contribute negatively to the electric flux since θ > 90º
→ lines of force leaving any closed surface contribute positively to the electric flux since θ < 90º
→lines of force parallel to the surface do not contribute to the flux

Flux through a sphere around a point charge:

Consider a charge +q placed at a point O. Let ds be a small area element at a distance R from the charge +q.
The electric field is along the area element vector ds.  θ = 0º
Electric flux through ds is
d  E ds cos 0
d  E ds
If ds is extended at a distance R, it forms a sphere of radius R.At each point on the surface of this sphere E
is normal and is constant, since the charge is at the centre of the sphere.
The outward electric flux through the sphere is

  E ds

  E ds  d E
  E 4R 2 s

but E 
1 q +q s
4πε 0 r 2
1 q
 4R 2
4πε 0 r 2
q

ε0
Thus the flux is independent of the shape of the surface and the position of the charge.
For a charge placed in any other medium of dielectric constant k
q

ε
q

kε 0

Gauss theorem: It states that, for any closed surface, the total electric flux over the closed surface is 1/єo
times the algebraic sum of the charges enclosed, where єo is the permittivity of the free space.

Gaussian surface: Any imaginary closed surface around a charge distribution chosen to calculate the flux
due to a charge is called a Gaussian surface.

Surface charge density σ is the charge per unit area over a surface. σ = q/A
for a sphere A = 4πR2
 q

4 πr 2
Thus, higher the area smaller will be the surface charge density.

Electric field intensity outside a long charged conductor:

Consider a uniformly charged conductor of length L placed in a medium of dielectric constant k. Let λ be its
linear charge density. The electric field due to the positively charged conductor is normal to the surface and
is directed radially outwards.
Let P be a point at a distance r form the wire where the electric field E is to be determined. Construct a
Gaussian surface i.e. a coaxial cylinder of length l and radius r with the curved surface passing through point
P
Let E be the electric field on the curved surface of the Gaussian cylinder, which remains constant at every
point on it.
The electric flux through the area element ds at a point P on the Gaussian surface is
 
d  E  d s
the total electric flux through the Gaussian cylinder is
 

  E  ds
but electric field is parallel to the circular flat surfaces of the cylinder, hence electric flux through these
surfaces is zero.
the total electric flux through the Gaussian cylinder is

  E ds since θ = 0º for the curved surface

  E ds 
  E 2rl ……….........1
If q is the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface then by Gauss theorem
q
 ………………..2
kε 0
q
Also, linear charge density is  
l
l
 ………………...3
kε 0
Thus from eqn 1 and eqn 3
l
E 2rl 
kε 0

E …………4
k 2rε 0
For a conductor placed in air

E …………...5
2rε 0

Electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell:

Consider a thin spherical shell with centre O and of radius R placed in a medium of dielectric constant [Link]
q be the charge on the sphere
q
 its surface charge density  
4 πr 2
The electric field due to the shell is radial and is spherically symmetric.
(a) Electric field at any point P outside the shell:
Consider a point P outside the spherical shell at a distance r from the centre O of the sphere.
Draw a spherical Gaussian surface through point P of radius r.
At every point on this Gaussian surface, electric field E has same magnitude and is normal to the surface. If
ds is a small area element on the surface, then the flux through the element is
 
d  E  d s
The total electric flux through the surface is
 

  E  ds

   E ds since θ = 0º

  E  ds

  E 4R 2
……………..1
Also by Gauss theorem,
q
 …………….……2
kε 0
P ds
E
OO
s
but q = σ 4πR2
subs for q in eqn 2
 4R 2
 ……………3
kε 0
from eqn 1 and eqn 3
 4R 2
E 4r 2 
kε 0
R2
E ……………….4
kε 0 r 2
For a sphere placed in air k = 1
R2
E …………..…….5
ε0r 2
(b) Electric field at any point Q on thesurface of the sphere:
If the point Q lies on the surface of the sphere then the Gaussian surface through Q will just enclose the
charged spherical shell. Thus r = R.
from eqn 4
R2
E
kε 0 R 2

E ………….6
kε 0
For a sphere placed in air, k=1

E
ε0
(c) Electric field at any point S inside the spherical shell:
When the point S lies inside the spherical shell, the Gaussian surface through it will not enclose any
charge,since the charge remains on the surface of the sphere.
Thus the electric field at any point inside the sphere will be zero, E = 0.

Electrostatic Shielding: The electric field inside the cavity of a conductor placed in an electrostatic field is
zero. This is called electrostatic shielding.
Electronic devices are shielded from electric field by placing tem in metal shields. During lightening it is
safer to be inside the car or a bus than in an open ground or under a tree.

Electric field due to an infinite plane sheet of charge:

Consider a thin plane sheet of uniform surface charge density σ.
By symmetry of both sides, the electric field is perpendicular to the sheet and is directed outwards such that
the field must have same magnitude and opposite directions at points P and P′ at a distance r on both sides.
Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of area of cross-section A passing through the plane sheet of charge,
such that points P and P′ lie on its circular faces.
Since the electric field is parallel to the axis of the cylinder, it passes only through the circular faces. If E is
the magnitude of the electric field at points P and P′, then the electric flux crossing the Gaussian surface is,

  E ds

  E ds 
  E 2A ...………1
If q is the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, then by gauss theorem
q
 ………….2
kε 0
but q = σ A
A
 …………….3
kε 0
form eqn 1 and eqn 3
A
E 2A 
kε 0

E ……..……4
2kε 0
for the sheet placed in air k = 1

E ……..……5
2ε 0
Thus the electric field due the plane sheet of charge is independent of the distance from the sheet of charge.
Electrostatic properties of a conductor:
1. There is no electric field inside a conductor.
When a conductor is placed in an external electric field, the free electrons inside the conductor move
in the direction opposite to the direction of the applied field, inducing charges on the faces of the
conductor. These induced charges produce equal and opposite electric field to the existing one. Thus
the net electric field inside the conductor is zero.
2. There is no net charge inside the conductor.
This is because the electric field inside the conductor is zero.
3. Immediately outside the conductor, the electric field is perpendicular to the surface.
If the electric field was not perpendicular, then there will be a component of the electric field along
the surface, hence the charges on the surface will move producing surface currents, which is not
possible.
4. Charges reside only on the surface of a conductor.
5. The entire body of each conductor including its surface is at a constant potential.
This is because the electric field is always perpendicular to the surface and electric field inside the
conductor is zero.
6. Surface charge density is high where the radius of curvature of the surface of the conductor is small.