Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Chapter 1: Design of Reinforced Concrete Columns

[Link]
A column is structural member (commonly vertical) subjected to axial compressive force with or
without bending moment and transmitting the load from the floors and roof to the sub-soil
through the foundation. The cross-sectional dimensions of a column are generally considerably
less than its height. According to ES EN 1992:2015 clause 5.3.1 (7); a column is a member for
which the section depth does not exceed 4 times its width and the height is at least 3 times the
section depth. Otherwise clause 9.6.1(1); if the larger dimension ℎ is greater than four times the
smaller dimension 𝑏, it is considered as walls.
In a typical construction, the reinforcement and concrete for the beam and slabs in a floor system
are placed first. Once this concrete has hardened, the reinforcement and concrete for the columns
over that floor are placed. The longitudinal (vertical) bars protruding from the column will
extend through the floor into the next-higher column and will be lap spliced with the bars in that
column. The longitudinal bars are bent inward to fit inside the cage of bars for the next higher
column.

The more general terms compression members subjected to combined axial and bending are
sometimes used to refer to columns, walls, and members in concrete trusses or frames. These
may be vertical, inclined, or horizontal. A column is a special case of a compression member that
is vertical.

1.1.1. Classification of columns

Columns may be classified based on the following criteria:

a) Classification on the basis of geometry

The geometrical cross section of a column is typically chosen based on the structural
requirements and architectural considerations of a building or structure. While the most common
cross-sectional shapes for columns are rectangular or circular, L-shaped or T-shaped columns
can be used in specific situations. Here are a few conditions where L-shaped or T-shaped
columns may be employed:

i. Architectural Design: L-shaped or T-shaped columns may be used to achieve specific

aesthetic goals or design features. Architects sometimes incorporate these shapes to

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create visually interesting elements or to enhance the overall architectural style of a

building.
ii. Structural Considerations: L-shaped or T-shaped columns can be advantageous in
providing additional support or accommodating specific load requirements. For example,
if a column needs to support a concentrated load from a beam or transfer loads from
different directions, an L-shaped or T-shaped cross section may be employed to distribute
and transfer those loads effectively.
iii. Space Constraints: In situations where there are space constraints, L-shaped or T-shaped
columns can be utilized to optimize the use of available space. These shapes can be
advantageous when columns need to be placed near corners or walls, allowing for better
space utilization and potentially reducing the number of columns required.
iv. Retrofitting or Renovations: In some cases, existing structures may require additional
support due to changes in usage, increased loads, or structural deficiencies. L-shaped or
T-shaped columns can be introduced during retrofitting or renovation projects to
reinforce the existing structure and provide the necessary load-bearing capacity.

It's important to note that the selection of column shapes depends on various factors, including
structural analysis, architectural considerations, and building codes. The design and selection of
column shapes should always be carried out by qualified structural engineers and architects to
ensure the structural integrity and safety of the building or structure.

b) Classification on the basis of composition

Here are some common classifications based on their composition:

i. Concrete Columns: These columns are made of reinforced concrete, which is a composite
material consisting of concrete and steel reinforcement. Concrete columns are widely
used in building structures due to their strength, durability, and fire resistance.
ii. Steel Columns: Steel columns are constructed using structural steel, which is known for
its high strength-to-weight ratio. Steel columns are often used in commercial and
industrial buildings, as well as for bridges and other large-scale structures.

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iii. Timber Columns: Timber columns, also known as wood columns, are made from wood
or engineered wood products. They are commonly used in residential and light
commercial construction due to their aesthetic appeal and ease of construction.

iv. Composite Columns: Composite columns are constructed by combining different

materials, such as steel and concrete or steel and timber, to take advantage of their
respective properties. These columns offer a balance between strength, cost-effectiveness,
and design flexibility.

Figure 1.1: Composite columns

v. In-filled Columns: Columns having steel pipes filled with plain concrete or lightly
reinforced concrete.

Figure 1.2: In-filled columns

vi. Masonry Columns: Masonry columns are built using materials like bricks, blocks, or
stones held together with mortar. They are often found in older buildings or structures
with a traditional architectural style.

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vii. Precast Concrete Columns: Precast concrete columns are premanufactured off-site and
then transported and installed at the construction site. They provide a consistent quality
and speed up the construction process.

It's important to note that the choice of column composition depends on various factors,
including the structural requirements, architectural design, cost considerations, and local building
codes and regulations. Structural engineers and architects assess these factors to determine the
most suitable column type for a particular project.

c) Classification on the basis of lateral reinforcement

Structural columns can be classified based on the type and amount of lateral reinforcement used.
Lateral reinforcement in columns is typically provided to enhance their resistance to lateral
loads, such as wind or seismic forces. The following are some common classifications of
structural columns based on their lateral reinforcement:

i. Tied Columns: Columns where main (longitudinal) reinforcements are held in position by
separate ties or spirals spaced at regular intervals along the length. The ties help confine
the concrete and prevent it from spalling under lateral loads. Tied columns are suitable
for moderate lateral load conditions and over 95% of all columns in
buildings in non-seismic regions are tied columns.
ii. Spiral Reinforced Columns: Spiral reinforced columns have a continuous spiral
reinforcement along the length of the column and used usually for columns circular in
cross section. The spiral reinforcement provides enhanced confinement to the concrete,
improving its resistance to lateral loads. Spiral reinforcement is commonly used in high-
rise buildings and structures subjected to significant lateral forces (i.e. cyclic loading
from the earthquake).

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Figure 1.3: Tied columns

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Figure 1.4: Spiral columns

Behavior of Tied and Spiral columns

The load deflection diagrams (see figure 1.5) show the behavior of tied and spiral columns
subjected to axial load.

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Figure 1.5: Load deflection behavior of tied and spiral columns

The initial parts of these diagrams are similar. As the maximum load is reached vertical cracks
and crushing develops in the concrete shell outside the ties or spirals, and this concrete spalls off.

When this happens in a tied column, the capacity of the core that remains is less than the load
and the concrete core crushes and the reinforcement buckles outward between the ties. This
occurs suddenly, without warning, in a brittle manner.

When the shell spalls off in spiral columns, the column doesn’t fail immediately because the
strength of the core has been enhanced by the tri axial stress resulting from the confinement of
the core by the spiral reinforcement. As a result the column can undergo large deformations
before collapses (yielding of spirals). Such failure is more ductile and gives warning to the
impending failure.

Accordingly, ductility in columns can be ensured by providing spirals or closely spaced ties.

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d) Classification on the basis of manner by which lateral stability is provided to the structure
as a whole
i. Unbraced columns

An un-braced structure is one in which frames action is used to resist horizontal loads. In such a
structure, the horizontal loads are transmitted to the foundations through bending action in the
beams and columns. The moments in the columns due to this bending can substantially reduce
their axial (vertical) load carrying capacity.

Un-braced structures are generally quit flexible and allow horizontal displacement (see figure
1.6). When this displacement is sufficiently large to influence significantly the column moments,
the structure is termed a sway frame. As per ES EN 1992 section 5.8, un-braced members or
systems are structural members or subsystems, which in analysis and design are assumed to
contribute to the overall horizontal stability of a structure.

Figure 1.6: Sway frame/Un-braced columns

ii. Braced columns

A braced structure is one which contains bracing elements. These are vertical elements, usually
shear walls, elevators, stairwell shafts, diagonal bracings or a combination of these which are so
stiff relative to other vertical elements that may be assumed to attract all horizontal forces. As
per ES EN 1992 clause 5.8, braced members or systems are structural members or subsystems,

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which in analysis and design are assumed not to contribute to the overall horizontal stability of a
structure.

A column with in such a non-sway structure is considered to be braced and the second order
moment on such column, 𝑃 − ∆ is negligible. This may be assumed to be the case if the frame
attracts not more than 10% of the horizontal loads.

Figure 1.7: Non-sway frame/Braced columns

Generally, a braced structure is one where side sway of the whole structure is unlikely to be
significant, while in unbraced structures side sway is likely to be significant. In the context of the
code significance is defined as:

A braced structure may be defined as “one where the bracing element(s) attract and transmit to
the foundations at least 90% of all horizontal forces applied to the structure.”

Un braced structure may be defined as “lateral displacement of the ends of the columns
increasing the critical bending moments by more than 10% above that calculated by ignoring the
displacements.”

e) Classification on the basis of sensitivity to second order effect due to lateral

displacements (𝑃 − ∆)
i. Sway columns

A frame may be considered as sway if the effects of horizontal displacements of its nodes (p-∆)
are significant to be considered in design. In sway frame, the bending moment of the column is

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increased by an additional amount 𝑃 ∗ ∆, where P is the axial force and ∆ is the relative
displacements of the ends of the column.

Figure 1.8: Column moments in a sway frame

When this displacement is sufficiently large to influence significantly the column moments. Thus
to maximize the axial load capacity of columns, non-sway structures should be used whenever
possible.

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ii. Non-sway columns

A frame may be considered as non-sway if its response to in plane horizontal forces is

sufficiently stiff so that the additional internal forces or moments arising from horizontal
displacements of its nodes can be neglected in design.

Swaying of the structure is not only because of the horizontal forces. It may also be because of
imperfections. As per ES EN 1992:2015 clause 5.2, uncertainties in geometry and position of
axial loads shall be taken into account as additional first order effects based on geometric
imperfections. For frame structures, the effects of imperfections may be allowed for in frame
analysis by means of an equivalent geometric imperfection in the form of an initial sway
imperfection (assuming that the structure is inclined to the vertical at an angle) 𝜃𝑖 determined by:

𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃0 ∗ 𝛼ℎ ∗ 𝛼𝑚

Where 𝜃0 is the basic value, the recommended value for 𝜃0 is 1/200.

𝛼ℎ is the reduction factor for length or height given by

𝜶𝒉 = 𝟐⁄ ; 𝟐/𝟑 ≤ 𝜶𝒉 ≤ 𝟏
√𝑳

𝛼𝑚 is the reduction factor for number of members given by:

𝜶𝒎 = √𝟎. 𝟓(𝟏 + 𝟏⁄𝒎)

𝐿 is the length or height [m]

𝒎 is the number of vertical members contributing to the total effect

The definition of 𝐿 and 𝑚 depends on the effect considered, for which three main cases can be
distinguished (see also Figure 5.1):

 Effect on isolated member: 𝐿 = actual length of member, 𝑚 = 1.

 Effect on bracing system: 𝐿 = height of building, 𝑚 = number of vertical members
contributing to the horizontal force on the bracing system.

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 Effect on floor or roof diaphragms distributing the horizontal loads: 𝐿 = story height,
𝑚 = number of vertical elements in the story(s) contributing to the total horizontal force
on the floor.

Effect of Imperfection (refer ES EN 1992:2015 section 5.2)

For isolated members

The effect of imperfections may be taken into account in two ways:

𝜃𝑖 𝑙0
 As an eccentricity: 𝑒𝑖 = 2

0 𝑙
For isolated columns in braced system, 𝑒𝑖 = 400 may be used.

 As a transverse force: 𝐻𝑖 = 𝜃𝑖 𝑁 for unbraced members

𝑁
𝐻𝑖 = 2𝜃𝑖 𝑁 for braced members = 100

Where N is the axial load and 𝑙0 is the effective length

For cross-sections loaded by the compression force it is necessary to assume the minimum
eccentricity, 𝑒0 = ℎ/30 but not less than 20𝑚𝑚 where ℎ is the depth of the section.

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Figure 1.9: Examples of the effect of geometric imperfections

f) Classification on the basis of degree of slenderness

Columns are broadly categorized in to two based on degree slenderness as short and slender
columns.

Short columns: - are columns with low slenderness ratio (𝜆 < 𝜆𝑙𝑖𝑚 ) and their strengths are
governed by the strength of the materials and the geometry of the cross section.

Slender columns: - are columns with high slenderness ratio (𝜆 > 𝜆𝑙𝑖𝑚 ) and their strength may be
significantly reduced by lateral deflection.

When an unbalanced moment or as moment due to eccentric loading is applied to a column, the
member responds by bending as shown in figure below. If the deflection at the center of the
member is 𝛿 then at the center there is a force 𝑃 and a total moment of 𝑀 + 𝑃𝛿. The second
order bending component 𝑃𝛿 is due to the extra eccentricity of the axial load which results from
the deflection. If the column is short 𝛿 is small and thus second order moment is negligible. On
the other hand if the column is long and δ is large and 𝑃𝛿 must be calculated and added to the
applied moment 𝑀.

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Limit Slenderness ratio 𝝀𝒍𝒊𝒎 (Refer ES EN 1992:2015 section [Link])

Slenderness criterion for isolated members

20 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶
𝜆𝑙𝑖𝑚 = (5.13𝑁)
√𝜂

Where:

𝑨 = 𝟏⁄(𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝝋𝒆𝒇 ) (If 𝜑𝑒𝑓 is not known, 𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟕 may be used)

𝑩 = √𝟏 + 𝝎 (If 𝜔 is not known, 𝑩 = 𝟏. 𝟏 may be used)

𝑪 = 𝟏. 𝟕 − 𝒓𝒎 (If 𝑟𝑚 is not known 𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟕 may be used)

𝝋𝒆𝒇 effective creep ratio; see 5.8.4

𝑨𝒔 𝒇𝒚𝒅
𝝎= ; mechanical reinforcement ratio;
𝑨𝒄 𝒇𝒄𝒅

𝑨𝒔 is the total area of longitudinal reinforcement

𝑵𝑬𝒅
𝜼= ; relative normal force
𝑨𝒄 𝒇𝒄𝒅

𝑴
𝒓𝒎 = 𝑴𝟎𝟏; moment ratio
𝟎𝟐

𝑴𝟎𝟏 , 𝑴𝟎𝟐 are the first order end moments

𝑴𝟎𝟐 being always positive and greater in magnitude than 𝑴𝟎𝟏 , |𝑴𝟎𝟐 | ≥ |𝑴𝟎𝟏 |

𝑴𝟎𝟏 being positive if member is bent in single curvature and negative if bent in double
curvature.

 If the end moments 𝑴𝟎𝟏 and 𝑴𝟎𝟐 give tension on the same side (single curvature),
𝒓𝒎 should be taken positive (i.e. 𝑪 ≤ 𝟏. 𝟕), otherwise negative (i.e. 𝑪 > 𝟏. 𝟕).

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Figure 1.10: Curvatures of column

In the following cases, 𝒓𝒎 should be taken as 𝟏. 𝟎 (i.e.𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟕):

• For braced members in which the first order moments arise only from or predominantly
due to imperfections or transverse loading

• For unbraced members in general

Slenderness and effective length of isolated members (Refer ES EN 1992:2015 section [Link])
The slenderness ratio is defined as follows:
𝐿0
𝜆=
𝑖
Where:

𝐿0 is the effective length, see [Link] (2) to (7)

𝑖 is the radius of gyration of the un-cracked concrete section

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Effective length of isolated members (𝑳𝟎 =𝒌𝑳)

Effective buckling length is the length between points of inflection of columns and it is the
length which is effective against buckling i.e. i.e. the length of a pin-ended column with constant
normal force, having the same cross section and buckling load as the actual member.. A length
used to account for the shape of the deflection curve. The greater the effective length, the more
likely the column is to be buckle.

Methods to calculate effective length of the column, 𝑳𝟎

a) By alignment charts (Nomo-graph)

b) Using approximate equations

a) By alignment charts (Nomo-graph)

The alignment chart is used for members that are parts of a framework. The effect of end
restrained is quantified by the two end restrain factors 𝒌𝟏 and 𝒌𝟐 .

𝐸𝐼
∑ ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑘= 𝐿
𝐸𝐼
∑ (2 ) 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝐿

𝒌 = 𝟎 is the theoretical limit for rigid rotational restraint, and 𝒌 = ∞ represents the limit for no
restraint at all. Since fully rigid restraint is rare in practice, a minimum value of 𝟎. 𝟏 is
recommended for 𝒌𝟏 and 𝒌𝟐 .

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Figure 1.11: Alignment Charts/Nomo graph for effective length

b) Using approximate equations (Refer ES EN 1992:2015 section [Link])

For compression members in regular frames, the slenderness criterion (see [Link]) should be
checked with an effective length 𝑳𝟎 determined in the following way:

Figure 1.12: Examples of different buckling modes and corresponding effective lengths for
isolated members

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Braced members

𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐿0 = 0.5𝐿√(1 + ) ∗ (1 + )
0.45 + 𝑘1 0.45 + 𝑘2

Un-braced members

𝑘1 ∗ 𝑘2
𝐿√[1 + 10 ( )]
𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝐿0 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥.
𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐿 (1 + ) (1 + )
{ 1 + 𝑘1 1 + 𝑘2

Where:

𝒌𝟏 , 𝒌𝟐 are the relative flexibilities of rotational restraints at ends 1 and 2 respectively:

𝑘 = (𝜃⁄𝑀) ∗ (𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝐿)

𝜃 is the rotation of restraining members for bending moment M; see also Figure 5.7 (f) and (g)

𝐸𝐼 is the bending stiffness of compression member, see also [Link] (4) and (5)

𝐿 is the clear height of compression member between end restraints

If an adjacent compression member (column in a node is likely to contribute to the rotation at

buckling, then (𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝐿) in the definition of 𝑘 should be replaced by [(𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝐿)𝑎 + (𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝐿)𝑏 ], 𝑎 and
𝑏 representing the compression member (column) above and below the node.

Note: In the definition of effective lengths, the stiffness of restraining members should include
the effect of cracking, unless they can be shown to be un-cracked in ULS.

Creep effects

The effect of creep shall be taken into account in second order analysis, with due consideration
of both the general conditions for creep and the duration of different loads in the load
combination considered.

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The duration of loads may be taken into account in a simplified way by means of an effective
creep ratio 𝜑𝑒𝑓 , which used together with the design load, gives a creep deformation (curvature)
corresponding to the quasi-permanent load:

𝑀0𝐸𝑞𝑝
𝜑𝑒𝑓 = 𝜑(∞,𝑡0 ) ∗
𝑀0𝐸𝑑

Where:

𝜑(∞,𝑡0 ) is the final creep coefficient according to section 3.1.4

𝑀0𝐸𝑞𝑝 is the first order bending moment in quasi-permanent load combination (SLS)

𝑀0𝐸𝑑 is the first order bending moment in design load combination (ULS)

If 𝑀0𝐸𝑞𝑝 /𝑀0𝐸𝑑 varies in a member or structure, the ratio may be calculated for the section with
maximum moment, or a representative mean value may be used.

The effect of creep may be ignored, if the following three conditions are met:

𝜑( ∞, 𝑡0 ) ≤ 2.0
𝜆 ≤ 75
𝜑𝑒𝑓 = 0 𝑖𝑓 { 𝑀
0𝐸𝑑
≥ℎ
𝑁𝑠𝑑

Here 𝑀0𝐸𝑑 is the first order moment and h is the cross section depth in the corresponding
direction.

Note: If the conditions for neglecting second order effects according to 5.8.2 (6) or [Link] are
only just achieved, it may be too un-conservative to neglect both second order effects and creep,
unless the mechanical reinforcement ratio (𝜔, see [Link] (1)) is at least 0.25.

Effective length for members with varying normal force and/or cross section

𝑬𝑰
𝑳𝟎 = 𝝅√𝑵
𝑩

Where:

𝐸𝐼 is a representative bending stiffness

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𝑁𝐵 is buckling load expressed in terms of this 𝐸𝐼

g) Classification of Columns on the Basis of Loading

i. Concentrically/Axially loaded columns

They are columns subjected to axial or concentric load without moments. No eccentricity, center
of gravity and centroid matches. They occur rarely.

ii. Eccentrically loaded columns

Almost all compression members in concrete structures are subjected to moments in addition to
axial loads. These may be due to the load not being centered on the column (eccentric load is
applied) or may result from the column resisting a portion of the unbalanced moments at the end
of the beams supported by columns. There are two types of eccentrically loaded columns.

1) Column under Uni-axial bending (Axial load + Uni-axial bending) (𝑃𝑢 + 𝑀𝑢𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑢 +
𝑀𝑢𝑦 )
2) Column under Bi-axial bending (Axial load + Bi-axial bending) (𝑃𝑢 + 𝑀𝑢𝑥 +
𝑀𝑢𝑦 ): situations in which axial compression is accompanied by simultaneous bending
about both principal axes of the section. This is the case in corner columns, interior or
edge columns with irregular column layout.

Figure 1.13: Different loading situations in columns

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When a member is subjected to combined axial compression 𝑃𝑢 and moment 𝑀𝑢𝑦 , it is more
convenient to replace the axial load 𝑃𝑢 and the moment with an equivalent 𝑃𝑢 applied at
eccentricity 𝑒 as shown in figure 1.14.

Figure 1.14: Equivalent loading conditions

1.1.2. Interaction diagram

Almost all compression members which are concentrically loaded are rare and hence they are
subjected to bending moment in addition which decreases the axial load capacity. A plot of axial
load capacity of a column against the bending moment it sustain is an interaction diagram of
that column.

To illustrate conceptually the interaction between moments and axial load in a column, an
idealized homogenous and linearly elastic column with a compressive strength 𝑓𝑐𝑢 equal to its
tensile strength 𝑓𝑡𝑢 will be considered. The load P and moment M are calculated with respect to
the geometric centroidal axis because the moments and forces obtained from structural analysis
are referred to this axis.

For an idealized homogeneous and elastic column with a compressive strength 𝑓𝑐𝑢 equal to its
tensile strength,𝑓𝑡𝑢 failure would occur in compression when the maximum stresses reached 𝑓𝑐𝑢 ,
as given by:

𝑷 𝑴𝒚
𝝈=𝑨± (At failure by compression 𝝈 = 𝒇𝒄𝒖 )
𝑰

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𝑷 𝑴𝒚
∴ 𝒇𝒄𝒖 = 𝑨 ± 𝑰

Dividing both sides by𝒇𝒄𝒖 gives:

𝑃 𝑀𝑦
1=𝑓 +𝑓 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.1
𝑐𝑢 𝐴 𝑐𝑢 𝐼

𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝐼
But 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝐴 and 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .1.2
𝑦

Substituting in equation 1.2 into equation 1.1 we obtain:

𝑃 𝑀
1=𝑃 +𝑀 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.3
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥

Equation 1.3 known as an interaction equation because it shows the interaction or relationship
between 𝑃 and 𝑀 at failure.

Figure 1.15: Interaction diagram for an elastic column, |𝑓𝑐𝑢 | = |𝑓𝑡𝑢 |

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The maximum axial load the column could support is obtained when 𝑀 = 0 and is 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝐴. Similarly the maximum moment that can be supported occurs when 𝑃 = 0 and is 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝐼⁄
𝑐.

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Points on the lines represent combination of 𝑃 and 𝑀 corresponding to the resistance of the
section. A point inside the diagram such as point E represents a combination of 𝑃 and 𝑀 that will
not cause failure. Load combinations falling on the line or outside the line such as point F will
equal or exceed the resistance of the section and hence will cause failure.

In each case the points B and D represent balanced failures in which the tensile and
compressive resistances of the material are reached simultaneously on opposite edges of the
column.

[Link].Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced concrete Columns (𝒇𝒄𝒖 ≠ 𝒇𝒕𝒖 )

Reinforced concrete is not elastic and has 𝑓𝑡 much less than a tensile strength 𝑓𝑐 its compressive
strength. An effective tensile strength is developed however, by reinforcing bars on the tension
face of the member. For these reasons, the calculation of an interaction diagram for a reinforced
concrete member is more complex than for an idealized homogeneous and elastic material.

So, how can we address the M-N relationship of reinforced concrete sections?

By strain compatibility solution

Interaction diagrams for reinforced concrete columns are generally computed by assuming a
series of strain distributions at the ultimate limit state each corresponding to a particular point on
the interaction diagram and computing the corresponding values of P and M. The basic
assumptions made for design of flexural members apply also for design of columns. These
assumptions are:

1) Section’s perpendicular to the axis of bending that are plane before bending remains
plane after bending. This implies strains across section are linearly varying.

2) The strain in bonded reinforcement whether in tension or in compression is the same

as that in the surrounding concrete because the concrete and the reinforcement must act
together to carry load. This implies there is no slip between steel bars and the adjacent
concrete.

3) The tensile strength of concrete is ignored. The reinforcement assumed to takes all the
tension due to flexure.

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4) The stresses in the concrete in compression are derived from the design stress-strain
relationship.

As per ES EN 1992:2015 section 3.1.7 (stress-strain relations for the design of cross-sections)

Figure 1.16: Parabola-rectangle stress-strain diagram for concrete under compression

𝜀𝑐 𝑛
𝜎𝑐 = 𝑓𝑐𝑑 [1 − (1 − ) ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜀𝑐 ≤ 𝜀𝑐2
𝜀𝑐2

𝜎𝑐 = 𝑓𝑐𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜀𝑐2 ≤ 𝜀𝑐 ≤ 𝜀𝑐𝑢2

Where: 𝑛 is the exponent 𝑛 = 2.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑐𝑘 < 50𝑀𝑝𝑎 &

90 − 𝑓𝑐𝑘 4
𝑛 = 1.4 + 23.4 [( )] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ≥ 50𝑀𝑝𝑎
100

𝜀𝑐2 is the strain at reaching the maximum strength

𝜀𝑐𝑢 is the ultimate strain

An equivalent rectangular stress distribution may be assumed.

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Figure 1.17: Equivalent rectangular stress distribution

The factor 𝜆 defining the effective height of the compression zone and the factor 𝜂 defining the
effective strength.

𝜆 = 0.8 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ≤ 50𝑀𝑃𝑎

(𝑓𝑐𝑘 −50)
𝜆 = 0.8 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟 50 < 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ≤ 90𝑀𝑃𝑎
400

𝜂 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ≤ 50𝑀𝑃𝑎

(𝑓𝑐𝑘 −50)
𝜂 = 1.0 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟 50 < 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ≤ 90𝑀𝑃𝑎
200

The possible range of strain distributions given in ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 section 6.1(6) is shown
in Figure below.

Figure 1.18: Possible strain distributions in the ultimate limit state

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For concrete strengths not exceeding 50𝑀𝑝𝑎, the ES EN 1992:2015 adopts values of 0.0035 for
flexure and for combined bending and axial load where the neutral axis remains within the
section and a limit of between 0.0035 and 0.002 for sections loaded so that the whole section is
in compression.

For concrete strengths 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ≥ 50𝑀𝑝𝑎

90−𝑓𝑐𝑘 4
𝜀𝑐𝑢 (%𝑜 ) = 2.6 + 35 [( )] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ≥ 50𝑀𝑝𝑎
100

5) The stresses in the reinforcing steel are derived from the design curve.

Figure 1.19: Idealized and design stress-strain diagrams for reinforcing steel (for tension and
compression)

Procedures of Strain Compatibility Solution

Step 1: Assume strain distribution and select the location of the neutral axis.

Step 2: Compute the strain in each level of reinforcement from the strain distribution.

Step 3: Using this information, compute the size of the compression stress block and the stress in
each layer of reinforcement.

Step 4: Compute the forces in the concrete and the steel layers, by multiplying the stresses by the
areas on which they act.

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Step 5: Finally, compute the axial force 𝑃𝑛 by summing the individual forces in the concrete and
steel, and the moment 𝑀𝑛 by summing the moments of these forces about the geometric centroid
of the cross section.

Step 6: These values of 𝑃𝑛 and 𝑀𝑛 represent one point on the interaction diagram.

Once enough such points have been computed the results are summarized in an interaction
diagram. Other points on the interaction diagram can be generated by selecting other values for
the depth 𝑐 to the neutral axis from the extreme compression fiber.

Show a minimum of 6 points on the interaction diagram corresponding to:

1. Pure axial compression

2. Balanced failure

3. Zero tension (Onset of cracking)

4. Pure flexure

5. A point between balanced failure and pure flexure

6. A point between pure axial compression and zero tension

Figure 1.20: Stress-Strain relationship for column

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Thus, the general shape of the diagram resembles the figure shown below.

Onset of cracking

Figure 1.21: Interaction diagram for column in combined bending and axial load

Stress-Strain distribution for Eccentrically Loaded Rectangular Short Column (Uni-axial

bending)

Consider a rectangular column reinforced by longitudinal steel 𝐴𝑠 and 𝐴′𝑠 along the two faces
subjected to eccentric load (uni-axial bending plus axial load). The stresses and strains in steel
and concrete just prior to failure are distributed in the manner shown below.

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Equilibrium of force gives: → + ∑ 𝐹 = 0:

𝑃𝑑 = 𝑓𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑦 + 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑠 ′ − 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑠 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.1

Moment about tension steel gives ↻ + ∑ 𝑀 = 0:

𝑦
𝑃𝑑 ∗ 𝑒 ′ = 𝑓𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑦 (𝑑 − ) + 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑠 ′(𝑑 − 𝑑 ′ ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.2
2

The solutions of the above two equations are required to find the design load and design moment
capacity of a given section of column. The stresses in the steel (𝑓𝑠 and 𝑓𝑠 ′) are determined using
strain compatibility depending on the neutral axis depth. The solutions are based on trial and
error procedure assuming neutral axis depth, 𝑥 and satisfying both equilibrium equation.

Stress-Strain distribution for Axially Loaded Rectangular Short Column

For columns with very small eccentricities, neutral axis depth 𝑥 may exceed the depth of
column ℎ. Thus, the entire section of a column will be in compression and the stress in both
steel, (𝑓𝑠 and 𝑓𝑠 ′) will also be compressive. For such column, the stresses and strains in steel and
concrete just prior to failure are distributed as shown below may be used to determine the
capacity of the column.

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Equilibrium of force gives:→ + ∑ 𝐹 = 0:

𝑃𝑑 = 𝑓𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ ℎ + 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦𝑑 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑠 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .1.3

Moment about tension steel gives ↻ + ∑ 𝑀 = 0:

ℎ
𝑃𝑑 ∗ 𝑒 ′ = 𝑓𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ ℎ (𝑑 − ) + 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦𝑑 (𝑑 − 𝑑 ′ ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.4
2

The stress in steel 𝐴𝑠 , 𝑓𝑠 is determined using strain compatibility depending on neutral axis
depth 𝑥.

1.1.3. Orientation of Column

How orientation of column is decided?

The following three points to be considered while deciding the orientation of the column.

1. The directional ratio of the column should be nearer to 60: 40 for the 𝑥 −and 𝑦 −axes

This directional ratio helps to resist the lateral loads on the building from all directions. Consider
the figure below.

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As you can observe in the figure, columns having their major axes in the 𝑥 −direction are
𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 , 𝐶4 and 𝐶7 . Total number of columns their major axes in 𝑥 −direction are five.
Columns having their major axes in the 𝑦 −direction are 𝐶5 , 𝐶6 , 𝐶8 and 𝐶9 . Total number of
columns their major axes in 𝑦 −direction are four. The ratio by percentage 56: 44. It is okay.

2. The structural and architectural requirements

Consider the following floor plan.

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As you have seen in the given floor plan, columns 𝐶2 , 𝐶4 , 𝐶5 and 𝐶8 intruded into the room space of the
building. From a structural point of view, designing those columns might be efficient and economical.
When you observe those columns from architectural point of view, they are not aesthetic and appealing.

So, to satisfy the structural as well as architectural requirements, columns are designed to have the width
of the wall. Usually, columns are oriented in such a way that it falls In line with the masonry walls having
no offsets in any direction.

3. The sectional depth of the column should be in the major plane of bending

This helps to enhance the moment-resisting capacity of the column. Take the following figure.

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Column 𝑪𝟏

As you can observe in the figure figure, column 𝐶1 supports the beams 𝐵1 and 𝐵4. The span of
𝐵1 = 3.5𝑚 > span of 𝐵4 = 2.5𝑚. Therefore, the moment created by 𝐵1 will be greater than that
of 𝐵4. So, the major axes of the column should be oriented in alignment with beam 𝐵1.

Column 𝑪𝟐

As you can observe in the figure figure, column 𝐶2 supports the beams 𝐵1 , 𝐵2 and 𝐵4. Here, the
beams 𝐵1and 𝐵2 are on the same axis, but in opposite directions. Therefore, the net moment
along this axis is generated by the difference in the span of 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 = (5𝑚 − 3.5𝑚) = 1.5𝑚.
The moment created by 𝐵4 will be greater than 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 . So, the major axis of the column should
be oriented in alignment with beam 𝐵4.

Column 𝑪𝟑

Column 𝐶3 supports the beams 𝐵2 and 𝐵4. The span of 𝐵2 = 5𝑚 > span of 𝐵4 = 2.5𝑚.
Therefore, the moment created by 𝐵2 will be greater than that of 𝐵4. So, the major axes of the
column should be oriented in alignment with beam 𝐵2.

Column 𝑪𝟒

Column 𝐶4 supports the beams 𝐵2 , 𝐵3 and 𝐵4. Here, the beams 𝐵3 and 𝐵4 are on the same axis,
but in opposite directions. Therefore, the net moment along this axis is generated by the
difference in the span of 𝐵3 and 𝐵4 = (4𝑚 − 2.5𝑚) = 1.5𝑚. The moment created by 𝐵2 will be
greater than 𝐵3 + 𝐵4 . So, the major axis of the column should be oriented in alignment with
beam 𝐵2.

Column 𝑪𝟓

Column 𝐶5 supports the beams 𝐵1 , 𝐵2 , 𝐵3 and 𝐵4. Here, the beams 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 are on the same
𝑥 −axis, but in opposite directions. Therefore, the net moment along this axis is generated by the
difference in the span of 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 = (5𝑚 − 3.5𝑚) = 1.5𝑚. The beams 𝐵3 and 𝐵4 are on the
same 𝑦 −axis, but in opposite directions. Therefore, the net moment along this axis is generated
by the difference in the span of 𝐵3 and 𝐵4 = (4𝑚 − 2.5𝑚) = 1.5𝑚. The moment created by
𝐵1 + 𝐵2 = 𝐵3 + 𝐵4 . You can orient the column in any direction as an equal moment will be

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created. But, to satisfy the directional ratio of 60: 40, the major axes of the column should be
kept in the 𝑦 −direction.

Column 𝑪𝟔

Column 𝐶6 supports the beams 𝐵1 , 𝐵3 and 𝐵4. Here, the beams 𝐵3 and 𝐵4 are on the same axis,
but in opposite directions. Therefore, the net moment along this axis is generated by the
difference in the span of 𝐵3 and 𝐵4 = (4𝑚 − 2.5𝑚) = 1.5𝑚 < span of 𝐵1 = 3.5𝑚.The moment
created by 𝐵1 will be greater than 𝐵3 + 𝐵4. So, the major axis of the column should be oriented
in alignment with beam 𝐵1.

Column 𝑪𝟕

Column 𝐶7 supports the beams 𝐵1 and 𝐵3. The span of 𝐵3 = 4𝑚 > span of 𝐵1 = 3.5𝑚.
Therefore, the moment created by 𝐵3 will be greater than that of 𝐵1. So, the major axes of the
column should be oriented in alignment with beam 𝐵3.

Column 𝑪𝟖

Column 𝐶8 supports the beams 𝐵1 , 𝐵2 and 𝐵3. Here, the beams 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 are on the same axis,
but in opposite directions. Therefore, the net moment along this axis is generated by the
difference in the span of 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 = (5𝑚 − 3.5𝑚) = 1.5𝑚 < span of 𝐵3 = 4𝑚. The moment
created by 𝐵2 will be greater than 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 . So, the major axis of the column should be oriented
in alignment with beam 𝐵3.

Column 𝑪𝟗

Column 𝐶3 supports the beams 𝐵2 and 𝐵3. The span of 𝐵2 = 5𝑚 > span of 𝐵4 = 4𝑚. Therefore,
the moment created by 𝐵2 will be greater than that of 𝐵3. So, the major axes of the column
should be oriented in alignment with beam 𝐵2.

1.1.4. Failure Modes of Reinforced Concrete Column

Unlike failure modes of reinforced concrete beams which depend on relative amount of tension
steel, failure modes of RC columns depend on relative eccentricity column load. For column
subjected to large eccentricities, failure will be initiated by yielding of tension steel and followed
by a shift of the neutral axis toward the compression side until crushing of concrete causes a

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secondary compression failure. Conversely, for column subjected to small eccentricities failure
will be initiated by crushing of concrete while the tension steel may be far from yielding.

Balanced condition:

For any section of reinforced concrete column and materials strength, there is one specific
eccentricity 𝑒𝑏 such that a design load applied at 𝑒𝑏 distance from center of column will cause
failure by simultaneous yielding of tension steel and crushing of concrete. This condition is
called balanced condition.

The maximum strain in concrete, 𝜀𝑐 = 𝜀𝑐𝑢 = 0.0035 and the strain in tension steel is just
yielding, 𝜀𝑠 = 𝜀𝑦𝑑 = 𝑓𝑦𝑑 ⁄𝐸𝑠 . In most cases, compression steel is also yielding. Thus, 𝜀𝑠 ′ ≥
𝜀𝑦𝑑 = 𝑓𝑦𝑑 ⁄𝐸𝑠 . Referring to the stresses and strains distribution of eccentrically loaded short
column, from strain diagram the neutral axis depth 𝑥𝑏 at balanced condition is obtained as:

𝜀𝑐𝑢
𝑥𝑏 = ∗𝑑
𝜀𝑐𝑢 + 𝜀𝑦𝑑

Then, depth of equivalent stress block 𝑦 becomes

0.8𝜀𝑐𝑢
𝑦 = 0.8𝑥𝑏 = ∗𝑑
𝜀𝑐𝑢 + 𝜀𝑦𝑑

Using design equations (1.1 and 1.2) obtained:

𝑃𝑑 = 0.8𝑥𝑏 𝑓𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝑏 + 𝐴𝑠 ′𝑓𝑠 ′ − 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑠

𝑃𝑑 ∗ 𝑒 ′ = 0.8𝑥𝑏 𝑓𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝑏(𝑑 − 0.4𝑥𝑏 ) + 𝐴𝑠 ′𝑓𝑠 ′(𝑑 − 𝑑′)

For symmetrically reinforced column 𝐴𝑠 ′ = 𝐴𝑠 . At balanced condition, 𝜀𝑠 ≥ 𝜀𝑦𝑑 & 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓𝑦𝑑 . It is

assumed that compression steel is yielding, 𝜀𝑠′ ≥ 𝜀𝑦𝑑 & 𝑓𝑠 ′ = 𝑓𝑦𝑑 . Substituting all these in above
two equations, a balanced design load and balanced eccentricity of a given symmetrically
reinforced column section are obtained as:

𝑃𝑑 = 0.8𝑥𝑏 𝑓𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝑏 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . .1.5

𝐴𝑠 ′𝑓𝑦𝑑 (𝑑 − 𝑑 ′ )
𝑒𝑏′ = 𝑑 − 0.4𝑥𝑏 + … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.6
𝑃𝑑

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Tension failure controls:

For a very large eccentricity of the axial force 𝑃𝑛 , the failure is triggered by yielding of the
tension steel. The horizontal axis corresponds to an infinite value of 𝑒, i.e. pure bending at
moment capacity 𝑀0 .

Tension steel is yielding, 𝜀𝑠 > 𝜀𝑦𝑑 & 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓𝑦𝑑 . Assuming compression steel is yielding 𝜀𝑠 ′ >
𝜀𝑦𝑑 & 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓𝑦𝑑 . For symmetrically reinforced column 𝐴𝑠 ′ = 𝐴𝑠 . The design load and eccentricity
equations are obtained as:

𝑃𝑑 = 𝑓𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑦 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.7

ℎ
𝑃𝑑 ∗ 𝑒 ′ = 𝑓𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ ℎ (𝑑 − ) + 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦𝑑 (𝑑 − 𝑑 ′ ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.8
2

Solving the equations (1.7 and 1.8) simultaneously, a quadratic equation in terms of 𝑦 is obtained
as:

𝑓𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝑏 2
𝑦 + 𝑓𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝑏(𝑒 ′ − 𝑑)𝑦 − 𝐴′𝑠 ∗ 𝑓𝑦𝑑 (𝑑 − 𝑑 ′ ) = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … … … .1.9
2
𝐴 𝐴𝑠 ′
Let 𝜌 = 𝑏𝑑𝑠 = 𝑏𝑑

Equation 1.9 becomes:

𝑓𝑐𝑑 ∗𝑏
𝑦 2 + 𝑓𝑐𝑑 (𝑒 ′ − 𝑑)𝑦 − 𝜌 ∗ 𝑓𝑦𝑑 ∗ 𝑑(𝑑 − 𝑑 ′ ) = 0
2

𝑓
Solving for 𝑦, 𝑦 = −(𝑒 ′ − 𝑑) + √(𝑒 ′ − 𝑑)2 + 2𝜌 ∗ 𝑓𝑦𝑑 ∗ 𝑑(𝑑 − 𝑑 ′ )
𝑐𝑑

Substituting this 𝑦 back in to equations 1.7 and 1.8, the design load and moment of a column can
be determined. Check also whether the compression steel is yielding or not using the
compatibility condition. If the compression steel is not yielding 𝜀𝑠 ′ < 𝜀𝑦𝑑 then 𝑓𝑠′ = 𝜀𝑠′ ∗ 𝐸𝑠 .
Except for small cross-section of column, that is, for large value of (𝑑′⁄𝑑 ) ratios particularly
when high-strength steel is used, compression steel always yielding.

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Compression failure controls:

For a very small eccentricity of the axial force 𝑃𝑛 , the failure is governed by concrete
compression. The vertical axis corresponds to 𝑒 = 0 and 𝑃0 is the capacity of the column if
concentrically loaded.

The maximum strain in concrete 𝜀𝑐 = 𝜀𝑐𝑢 = 0.0035, the strain in tension steel, 𝜀𝑠 < 𝜀𝑦𝑑 =
𝑓𝑦𝑑 ⁄𝐸𝑠 and the strain in compression steel 𝜀𝑠 ′ > 𝜀𝑦𝑑 = 𝑓𝑦𝑑 ⁄𝐸𝑠 . Therefore, the stress in
compression steel, 𝑓𝑠 ′ = 𝑓𝑦𝑑 and the stress in tension steel is determined using the strain
compatibility depending the neutral axis depth 𝑥.

From geometry of strain distribution for eccentrically loaded column, the strain in tension steel is
obtained as:

𝑑−𝑥
𝜀𝑠 = 𝜀𝑐𝑢 ( )
𝑥

In terms of 𝑦 = 0.8𝑥;

𝑑 − 1.25𝑦
𝜀𝑠 = 0.8𝜀𝑐𝑢 ( )
𝑦

The corresponding stress in tension steel is determined using Hooke’s law as 𝑓𝑠 = 𝐸𝑠 ∗

𝜀𝑠 . Substituting 𝜀𝑠 ,

0.8𝐸𝑠 𝜀𝑐𝑢 (𝑑 − 1.25𝑦)

𝑓𝑠 = ≤ 𝑓𝑦𝑑
𝑦

Summarizing the modes of failure of column: Let the particular eccentricity be the balanced
eccentricity 𝑒𝑏 and the corresponding design normal load is 𝑃𝑏 . Then, if 𝑃𝑑 > 𝑃𝑏 and 𝑒 < 𝑒𝑏
compression type of failure and on the other hand if 𝑃𝑑 < 𝑃𝑏 and 𝑒 > 𝑒𝑏 tension type of failure.

Thus, by using strain compatibility solutions, it is possible to prepare interaction charts and
design it. But, in the actual design, interaction charts prepared for uniaxial bending can be used
as per the code.

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Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Short column generally fails by crushing of concrete due to axial force. Long columns generally
fail by bending effect than due to axial effect. Long column carry less load compared to short
column.

1.2. Analysis and design of short columns

1.2.1. Analysis and design of Axially Loaded Columns

When a symmetrical short column is subjected to a concentric axial load, 𝑃 longitudinal

strains 𝜀, develop uniformly across the section.

Because the steel and concrete are bonded together, the strains in the concrete and steel are
equal. For any given strain, it is possible to compute the stresses in the concrete and steel using
the stress-strain curves for the two materials.

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Failure occurs when 𝑃𝑑 reaches a maximum:

In compression: 𝑃𝑑 = 𝒇𝒄𝒅 (𝑨𝒈 − 𝑨𝒔𝒕 ) + 𝑨𝒔𝒕 𝒇𝒚𝒅

In tension: 𝑷𝒅 = −𝑨𝒔𝒕 𝒇𝒚𝒅

For slender columns a load reduction factor 𝐶𝑟 is introduced in such a way that the ultimate
concentric design axial load capacity may be given by:

𝑃𝑑𝑢𝑙 = 𝐶𝑟 𝑃𝑑

𝟎 𝑳
Where 𝑪𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 − 𝟒𝟖𝒃

1.2.2. Analysis and design of short columns Uni-axially Loaded Columns

In the actual design, interaction charts prepared for uniaxial bending can be used. The procedure
involves:

Step 1: Assume cross section dimensions h and b

Step 2: Calculate 𝑑′ and 𝑑’/ℎ to choose appropriate chart.

Step 3: Compute:

𝑁𝑢
Normal force ratio: 𝜈 = 𝑓
𝑐𝑑 𝑏ℎ

𝑀𝑢
Moment ratio: 𝜇 = ⁄𝑓 𝐴 ℎ
𝑐𝑑 𝑐

Step 4: Enter the chart and pick ω (the mechanical steel ratio) if the coordinate (𝜈, 𝜇) lies within
the families of curves. If the coordinate (𝜈, 𝜇) lies outside the chart, the cross section is small and
a new trail need to be made.

𝜔𝐴𝑐 𝑓𝑐𝑑
Step 5: Compute 𝐴𝑠,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑓𝑦𝑑

Step 6: Check 𝐴𝑠,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 satisfies the maximum and minimum provisions

Step 7: Determine the distribution of bars in accordance with the charts requirement and
detailing it.

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Figure 1.22: Sample of the Uniaxial Interaction Diagram

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Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

1.2.3. Analysis and design of Bi-axially loaded short columns

Up to this point in the chapter we have dealt with columns subjected to axial loads accompanied
by bending about one axis. It is not unusual for columns to support axial forces and bending
about two perpendicular axes. One common example is a corner column in a frame. For a given
cross section and reinforcing pattern, one can draw an interaction diagram for axial load and
bending about either principal axis.

So, how can we construct the interaction chart or design such a section?

One approach is we can convert biaxial bending into uniaxial bending by finding the resultant
moment vector 𝑀𝑅 .

If we now rotate the section anticlockwise so that 𝑀𝑅 points vertically, we have uniaxial bending
of a non-rectangular section. This is a mathematically complicated analysis.

Another approach is constructing or making use of the interaction diagram (M-M-N

Relationship) of biaxial loaded column sections. For a given cross section and reinforcing
pattern, one can draw an interaction diagram for axial load and bending about either axis.

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These interaction diagrams (3D interaction surface) form the two edges of an interaction surface
for axial load and bending about two axes.

Figure 1.23 Interaction diagram for compression plus bi-axial bending

As shown in the figure 1.23, the interaction diagram involves a 3D interaction surface for axial
load and bending about the two axes. The calculation of each point on such a surface involves a
double iteration: i) the strain gradient across the section is varied, and ii) the angle of the
neutral axis is varied.

There are different methods for the design of biaxial loaded columns:

a) Strain compatibility method

b) Equivalent eccentricity method
c) Load contour method (Approximate Method)
d) Bresler’s reciprocal load method (Approximate Method)

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e) Design aids
a) Strain compatibility method

Consider the reinforced concrete column section under axial force 𝑃 acting with eccentricities 𝑒𝑥
𝑀𝑦 𝑀
and 𝑒𝑦 , such that 𝑒𝑥 = ⁄ , 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑦⁄ from centroidal axes (figure 1.23c).
𝑃 𝑃

In Figure 1.23a the section is subjected to bending about the 𝑦 −axis only with eccentricity 𝑒𝑥 .
The corresponding strength interaction curve is shown as case (a) (see figure 1.23d). Such a
curve can be established by the usual methods for uni-axial bending. Similarly, in figure 1.23b
the section is subjected to bending about the x axis only with eccentricity 𝑒𝑦 . The corresponding
strength interaction curve is shown as case (b) (see figure 1.23d). For case (c), which combines
𝑥 − and 𝑦 −axis bending, the orientation of the resultant eccentricity is defined by the angle 𝜆

𝑒𝑥 𝑀𝑛𝑦
𝜆 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑒𝑦 𝑀𝑛𝑥

Bending for this case is about an axis defined by the angle 𝜃 with respect to the 𝑥 −axis. For
other values of λ, similar curves are obtained to define the failure surface for axial load plus bi-
axial bending.

Any combination of 𝑃𝑢 , 𝑀𝑢𝑥 and 𝑀𝑢𝑦 falling outside the surface would represent failure. Note
that the failure surface can be described either by a set of curves defined by radial planes passing
through the 𝑃𝑛 axis or by a set of curves defined by horizontal plane intersections, each for a
constant 𝑃𝑛 defining the load contours (see Figure 1.23).

Computation commences with the successive choice of neutral axis distance 𝑐 for each value of

𝑃. Then using the strain compatibility and stress-strain relationship, bar forces and the concrete
compressive resultant can be determined. Then 𝑃𝑛 , 𝑀𝑛𝑥 and 𝑀𝑛𝑦 (a point on the interaction
surface) can be determined using the equation of equilibrium.

Since the determination of the neutral axis requires several trials, the procedure using the above
expressions is tedious. Thus, the following simple approximate methods are widely used.

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b) Load contour method (Approximate Method) ( Bresler’s Method II)

It is an approximation on load versus moment interaction surface. Biaxial interaction diagrams

calculated and prepared as load contours or 𝑃 − 𝑀 diagrams drawn on planes of constant angles
relating the magnitudes of the biaxial moments are more suitable for design (but difficult to
derive). Interaction diagrams are prepared as load contours for biaxial loaded columns with
different reinforcement arrangement (4-corner reinforcement, 8-rebar arrangement, uniformly
distributed reinforcement on 2-edges, uniformly distributed reinforcement on 4-edges and so on).
General procedures includes:

Step 1: Assume the cross- sectional dimensions, area of steel and its distribution.

𝑷𝒅𝒂
Step 2: Compute concentric load capacity 𝐏𝐝𝟎 and ⁄𝑷
𝒅𝟎

Step 3: Determine uniaxial moment capacities 𝑀𝑑𝑥0 and 𝑀𝑑𝑦0 of the section combined with
given axial load 𝑃𝑑𝑎 with the use of interaction curves for axial load and uniaxial moment.

Step 4: Then the adequacy of the column section can be checked either with the interaction
equation or interaction curves.

For checking the adequacy of column section; the general non-dimensional interaction equation
of family of load contours is given by:
𝛼𝑛
𝑀𝑑𝑥 𝛼𝑛 𝑀𝑑𝑦
( ) +( ) =1
𝑀𝑑𝑥0 𝑀𝑑𝑦0

𝑷
𝛼𝑛 = 0.667 + 1.667 (𝑷𝒅𝒂 ) and 1.15 ≤ 𝛼𝑛 ≤ 2.0
𝒅𝟎

Where: 𝑀𝑑𝑥 = 𝑷𝒅 ∗ 𝒆𝒚

𝑀𝑑𝑦 = 𝑷𝒅 ∗ 𝒆𝒙

𝑀𝑑𝑥0 = 𝑀𝑑𝑥 when 𝑀𝑑𝑦 = 0 (design capacity under uni-axial bending about 𝑥)

𝑀𝑑𝑦0 = 𝑀𝑑𝑦 when 𝑀𝑑𝑥 = 0 (design capacity under uni-axial bending about 𝑦)

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Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

c) Bresler’s reciprocal load method (Approximate Method)

It is an approximation of bowl shaped failure surface by the following reciprocal load interaction
equation. Inverse load versus eccentricities gives bowl shaped failure.

Consider the 𝟏⁄𝐏 versus 𝒆𝒅𝒊 surface in the region of interest at point Q where 𝑒𝑑𝑥 and 𝑒𝑑𝑦 for
the respective uniaxial eccentricities are approximated using point A and B (see figure).

Let point C represent the reciprocal of the concentric design load capacity. The point Q on the
interaction surface is approximated by a point of which generally gives a conservative estimate
of the strength. On this basis the strength may be obtained from:

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑃𝑑 𝑃𝑑𝑥0 𝑃𝑑𝑦𝑜 𝑃𝑑0

Where:

• 𝑃𝑑 = Design axial force capacity under biaxial bending 𝑒𝑑𝑦 and 𝑒𝑑𝑥 .

• 𝑃𝑑𝑥0 = Ultimate load capacity of the section for uni axial bending with 𝑒𝑑𝑥 only (𝑒𝑑𝑦 = 0)

• 𝑃𝑑𝑦0 = Ultimate laod capacity of the section for uni axial bending with 𝑒𝑑𝑦 only (𝑒𝑑𝑥 = 0)

• 𝑃𝑑0 = Concentric axial load capacity (𝑒𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒𝑑𝑦 = 0)

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1.3. Design aids

However interaction charts prepared for biaxial bending can be used for actual design. It is an
approximate solutions also.

Figure 1.24: Sample Biaxial Interaction Diagram

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The procedure involves:

Step 1: Select cross section dimensions h and b and also h’ and b’

Step 2: Calculate ℎ’/ℎ and 𝑏’/𝑏 ratio and select suitable chart.

Step 3: Compute:

𝑁𝑢
Normal force ratio: 𝜈 = 𝑓
𝑐𝑑 𝑏ℎ

𝑀𝑢ℎ 𝑀
Moment ratios: 𝜇ℎ = ⁄𝑓 𝐴 ℎ and 𝜇𝑏 = 𝑢𝑏⁄𝑓 𝐴 𝑏
𝑐𝑑 𝑐 𝑐𝑑 𝑐

Step 4: Enter the chart and pick ω (the mechanical steel ratio).

𝜔𝐴𝑐 𝑓𝑐𝑑
Step 5: Compute 𝐴𝑠,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑓𝑦𝑑

Step 6: Check 𝐴𝑠,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 satisfies the maximum and minimum provisions

Step 7: Determine the distribution of bars in accordance with the charts requirement and
detailing it.

1.4. Analysis and design of slender columns

An eccentrically loaded, pin-ended column is shown in Figure 1.22a. The moments at the ends of
the column are 𝑀𝑒 = 𝑃 ∗ 𝑒. When the loads 𝑃 are applied, the column deflects laterally by an
amount 𝛿 as shown. For equilibrium, the internal moment at mid-height is (Figure 1.22b).

𝑀𝑐 = 𝑃(𝑒 + 𝛿)

The deflection increases the moments for which the column must be designed. In the
symmetrical column shown here, the maximum moment occurs at mid-height, where the
maximum deflection occurs.

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Figure 1.25: Forces in a deflected column

Figure 1.26 shows an interaction diagram for a reinforced concrete column. This diagram gives
the combinations of axial load and moment required to cause failure of a column cross section or
a very short length of column. The dashed radial line 𝑂 − 𝐴 is a plot of the end moment on the
column in figure 1.26. Because this load is applied at a constant eccentricity ′𝑒′ the end moment,
𝑀𝑒 is a linear function of P given by 𝑀𝑒 = 𝑃 ∗ 𝑒. The curved, solid line 𝑂 − 𝐵 is the moment 𝑀𝑐
at mid-height of the column, given by 𝑀𝑐 = 𝑃(𝑒 + 𝛿).

At any given load P, the moment at mid-height is the sum of the end moment 𝑃 ∗ 𝑒 and the
moment due to the deflections 𝑃 ∗ 𝛿. The line 𝑂 − 𝐴 is referred to as a load-moment curve for
the end moment while the line 𝑂 − 𝐵 is the load – moment curve for the maximum column
moment.

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Figure 1.26: Load and moment in a column

Failure occurs when the load-moment curve 𝑂 − 𝐵 for the point of maximum moment intersects
the interaction diagram for the cross section. Thus the load and moment at failure are denoted by
point 𝐵 in figure 1.26. Because the increase in maximum moment due to deflections, the axial
load capacity is reduced from 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵. This reduction in axial-load capacity results from what is
referred to as slenderness effects.

A slender column is defined as a column that has a significant reduction in its axial-load capacity
due to moments resulting from lateral deflections of the column. In the derivation of the ACI
code, “a significant reduction” was arbitrarily taken as anything greater than about 5%.

Buckling of Axially Loaded Elastic slender Columns

Figure 1.24 illustrates three states of equilibrium. If the ball in figure 1.27a is displaced laterally
and released, it will return to its original position. This is stable equilibrium. If the ball in Figure
1.24c is displaced laterally and released, it will roll off the hill. This is unstable equilibrium. The
transition between stable and unstable equilibrium is neutral equilibrium, illustrated in figure
1.24b. Here, the ball will remain in the displaced position.

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Figure 1.27: States of equilibrium

Similar states of equilibrium exist for the axially loaded column in figure 1.28a. If the column
returns to its original position when it is pushed laterally at mid-height and released, it is in stable
equilibrium; and so on.

For purposes of analysis of ideal column, let us consider a slender column with pinned ends.
When the axial load P has a small value, the column remains perfectly straight and undergoes
direct axial compression. The only stresses are the uniform compressive stresses obtained from
the equations 𝜎 = 𝑃⁄𝐴. The column is in stable equilibrium, which means that it returns to the
straight position after a disturbance.

As the axial load P is gradually increased, a condition of neutral equilibrium is reached in

which the column may have a bent shape. The corresponding value of the load is the critical
loadPcr. At this load, the column may undergo small lateral deflections with no change in the
axial force. Thus, the critical load can maintain the column in equilibrium either in the straight
position or in a slightly bent position.

At higher values of the load, the column is unstable and may collapse by buckling, that is, by
excessive bending. For the ideal case, the column will be in equilibrium in the straight position
even when the axial force P is greater than the critical load. However, since the equilibrium is
unstable, the smallest imaginable disturbance will cause the column to deflect sideways. Once
that happens, the deflections will immediately increase, and the column will fail by buckling.

The behavior of an ideal column compressed by an axial load P may be summarized as follows.

 If 𝑷 < 𝑷𝒄𝒓 , the column is in stable equilibrium in the straight position.

 If 𝑷 = 𝑷𝒄𝒓 , the column is in neutral equilibrium in either the straight or a slightly bent
position.

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 If 𝑷 > 𝑷𝒄𝒓 , the column is in unstable equilibrium in the straight position and will buckle
under the slightest disturbance.

Figure 1.28: Buckling of a Pin ended column

How we can determine critical load Pcr?

To determine the critical loads and corresponding deflected shapes for an ideal pin-ended
column, use one of the differential equations of the deflection curve of a beam. Although both
the fourth-order differential equation (the load equation) and the third-order differential equation
(the shear-force equation) are suitable for analyzing columns, use the second-order equation (the
bending-moment equation) because its general solution is usually the simplest.

The bending moment equation is

𝒅𝟐 𝒚
𝑬𝑰 =𝑴
𝒅𝒙𝟐

In which 𝑴 is the bending moment at any cross section, 𝒚 is the lateral deflection in the y-
direction, and 𝑬𝑰 is the flexural rigidity for bending in the 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane.

The bending moment 𝑴 at distance 𝑥 from end A of the buckled column (see figure 1.28b)

𝑀 + 𝑃𝑦 = 0 → 𝑴 = −𝑷𝒚

The differential equation of the deflection curve now becomes

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𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 2 + 𝑃𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥

Solution of the Differential Equation

By solving this equation, which is a homogeneous, linear differential equation of second order
with constant coefficients, you can determine the magnitude of the critical load and the deflected
shape of the buckled column.

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 𝑃
𝐸𝐼 2
+ 𝑃𝑦 = 0 → 2
+ 𝛼 2 𝑦 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝛼 2 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼

The solution is 𝒚 = 𝑨 sin 𝜶𝒙 + 𝑩 cos 𝜶𝒙 in which 𝑨 and 𝑩 are constants of integration (to be
evaluated from the boundary conditions, or end conditions of the column).

To evaluate the constants of integration 𝑨 and 𝑩 appearing in the solution, use the boundary
conditions at the ends of the column; namely, the deflection is zero when 𝒙 = 𝟎 and 𝒙 = 𝑳.

@ 𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝒚 = 𝟎 ∴ 𝑩 = 𝟎 and @ 𝒙 = 𝑳 𝒚 = 𝟎 ∴ 𝑨 sin 𝜶𝑳 = 𝟎.

If A = 𝟎, 𝒚 = 𝟎 for all values of load and no bending.

∴ sin 𝛼𝑳 = 𝟎

This equation is satisfied when 𝜶𝑳 = 𝟎, 𝝅, 𝟐𝝅, 𝟑𝝅, …

However, since 𝜶𝑳 = 𝟎 means that P = 𝟎, this solution is not of interest.

Therefore, the solutions considered here are

𝒏𝝅
𝛼𝑳 = 𝒏𝝅 → 𝜶 = 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
𝑳

𝑛𝜋 𝑃
The equation of the deflection curve 𝒚 = 𝑨 sin 𝒙. But 𝛼 2 =
𝐿 𝐸𝐼

𝑛𝜋 2 𝑃 𝑛2 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
( ) = → 𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑.
𝐿 𝐸𝐼 𝐿2

Where: 𝐸𝐼 = flexural rigidity of column cross section

𝐿 = length of the column

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𝑛 = number of half – sine waves in the deformed shape of the column

Cases with 𝑛 = 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 are illustrated in figure 1.28c. The lowest value of 𝑃𝑐𝑟 will occur
with 𝑛 = 1.0. This gives what is referred to as the Euler buckling load:

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 2
𝐿

If this column were unable to move sideways at mid-height (i.e. braced), as shown in figure
1.29b, it would buckle with 𝑛 = 2, and the buckling load would be

4𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2

Which is four times the critical load of the same column without the mid-height brace.

Another way of looking at this involves the concept of the effective length of the column. The
effective length is the length of a pin-ended column having the same buckling load. Thus the
column in figure 1.26c has the same buckling load as that in figure 1.29b. The effective length of
the column is 𝐿/2 in this case, where 𝐿/2 is the length of each of the half-sine waves in the
deflected shape of the column in figure 1.26b. The effective length 𝑘𝐿 is equal to 𝐿/𝑛. The
effective length factor is 𝑘 = 1/𝑛. The Euler buckling load is generally written as

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
(𝑘𝐿)2

Figure 1.29: Effective lengths of columns

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Four idealized cases are shown in figure 1.30, together with the corresponding values of the
effective length 𝑘𝐿. Frames 𝑎 and 𝑏 are prevented against deflecting laterally. They are said to be
braced against side sway. Frames c and d are free to sway laterally when they buckle. They are
called unbraced or sway frames. The critical loads of the columns shown in figure 1.30 are in the
ratio 1: 4: 1: 1/4.

Figure 1.30: Effective lengths of idealized columns

Thus it is seen that the restraints against end rotation and lateral translation have a major effect
on the bucking load of axially loaded elastic columns. In actual structures fully fixed ends, such
as those shown in figure 1.30 b to d, rarely, if ever, occur.

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Behavior and Analysis of Pin-Ended Columns

Lateral deflections of a slender column cause an increase in the column moments, as illustrated
in figure 1.25 and figure 1.26. These increased moments cause an increase in the deflections,
which in turn lead to an increase in the moments. As a result, the load-moment line 𝑂 − 𝐵 in
figure 1.26 is nonlinear. If the axial load is below the critical load, the process will converge to a
stable position. If the axial load is greater than the critical load, it will not. This is referred to as a
second-order process, because it is described by a second-order differential equation.

In a first-order analysis, the equations of equilibrium are derived by assuming that the deflections
have a negligible effect on the internal forces in the members. In a second-order analysis, the
equations of equilibrium consider the deformed shape of the structure. Instability can be
investigated only via a second-order analysis, because it is the loss of equilibrium of the
deformed structure that causes instability. However, because many engineering calculations and
computer programs are based on first-order analyses, methods have been derived to modify the
results of a first-order analysis to approximate the second-order effects. Therefore, the results of
a first-order analysis is used to approximate the second-order effects.

P - 𝜹 Moments and P - ∆ Moments

Two different types of 2nd order moments act on the column in a frame.

1) P - 𝛿 Moments: - result from deflections 𝛿 of the axis of the bent column away from the
chord joining the ends of the column. The slenderness effects in pin-ended
columns and in non-sway frames result from 𝑃 − 𝛿 effects.
2) P - ∆ Moments: - result from lateral deflections ∆ of the beam–column joints from their
original un-deflected locations. The slenderness effects in sway frames result from 𝑃 – 𝛥
moments.

Second order effects as per ES EN 1992:2015

The members and structures in which the structural behavior is significantly influenced by
second order effects (e.g. columns, walls, piles, arches and shells). Global second order effects
are likely to occur in structures with a flexible bracing system. Where second order effects are
taken into account, equilibrium and resistance shall be verified in the deformed state.

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Deformations shall be calculated taking into account the relevant effects of cracking, non-linear
material properties and creep.

Uncertainties in geometry and position of axial loads shall be taken into account as additional
first order effects based on geometric imperfections. Second order effects may be ignored if they
are less than 10% of the corresponding first order effects.

Simplified criteria are given for isolated members and for structures:

Global second order effects in buildings may be ignored if;

𝑛𝑠 ∑ 𝐸𝑐𝑑 𝐼𝑐
𝐹𝑉,𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑘1 ∗ ∗
𝑛𝑠 + 1.6 𝐿2

Where:

𝐹𝑉,𝐸𝑑 is the total vertical load (on braced and bracing members)

𝑛𝑠 is the number of storeys

𝐿 is the total height of building above level of moment restraint

𝐸𝑐𝑑 is the design value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete, see 5.8.6 (3)

𝐼𝑐 is the second moment of area (un-cracked concrete section) of bracing member(s)

The recommended value of 𝑘1 is 0.31.

The expression is valid only if all the following conditions are met:

 Torsional instability is not governing, i.e. structure is reasonably symmetrical

 Global shear deformations are negligible (as in a bracing system mainly consisting of
shear walls without large openings)
 Bracing members are rigidly fixed at the base, i.e. rotations are negligible
 The stiffness of bracing members is reasonably constant along the height
 The total vertical load increases by approximately the same amount per story

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Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Material Failures and Stability Failures

Load-moment curves are plotted in figure 1.31 for columns of three different lengths, all loaded
(as shown in figure 1.25) with the same end eccentricity 𝑒. The load-moment curve 𝑂 − 𝐴 for a
relatively short column is practically the same as the line 𝑀 = 𝑃 ∗ 𝑒. For a column of moderate
length, line 𝑂 − 𝐵, the deflections become significant, reducing the failure load. This column
fails when the load-moment curve intersects the interaction diagram at point 𝐵. This is called a
material failure and is the type of failure expected in most practical columns in braced frames. If
a very slender column is loaded with increasing axial load, 𝑃 applied at a constant end
eccentricity, 𝑒 it may reach a deflection 𝛿 at which the value of the 𝜕𝑀⁄𝜕𝑃 approaches infinity
or becomes negative. When this occurs, the column becomes unstable, because with further
deflections, the axial load capacity will drop. This type of failure is known as a stability failure
and occurs only with very slender braced columns or with slender columns in sway frames.

Figure 1.31: Material and stability failures

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Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Effect of Unequal end moments on the strength of a slender column

Up to now, we have considered only pin-ended columns subjected to equal moments at the two
ends. This is a very special case, for which the maximum deflection moment, 𝑃 ∗ 𝛿 occurs at a
section where the applied load moment 𝑃 ∗ 𝑒 is also a maximum. As a result, these quantities can
be added directly, as done in figure 1.32.

In the usual case, the end eccentricities, 𝑒1 = 𝑀1 ⁄𝑃 and 𝑒2 = 𝑀2 ⁄𝑃 , are not equal and so give
applied moment diagrams as shown shaded in figure 1.32b and c for the column shown in Figure
1.32a. The maximum value of δ occurs between the ends of the column while the maximum e
occurs at one end of the column. As a result, 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 cannot be added directly. Two
different cases exist. For a slender column with small end eccentricities, the maximum sum of
𝑒 + 𝛿 may occur between the ends of the column, as shown in figure 1.32b.

For a shorter column, or a column with large end eccentricities, the maximum sum of 𝑒 + 𝛿 will
occur at one end of the column, as shown in figure 1.32c.

Figure 1.32: Moments in columns with unequal end moments

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In the moment-magnifier design procedure, the column subjected to unequal end moments
shown in figure 1.33a is replaced with a similar column subjected to equal moments of 𝐶𝑚 𝑀2 at
both ends, as shown in figure 1.33b. The moments 𝐶𝑚 𝑀2 are chosen so that the maximum
magnified moment is the same in both columns. The expression for the equivalent moment factor

𝐶𝑚 was originally derived for use in the design of steel beam – column and was adopted without
change for concrete design.

𝑀1
𝐶𝑚 = 0.6 + 0.4
𝑀2

Thus in the above equation, 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 are the smaller and larger end moments, respectively,
𝑀
calculated from a conventional first-order elastic analysis. The sign convention for the ratio 𝑀1 is
2

illustrated in figure 1.33c and figure 1.33d. If the moments 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 cause single curvature
𝑀1
bending without a point of contra flexure between the ends, as shown in figure 1.33c, is
𝑀2

positive. If the moments 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 bend the column in double curvature with a point of zero
𝑀
moment between the two ends, as shown in figure 1.33d, then 𝑀1 is negative.
2

Figure 1.33: Equivalent moment factor, 𝐶𝑚

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Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Methods of Second Order Moment Analysis for Slender Columns

The code provides three methods of analysis:-

a) A rigorous non-linear analysis of the structure

b) Method based on estimation of curvature
c) Second order analysis based on nominal stiffness Simplified methods

The aim of a rigorous non-linear analysis is to calculate the maximum load capacity of a slender
column by ascertaining the load-deflection relationship. A simplified method must aim to find a
close estimate of this ultimate load in a single calculation. Method (c) may be used for both
isolated members and whole structures, if nominal stiffness values are estimated appropriately
but Method (b) is mainly suitable for isolated members.

b) Method based on estimation of curvature

This method is primarily suitable for isolated members with constant normal force and a defined
effective length 𝐿0 . The method gives a nominal second order moment based on a deflection,
which in turn is based on the effective length and an estimated maximum curvature. The
resulting design moment and axial force.

Bending moments

The design moment 𝑀𝐸𝑑 is:

𝑀𝐸𝑑 = 𝑀0𝐸𝑑 + 𝑀2

Where:

𝑀0𝐸𝑑 is the 1st order moment, including the effect of imperfections

𝑀2 is the nominal 2nd order moment

The nominal second order moment 𝑀2 is

𝑀2 = 𝑁𝐸𝑑 ∗ 𝑒2

Where:

𝑁𝐸𝑑 is the design value of axial force

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Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

𝐿0 2⁄
𝑒2 is the deflection = (1⁄𝑟) 𝑐

1⁄ is the curvature
𝑟

𝐿0 is the effective length

𝑐 is a factor depending on the curvature distribution

For constant section, 𝑐 = 10(≈ 𝜋 2 ) is normally used. If the first order moment is constant, a
lower value should be considered (8 is a lower limit, corresponding to constant total moment).

Curvature

For members with constant symmetrical cross sections, the following may be used:

1⁄ = 𝐾 𝐾 (1⁄ )
𝑟 𝑟 𝜑 𝑟0

𝐾𝑟 is a correction factor depending on axial load

𝐾𝜑 is a factor for taking account of creep

1⁄ = 𝜀𝑦𝑑⁄
𝑟0 0.45𝑑

𝑓𝑦𝑑
𝜀𝑦𝑑 = ⁄𝐸
𝑠

𝑑 is the effective depth

If all reinforcement is not concentrated on opposite sides, but part of it is distributed parallel to
the plane of bending, 𝑑 is defined as

𝑑 = (ℎ⁄2) + 𝑖𝑠

Where 𝑖𝑠 is the radius of gyration of the total reinforcement area

𝐾𝑟 should be taken as:

𝑛𝑢 − 𝑛
𝐾𝑟 =
𝑛𝑢 − 𝑛𝑏𝑎𝑙

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Where:

𝑁𝐸𝑑
𝑛= ⁄(𝐴 𝑓 ) , relative axial force
𝑐 𝑦𝑑

𝑁𝐸𝑑 is the design value of axial force

𝑛𝑢 = 1 + 𝜔

𝑛𝑏𝑎𝑙 is the value of 𝑛 at maximum moment resistance; the value 0.4 may be used

𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦𝑑
𝜔= ⁄(𝐴
𝑐 𝑓𝑐𝑑 )

𝐴𝑠 is the total area of reinforcement

𝐴𝑐 is the area of concrete cross section

The effect of creep should be taken into account by the following factor

𝐾𝜑 = 1 + 𝛽𝜑𝑒𝑓 ≥ 1.0

Where:

𝜑𝑒𝑓 is the effective creep ratio

𝑐𝑘 𝑓 𝜆
𝛽 = 0.35 + 200 − 150

𝜆 is the slenderness ratio

c) Second order analysis based on nominal stiffness

In a second order analysis based on stiffness, nominal values of the flexural stiffness should
be used, taking into account the effects of cracking, material non-linearity and creep on the
overall behavior.

The nominal stiffness should be defined in such a way that total bending moments resulting from
the analysis can be used for design of cross sections to their resistance for bending moment and
axial force.

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Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Nominal Stiffness

The following model may be used to estimate the nominal stiffness of slender compression
member with arbitrary cross section:

𝐸𝐼 = 𝐾𝑐 𝐸𝑐𝑑 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐾𝑠 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠

Where:

𝐸𝑐𝑑 is the design value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete

𝐼𝑐 is the moment of inertia of concrete cross section

𝐸𝑠 is the design value of the modulus of elasticity of reinforcement

𝐼𝑠 is the second value of the modus of elasticity of reinforcement, about the center of area of the
concrete

𝐾𝑐 is a factor for effects cracking, creep etc.

𝐾𝑠 is a factor for contribution of reinforcement

The following factors may be used in the above expression, provided 𝜌 ≥ 0.002:

𝐾𝑠 = 1.0

𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐾𝑐 = ⁄(1 + 𝜑 )
𝑒𝑓

Where:

𝐴𝑠
𝜌 is the geometric reinforcement ratio, ⁄𝐴
𝑐

𝐴𝑠 is the total area of reinforcement

𝐴𝑐 is the area of concrete section

𝜑𝑒𝑓 is the effective creep ratio

𝑘1 is a factor which depends on concrete strength class

𝑘2 is a factor which depends on axial force and slenderness

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Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

𝑓
𝑘1 = √ 𝑐𝑘⁄20 (𝑀𝑃𝑎)

𝜆
𝑘2 = 𝑛 ∗ 170 ≤ 0.20

Where:

𝑛 is the relative axial force, 𝑁𝐸𝑑 ⁄(𝐴𝑐 𝑓𝑐𝑑 )

𝜆 is the slenderness ratio

If the slenderness ratio 𝜆 is not defined, 𝑘2 may be taken as

𝑘2 = 𝑛 ∗ 0.3 ≤ 0.20

As a simplified alternative, provided 𝜌 ≥ 0.01, the following factors may be used:

𝐾𝑠 = 0

𝐾𝑐 = 0.3⁄
(1 + 0.5𝜑𝑒𝑓 )

In statically indeterminate structures, unfavorable effects of cracking in adjacent members should

be taken into account. The above expressions are not generally applicable to such members. As a
simplification, fully cracked sections may be assumed. The stiffness should be based on an
effective concrete modulus:

𝐸𝑐𝑑
𝐸𝑐𝑑,𝑒𝑓𝑓 = ⁄(1 + 𝜑 )
𝑒𝑓

Where:

𝐸𝑐𝑑 is the design value according to 5.8.6 (3)

𝜑𝑒𝑓 is the effective creep ratio; same value as for columns may be used

𝐸𝑐𝑚⁄
𝐸𝑐𝑑 = 𝛾𝐶𝐸 𝛾𝐶𝐸 is the partial factor for effective concrete modulus.

The recommended value of 𝛾𝐶𝐸 is 1.2.

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Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

The lateral deflection of a frame is affected by the stiffnesses of all the beams and columns in the
frame. For this reason, the moment of inertias in ACI section 10.11.1 are intended to represent an
overall average of the moment of inertia values of EI for each type of member in a frame.
Similarly the effective lengths of a column is affected by the flexural stiffnesses of the number of
beams and columns. Use 𝐸𝐼 = 0.7𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐 for columns and 𝐸𝐼 = 0.35𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐 for beams.

Method based on moment magnification factor

The total design moment, including second order moment, may be expressed as a magnification
of the bending moments resulting from a linear analysis, namely:

𝛽
𝑀𝐸𝑑 = 𝑀0𝐸𝑑 [1 + ]
𝑁𝐵
( ⁄𝑁 ) − 1
𝐸𝑑

Where:

𝑀0𝐸𝑑 is the first order moment

𝛽 is a factor which depends on distribution of 1st and 2nd order moments

𝑁𝐸𝑑 is the design value of axial load

𝑁𝐵 is the buckling load based on nominal stiffness

For isolated members with constant cross section and axial load, the second order moment may
normally be assumed to have a sine-shaped distribution. Then

2
𝛽 = 𝜋 ⁄𝑐0

Where:

𝑐0 is a coefficient which depends on the distribution of first order moment (for instance, 𝑐0 = 8
for a constant first order moment, 𝑐0 = 9.6 for a parabolic and 12 for a symmetric triangular
distribution etc.).

For members without transverse load (i.e. members without loads applied between their ends),
differing first order end moments 𝑀01 and 𝑀02 may be replaced by an equivalent constant first

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order moment 𝑀0𝑒 . Consistent with the assumption of a constant first order moment, 𝑐0 = 8
should be used.

𝑀0𝑒 = 0.6𝑀02 + 0.4𝑀01 ≥ 0.4𝑀02

𝑀01 and 𝑀02 should have the same sign if they give tension on the same side, otherwise opposite
signs. Furthermore, |𝑀02 | ≥ |𝑀01 |.

The value of 𝑐0 = 8 also applies to members bent in double curvature. It should be noted that in
some cases, depending on slenderness and axial force, the end moment(s) can be greater than the
magnified equivalent moment.

If the above expressions for calculation of 𝛽 is not applicable, 𝛽 = 1 is normally a reasonable

simplification. The total design moment, including second order moment, can then be reduced to:

𝑀0𝐸𝑑
𝑀𝐸𝑑 =
𝑁
1 − ( 𝐵⁄𝑁 )
𝐸𝑑

Summary of how to design the uni-axial and bi-axial loaded columns:

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Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Design considerations

Detailing rules of reinforcements for Reinforced Concrete Columns according to ES EN

1992:2015 section 9.5

Longitudinal reinforcement

 Bars should have a diameter of not less than 𝜙𝑚𝑖𝑛 and the recommended value of 𝜙𝑚𝑖𝑛
is 8𝑚𝑚.
 The total area of longitudinal reinforcement should not be less than 𝑨𝒔,𝒎𝒊𝒏 and the
recommended value is
0.1𝑁𝐸𝑑
𝐴𝑠,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥. { 𝑓𝑦𝑑
0.002𝐴𝑐
Where:
𝑓𝑦𝑑 is the design yield strength of the reinforcement
𝑁𝐸𝑑 is the design axial compression force

The 𝐴𝑠,𝑚𝑖𝑛 limit is necessary to ensure minimum resistance to bending and reduce effects of
creep and shrinkage.

 The area of longitudinal reinforcement should not exceed 𝑨𝒔,𝒎𝒂𝒙 . The recommended
value of 𝑨𝒔,𝒎𝒂𝒙 is 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝑨𝒄 outside lap locations unless it can be shown that the integrity
of concrete is not affected, and that the full strength is achieved at ultimate limit state.
This limit should be increased to 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝑨𝒄 at laps. Ratios higher than 0.08 are
uneconomical and would cause congestion of reinforcements.
 The minimum lateral dimension of a column shall be at least𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎.
 For columns having a polygonal cross-section, at least one bar should be placed at
each corner. The number of longitudinal bars in a circular column should not be less
than four.
 No bar within a compression zone should be further than 150𝑚𝑚 from a restrained bar.

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Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Figure 1.34: Reinforement detailing for the columns

Transverse reinforcement

Every longitudinal bar or bundle of bars placed in a corner should be held by transverse
reinforcement.

 The diameter of the transverse reinforcement (links, loops or helical spiral

reinforcement) should not be less than 6𝑚𝑚 or one quarter of the maximum diameter
of the longitudinal bars, whichever is the greater. The diameter of the wires or welded
mesh fabric for transverse reinforcement should not be less than 5𝑚𝑚.
 The transverse reinforcement should be anchored adequately.
 The spacing of the transverse reinforcement along the column should not exceed
𝑆𝑐𝑙,𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 . The recommended value of 𝑆𝑐𝑙,𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the least of the following three
distances:
 20 times the minimum diameter of the longitudinal bars
 The lesser dimension of the column
 400 mm
 The maximum spacing of the transverse reinforcement required should be reduced by a
factor 0.6:

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Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

(i). in sections within a distance equal to the larger dimension of the column cross-section
above or below a beam or slab;
(ii). near lapped joints, if the maximum diameter of the longitudinal bars is greater
than14𝑚𝑚. A minimum of 3 bars evenly placed in the lap length is required.
 Where the direction of the longitudinal bars changes, (e.g. at changes in column size), the
spacing of transverse reinforcement should be calculated, taking account of the lateral
forces involved. These effects may be ignored if the change of direction is less than or
equal to 1 𝑖𝑛 12.

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