AEROSPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

Module No. 7
Forces on Surfaces and its Effects
BY: DR. JAY JACK R. MANZANO

Topic for Discussion:

Performance and Propulsion:
1. Describe the viscous and pressure drag components on a body
2. De<ine <low separation and explain where it might occur
3. Explain the three types of aerodynamics drag
4. Perform lift and drag calculations on aircraft
5. Others:
Forces on a Flat Plate and Other Shapes

Pressure Drag Components:

The component of the aerodynamic force that is opposed to the motion is the drag, the
component perpendicular to the motion is the lift. Both the lift and drag force act through
the center of pressure (CP) of the object. For a lifting wing, there is a pressure difference
between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing.
Pressure drag is caused by the air particles being more compressed (pushed together)
on the front-facing surfaces and more spaced out on the back surfaces. This is caused when
the layers of air separate away from the surface and begin to swirl – this is called turbulent
Plow.

Flow Separation
Flow separation or boundary layer separation is the detachment of a boundary layer from
a surface into a wake. Separation occurs in <low that is slowing down, with pressure
increasing, after passing the thickest part of a streamline body or passing through a widening
passage.

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Flowing against an increasing pressure is known as <lowing in an adverse pressure
gradient. The boundary layer separates when it has travelled far enough in an adverse
pressure gradient that the speed of the boundary layer relative to the surface has stopped
and reversed direction. The <low becomes detached from the surface, and instead takes the
forms of eddies and vortices. The <luid exerts a constant pressure on the surface once it has
separated instead of a continually increasing pressure if still attached. In aerodynamics, <low
separation results in reduced lift and increased pressure drag, caused by the pressure
differential between the front and rear surfaces of the object. It causes buffeting of aircraft
structures and control surfaces. In internal passages separation causes stalling and
vibrations in machinery blading and increased losses(lower ef<iciency) in inlets and
compressors. Much effort and research has gone into the design of aerodynamic
and hydrodynamic surface contours and added features which delay <low separation and
keep the <low attached for as long as possible. Examples include the fur on a tennis ball,
dimples on a golf balls, turbulators on a glider, which induce an early transition to turbulent
<low; vortex generators on aircraft.

Parasite Drag:
Parasite drag is comprised of all the forces that work to slow an aircraft’s movement. As the
term parasite implies, it is the drag that is not associated with the production of lift. This
includes the displacement of the air by the aircraft, turbulence generated in the airstream, or
a hindrance of air moving over the surface of the aircraft and airfoil. There are three types of
parasite drag:
1. Form Drag or Pressure Drag (or Pro<ile Drag)
2. Interference Drag, and
3. Skin Friction Drag

Form Drag
Form drag is the portion of parasite drag generated by the aircraft due to its shape and air<low
around it. Examples include the engine cowlings, antennas, and the aerodynamic shape of
other components. When the air has to separate to move around a moving aircraft and its
components, it eventually rejoins after passing the body. How quickly and smoothly it rejoins
is representative of the resistance that it creates, which requires additional force to
overcome.

Interference Drag
Interference drag comes from the intersection of airstreams that creates eddy currents,
turbulence, or restricts smooth air<low. For example, the intersection of the wing and the
fuselage at the wing root has signi<icant interference drag. Air <lowing around the fuselage

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collides with air <lowing over the wing, merging into a current of air different from the two
original currents. The most interference drag is observed when two surfaces meet at
perpendicular angles. Fairings are used to reduce this tendency. If a jet <ighter carries two
identical wing tanks, the overall drag is greater than the sum of the individual tanks because
both of these create and generate interference drag. Fairings and distance between lifting
surfaces and external components (such as radar antennas hung from wings) reduce
interference drag.

Fairings

Skin Friction Drag

Skin friction drag is the aerodynamic resistance due to the contact of moving air with the
surface of an aircraft. Every surface, no matter how apparently smooth, has a rough, ragged
surface when viewed under a microscope. The air molecules, which come in direct contact
with the surface of the wing, are virtually motionless. Each layer of molecules above the
surface moves slightly faster until the molecules are moving at the velocity of the air moving
around the aircraft. This speed is called the free-stream velocity. The area between the wing
and the free-stream velocity level is about as wide as a playing card and is called the
boundary layer. At the top of the boundary layer, the molecules increase velocity and move at
the same speed as the molecules outside the boundary layer. The actual speed at which the
molecules move depends upon the shape of the wing, the viscosity (stickiness) of the air
through which the wing or airfoil is moving, and its compressibility.

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Lift and Drag of the Wing:

An aerodynamic force is a force exerted on a body by the air (or other gas) in which the
body is immersed, and is due to the relative motion between the body and the gas. There are
two causes of aerodynamic force:
1. The normal force due to the pressure on the surface of the body
2. The shear force due to the viscosity of the gas, also known as skin friction.
Pressure acts normal to the surface, and shear force acts parallel to the surface. Both forces
act locally. The net aerodynamic force on the body is equal to the pressure and shear
forces integrated over the body's total exposed area.
When an airfoil (such as a wing) moves relative to the air, it generates an aerodynamic force
in a rearward direction, at an angle determined by the direction of relative motion. This
aerodynamic force is commonly resolved into two components, both acting through
the center of pressure:
1. Drag is the force component parallel to the direction of relative motion,
2. Lift is the force component perpendicular to the direction of relative motion.
In addition to these two forces, the body may experience an aerodynamic moment.

Forces on the Wing:

Lift and Drag Calculation on a Wing:

L = CL (!/2)S v2
D = CD (!/2)S v2
M = CM (!/2) S v2 (MAC)
Where:
L = Lift ! = Density
D = Drag S = Wing Surface Area
M = Moment v = velocity
CL = Coefficient of Lift MAC= Mean Aerodynamic Chord
CD = Coefficient of Drag
CM = Coefficient of Moment

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In aerodynamics, the pitching moment on an airfoil is the moment (or torque) produced by
the aerodynamic force on the airfoil if that aerodynamic force is considered to be applied, not
at the center of pressure (cp) but at the aerodynamic center (ac)of the airfoil. The pitching
moment on the wing of an airplane is part of the total moment that must be balanced using
the lift on the horizontal stabilizer. More generally, a pitching moment is any moment acting
on the pitch axis of a moving body.

The lift on an airfoil is a distributed force that can be said to act at a point called the center
of pressure. However, as angle of attack changes on a cambered airfoil, there is movement of
the center of pressure forward and aft. This makes analysis dif<icult when attempting to use
the concept of the center of pressure. One of the remarkable properties of a cambered airfoil
is that, even though the center of pressure moves forward and aft, if the lift is imagined to act
at a point called the aerodynamic center the moment of the lift force changes in proportion
to the square of the airspeed. If the moment is divided by the dynamic pressure, the area
and chord of the airfoil, the result is known as the pitching moment coef<icient.

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Forces on a Flat Plate and Other Shapes:

D = Drag
D = CD(!/2)Av2

Where:
CD = Coefficient of drag
! = Atmospheric density
A = Projected frontal
area
v = Velocity

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Sample Problem on Flat Plate:

1. A hangar door 50 ft by 40 ft in dimension is perpendicular to an airstream at 80 ft/s.

Compute the force (lbs) on the hangar door using standard sea-level condition.
2. A <lat windshield is inclined 10o from the vertical reference axis while being subjected
to a free-stream air at 80 ft/s. If the windshield total surface area is 1,440 in2 and at
standard sea level condition (SSLC). Calculate the Force (lbs) on the windshield.
3. Let the <lat windshield in Problem No. 2 inclined to the airstream at 15o. Calculate the
Force in lbs.

Sample Problem on NACA 2421 Wing:

Compute for the Lift (lbs) and Drag (lbs) at different angle of attack (𝜶) for a NACA 2421 wing
<lying at 150 mph, having a wing area of 200 ft2. Assume altitude density of 2.05x10-3
slugs/ft3. Also, determine the following:
a. Equivalent maximum angle of attack
b. Equivalent maximum CL
c. Equivalent maximum CD
d. What is the maximum Lift to Drag ratio (L/D)?
When do you expect the wing will Stall?

For Lift and Drag equations:

L = CL (!/2)Sv2
L = CL (2.05x10-3/2) (200 ft2) ((150 mph)(1.467 fps/mph))2
L = CL (9,926.51 lbs)

D = CD (!/2)Sv2
D = CD (2.05x10-3/2) (200 ft2) ((150 mph)(1.467 fps/mph))2
D = CD (9,926.51 lbs)

Using the CL vs !
curve and CL vs CD
curve

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Practice Work

Calculation of Lift and Drag for NACA XXXX (Select your NACA from book of Abbott for
4-digits only)

Instructions:
• Using the CL vs. 𝜶 curve and CL vs. CD curve locate the value of CL and CD for 𝜶 (deg); 0,
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, and 22 for RN = 6.0x106
• For the wing; S = 200 ft2, v = 220 fps, and density altitude of 5,000 ft.
• Calculate the Lift (lbs) and Drag (lbs) for the different angle of attack
• Show your solution and tabulate the Final Answer (see our example)
• Give statement on what is your impression on the performance of your wing (ie.
aerodynamic ef<iciency, CLmax, others…)

End of Module No. 7