Discourse Analysis
Chapter 4: Discourse and Genre — Exam Study Notes
4.1 What is a Genre?
Simple Definition:
• A genre is a way people 'get things done' through spoken or written language.
• Genres are activities performed through language use.
Key Features of Genres:
Feature Example / Explanation
Spoken or Written Lectures, conversations (spoken); reports, essays (written)
Common Function Genres share a purpose or set of purposes
Typical Audience Performed for a specific audience (e.g., lecturer → students)
Typical Context E.g., lecture theatre for academic lectures
Change Over Time Genres evolve due to technology, values, or social shifts
How We Use Language in a Genre:
• Language use depends on content, purpose and audience of the genre.
• Whether text is spoken or written affects language choices.
• We draw on previous experience of a genre to know how to use it.
• Genres are not identical each time — they vary in typicality (a text can be a typical or less typical
example of a genre).
★ Exam Tip: The office memo is a classic example of a genre that changed due to technology. New
technologies (internet, mobile phones) can create entirely new genres like text messaging or online discussion
forums.
4.1.1 Defining Genre — Key Scholars
Martin (1984: 25):
Genre = 'a staged, goal-oriented, purposeful activity' — highly influential in the Sydney School of genre
analysis.
Martin & Rose (2007):
Genre is social (we do it with others), goal-oriented (to get things done), and staged (it usually takes
multiple steps).
Swales (2004: 61):
Prefers 'metaphor' over 'definition' — definitions can prevent us from recognizing new/emerging genres.
Miller (1984):
Genre = 'social action' — defined not by form/substance but by the action it performs. This led to
rhetorical genre studies.
Miller & Bazerman (2011):
Genre is a 'social agreement' about ways of doing things with language in social/cultural settings.
Miller & Kelly (2016: 280):
Genre is defined by 'the expectations and motivations of its users' — a generalization about what most
people do.
Key Concept — Typification (Miller 1984): Genres have typical forms AND typical actions. We recognise
and draw on these as we use genres.
4.1.2 The Sydney School of Genre Analysis
• Genre is important in teaching reading and writing (Martin & Rose 2007; Rose 2012).
• Schematic structure = the discourse structure of texts (Sydney School term).
• Genre corresponds to Malinowski's context of culture; register corresponds to context of situation.
• Register = the language features of a text, made up of:
Register Component Meaning
Field Content and social activity of the text
Tenor Role relationships between people in the text
Mode Channel of communication (speaking or writing)
• Hasan (1989a): 'genre' and 'register' are synonymous.
• Christie (1991) supports Martin's view that distinguishing genre vs register helps show two
simultaneous sets of choices people make in language.
• A research article is organized per genre expectations AND written per register expectations.
4.1.3 Genre Analysis & English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
Swales' Approach:
• Swales (1981, 1990, 2004) analysed discourse structure of research article introductions.
• He uses the concept of 'moves' to describe the discourse structure of texts.
• Swales (1990): Communicative purpose was the key factor in defining a genre.
• He later revised this — genres can have multiple purposes, which may differ for different participants
(Askehave & Swales 2001).
• Communicative purpose can evolve, expand, or shrink over time (Swales 2004).
• Purpose can also vary across cultures even within the same genre category.
• Linguistically similar texts may have 'startling differences in communicative purpose' (Swales &
Rogers 1995: 223).
4.1.4 Rhetorical Genre Studies
• Genres are part of the social processes by which knowledge about reality is made.
• Genres both respond to and constitute social contexts.
• Genres are not just socially embedded — they are socially constructive.
• Miller (1984: 165): genres 'serve as keys to understanding how to participate in the actions of a
community.'
• Understanding genre as social action turns writing from 'what should be a practical art' into making
texts that fit formal requirements — important implication for genre-based teaching.
4.1.5 Choice and Constraint in Genres
• Drawing on Devitt (1997), Swales (2004) notes genres have both choices AND constraints.
• Genres are dynamic and open to change — but not 'free for all' or 'anything goes'.
• Devitt (2004: 86): conformity among genre users 'is a fact of genre' — genres provide an expected
way of acting.
• There are consequences for violating genre expectations.
• Both constraint and choice are necessary and positive components of genres.
Bhatia (1998: 25-6) Analogy: Practising a genre is like playing a game with its own rules. Skilled players
succeed by manipulating and exploiting the rules, not just complying with them. It is about acquiring
rules to exploit them for professional/disciplinary purposes.
4.1.6 Assigning a Text to a Genre Category
Factors that help identify genre (Cook 1989):
✓ Author or speaker
✓ Intended audience
✓ Purpose of the text
✓ Situation in which it occurs
✓ Physical form
✓ Title (for written texts)
✓ Pre-sequence (e.g., 'Once upon a time')
✓ Discourse structure
✓ Content
✓ Level of formality
✓ Style/register
✓ Spoken or written mode
Important Points:
• Not all instances of a genre have the same discourse structure or communicative purpose (Askehave
& Swales 2001).
• An academic essay may be 'explanation-', 'evaluation-' or 'argument-type' — or a combination.
• A text may be a 'best example' or a 'problematic example' of a genre.
• Some texts (e.g., shopping lists, company brochures) may have more than one communicative
purpose.
• Genre identification requires a flexible (not static) view.
• Key factor: prototype perspective (Rosch 1978, 1983) — genre based on prototype, not strict defining
features.
• Genres are best seen as resources for making meaning, not systems of rules.
• Assigning to a genre = 'sufficient similarity' (Swales 1990), not an exact match.
4.2 Relationships Between Genres
Key Concepts in Genre Theory (Tardy 2003; Devitt 2004; Swales 2004):
Concept Simple Explanation
Genre Networks A group of interrelated genres that work together
Genre Chains Genres that follow each other in sequence (e.g., job application process)
Genre Sets All genres used by a group of people in a specific setting
Repertoires of Genres The full range of genres available to a person or group
Key Point: One genre may depend on a number of other interrelated genres.
Example — Academic Essay Genre Network:
• Academic essays draw from: academic lectures, specialist texts, journal articles.
• Academic essays interrelate with: assignment guidelines, assessment criteria, tutorial discussions,
teacher-student consultations.
Example — Job Application Genre Chain (Figure 4.1):
Job Ad →Position Description→ Letter of Application → Resume → Job Interview → Offer of Appointment → Negotiation of Offer
• Uhrig (2012): studied genre relationships for law and MBA students — found genre preparation
differed significantly between disciplines.
• In law: study groups and hornbooks were especially important.
• In MBA: class discussions and oral presentations were key.
• Cope (2009): students applying for vocational college admissions needed to engage in a range of
interconnected spoken and written genres and needed almost an insider's understanding to
succeed.
• Genre knowledge = understanding 'the totality of genres available in the particular sector' (Swales
2004: 22).
• In Italy: a 'raccomandazione' (personal recommendation) may have higher value than a formal letter of
recommendation in job applications — genre value is culturally specific.
★ Quick Revision: Key Scholar-Concept Matches
Scholar Key Concept
Martin (1984) Genre = staged, goal-oriented, purposeful activity (Sydney School)
Swales (1990) Communicative purpose; 'moves'; sufficient similarity
Miller (1984) Genre as social action; typification; rhetorical genre studies
Devitt (1997/2004) Choice and constraint; conformity as a fact of genre
Bhatia (1998) Genre like a game — exploit rules, not just follow them
Cook (1989) Factors for assigning a text to a genre category
Rosch (1978/83) Prototype perspective on genre identification
Tardy/Devitt/Swales (2003/4) Genre networks, genre chains, genre sets, repertoires
Uhrig (2012) Genre relationships differ across disciplines (law vs MBA)
Cope (2009) Vocational admission needs insider genre knowledge
Remember: Genre is dynamic, social, purposeful, and context-bound. It involves both CHOICE and
CONSTRAINT. Assigning a text to a genre requires flexible, prototype-based thinking — not rigid rule-matching.