CE1401 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

OBJECTIVES:
To understand the stresses developed in bars, compounds bars, beams, shafts, cylinders
andspheres.

UNIT I : STRESS, STRAIN AND DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS

Rigid bodies and deformable solids – Tension, Compression and Shear Stresses
– Deformation ofsimple and compound bars – Thermal stresses – Elastic constants –
Volumetric strains –Stresses oninclined planes – principal stresses and principal planes
Rigid body:circle of stress.
– Mohr’s
When a body is subjected to external forces, if it does not undergo any deformation, it
is called rigid body.
Deformable body:
When a body is subjected to external forces, if it undergoes deformation, it is called as
deformable body.
Stress:
Stress is defined as the external force applied per unit area.
The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a body against deformation is called
𝑃
as stress. 𝜎 = ; 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚 2 𝑜𝑟𝑁/𝑚 2
𝐴
Types of Stress:
 Tensile Stress
 Compressive Stress
 Shear Stress
Tensile Stress:
When body is subjected toequal and opposite pulls, it elongates. The resistance
offered to this elongation istensile stress.
Compressive Stress:
If body is subjected to equal and opposite pushes, it contracts and theresistance
offered to this contraction is compressive stress.
Shear Stress:
The two equal and opposite force act tangentially on any cross sectional plane of
thebody tending to slide one part of the body over the other part. The stress induced iscalled
shear stress
Strain
It is the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension is called as strain.
𝜕𝑙
𝑒 = ; No unit.
𝑙
Types of Strains:
 Tensile Strain
 Compressive Strain
 Shear Strain
 Volumetric Strain

Tensile Strain:

1
 It is defined as the ratio of the increase inthe length to the original length.
Compressive Strain
It is defined as the ratio of decrease in length to theoriginal length.
Shear strain:
Shear stress is the resistance offered to the force applied. It is the ratio of shear force
toshear area. The corresponding strain is called as shear strain.
Hook’s law:
It states that within elastic limit, the ratio of the stress and strain is a constant.
Elastic limit:
Elastic limit is a point on the stress strain diagram below which the body regains
itsoriginal shape when deformed, not necessarily obeying the hook’s law.
Elasticity:
It is ability of by which the material regains its original shape when deformed.
stress-strain curve for ductile material.
A - Limit of proportionality
B - Elastic limit
C - Upper yield point
D - Lower yield point
E - Ultimate point
F - Breaking point
Poisson’s ratio:
It is the ratio of lateral strain to the normal strain.
It is dimensionless and is denoted byμ or 1/m.
Note: The Poisson’s ratio for a material cannot be more than 0.5.
Ultimate stress:
There is a particular maximum load, which any material can withstand, above which it
starts creeping and breaks. The stress corresponding to this load is called ultimatestress.
Modulus of elasticity (or) Young’s modulus:
According to Hook’s law, the ratio of stress to strain is a constant. This constant is modulus of
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
elasticity.𝐸 =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
E and its unit is N/mm2.
Principle of super position:
The resultant deformation of the body is equal to the algebraic sum of the
deformationof the individual section. Such principle is called as principle of super position.
Deformation of a body Due to self Weight:
Consider a bar AB hanging freely under its own weight as shown in fig:
Let, A
l=Length of the bar
A =Cross-sectional area of the bar
E= young’s modulus x
w=Specific weight of the bar material B

Now consider a small section dx of the bar at a distance x from B. We know that l
weight of the bar for a length of x,
𝑃(𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) = 𝑤𝐴𝑥

2
 𝑃𝑙 𝑤𝐴𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 𝑤𝑥. 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝛿𝑥 = = =
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸 𝐸
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝑤𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 𝑤 𝑤 𝑥2 𝑤𝑙2 𝑾𝒍
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝛿𝑙 = ∫ = ∫ 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = [ ] = = (∴ 𝑤𝑙 = 𝑊)
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 2 0 2𝐸 𝟐𝑬
0 0
Stresses in Uniformly Tapering Circular Rod:

P=Axial tensile load on the bar,

L=Total length of the bar,
E=Young’s modulus,
d1=diameter of the bigger end,
d2=diameter at the smaller end.
Now consider a small element of length dx, of the
bar, at a distance x from the bigger end.
(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )𝑥 (𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑1 − = 𝑑1 − 𝑘. 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑘 =
𝑙 𝑙
Cross sectional area at this section,
𝜋 𝑃 4𝑃
𝐴𝑥 = (𝑑1 − 𝑘. 𝑥)2 ∴ 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜋 =
4 (𝑑1 − 𝑘. 𝑥)2 𝜋(𝑑1 − 𝑘. 𝑥)2
4
4𝑃
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜋(𝑑1 −𝑘.𝑥)2 ) 4𝑃
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑒𝑥 = = =
𝐸 𝐸 𝜋(𝑑1 − 𝑘. 𝑥)2 𝐸
4𝑃. 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 =
𝜋(𝑑1 − 𝑘. 𝑥)2 𝐸
Total extension of the bar between the limits 0 to l l:
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝒍
4𝑃. 𝑑𝑥 4𝑃 𝑑𝑥 4𝑃 (𝑑1 − 𝑘. 𝑥)−1 𝟒𝑷 𝟏
𝜕𝑙 = ∫ = ∫ = [ ] = [ ]
𝜋(𝑑1 − 𝑘. 𝑥)2 𝐸 𝜋𝐸 𝜋(𝑑1 − 𝑘. 𝑥)2 𝐸 𝜋𝐸 −1 × −𝑘 0 𝝅𝑬𝒌 (𝒅𝟏 − 𝒌. 𝒙) 𝟎
0 0
Substituting the value of k;
4𝑃 1 1 4𝑃𝑙 1 1 4𝑃𝑙 (𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )
𝝏𝒍 = (𝑑1 −𝑑2) [ (𝑑1−𝑑2 )𝑙 − ]= [ − ] = ×
𝜋𝐸 𝑑1 − 𝑑1 𝜋𝐸(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 ) 𝑑2 𝑑1 𝜋𝐸(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 ) 𝑑1 𝑑2
𝑙 𝑙
𝟒𝑷𝒍
=
𝝅𝑬𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
Stresses in Uniformly Tapering RectangularBar:

𝑃𝑙 𝑎
log𝑒 𝜕𝑙 =
𝐸𝑡(𝑎 − 𝑏) 𝑏
Where, a=width at bigger end; b=width at smaller end & t= thickness of the bar

Analysis of Bars of Composite sections:

3
P, L, A1, A2, E1, E 2, P1, P2, 1, 2
𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 ; 𝜎1 = & 𝜎2 = 𝑆𝑜, 𝑃1 = 𝜎1 𝐴1 &𝑃2 = 𝜎2 𝐴2
𝐴1 𝐴2
Change in length of the bar is same amount.
𝜎1 𝜎2
𝑒1 = 𝑒2 ; 𝑆𝑜, =
𝐸1 𝐸2

Thermal stresses:
If the body is allowed to expand or contract freely, with the rise or fall of temperature
nostress is developed but if free expansion is prevented the stress developed is
calledtemperature or thermal stress and the corresponding strain is temperature strain.

α = the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material, T = change in temperature

Let, l=Original length of the body,

T=Increase in temp.
=Coefficient of linear expansion.
𝝏𝒍 𝒍. ∝. 𝑻
Increase in length due to increae in temperature, 𝜕𝑙 = 𝑙. ∝. 𝑇; 𝑒= = =∝ 𝑻
𝒍 𝑻
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎 = 𝑒. 𝐸 = ∝. 𝑻. 𝐸
Stress & Strain when the Supports Yield:
If the supports yielded by an amount equal to , then the actual expansion
𝜕𝑙 = 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 − 𝛿 =∝. 𝑇. 𝑙 − 𝛿
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (∝. 𝑇. 𝑙 − 𝛿 )
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙
(∝. 𝑇. 𝑙 − 𝛿 )
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝐸 = ×𝐸
𝑙

Thermal stresses in Composite Bars:

4
 Ab,b,eb,b,Eb & Corresponding Values of Steel
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝜎𝑏 × 𝐴𝑏 ;
Load on the Steel = 𝜎𝑠 × 𝐴𝑠
For equilibrium system, compression in brass is equal to tension in the steel.
Load on the brass = Load on the steel
𝜎𝑏 × 𝐴𝑏 = 𝜎𝑠 × 𝐴𝑠
Actual expansion of the steel= Actual expansion of Brass
But Actual expansion of the steel=Free expansion of steel + Expansion due to tensile
stress in steel
𝜎𝑠
= 𝑙. ∝𝑠 . 𝑇 + . 𝑙
𝐸𝑠
Actual Expansion of Brass= Free expansion of brass-Contraction due to compressive
stress in brass
𝜎𝑏
= 𝑙. ∝𝑏 . 𝑇 − . 𝑙
𝐸𝑏
𝜎𝑠 𝜎𝑏 𝝈𝒔 𝝈𝒃
𝑙. ∝𝑠 . 𝑇 + . 𝑙 = 𝑙. ∝𝑏 . 𝑇 − . 𝑙 ; ∝𝒔 . 𝑻 + = ∝𝒃 . 𝑻 −
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑏 𝑬𝒔 𝑬𝒃
Problems
Stresses & Strains
1. A rod 150 cm long and of diameter 2 cm is subjected to an axial pull of 20 kN. If the
modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod is 2x10 5 N/mm2; determine: (i) the
stress; (ii) the strain and (ii) the elongation of the rod.
𝑃 20000
(i) Stres𝜎 = = = 63.662 𝑁/𝑚𝑚 2
𝐴 100𝜋
𝜎 𝜎 63.662
(ii) 𝐸 = ;𝑒 = = = 0.000318
𝑒 𝐸 2×105
𝑑𝐿
(iii) Elongation: 𝑒 = ; 𝑑𝐿 = 𝑒 × 𝐿 = 0.000318 × 150 = 0.477𝑚𝑚
𝐿

2. The following observations were made during a tensile test on a mild steel specimen
40 mm in diameter and 200 mm long. Elongation with 40 kN: l=0.0304 mm; Yield
load=161 kN; Maximum load= 242 kN; Length of the specimen at fracture=249 mm.
Determine: (i) Young modulus, (ii)Yield point stress, (iii)Ultimate stress and
(iv)Percentage of elongation.
(i) Young’s modulus, E:
𝑃 104 𝑘𝑁 𝜕𝑙 𝜎
𝜎 = = 3.18 × 2
; 𝑒𝑙 = = 0.000152; 𝐸 = = 2.09 × 108 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 2
𝐴 𝑚 𝑙 𝑒
(ii) Yield point Stress:
Yield point load 161
Yield point stress = = = 12.8 × 104 kN/m2
Area A
(iii) Ultimate Stress:

5
 Maximum load 242
Ultimate Stress = = = 19.2 × 104 kN/m2
Area A
(iv) Percentage of elongation:
Length of Specimen − Original length 249 − 200
Percentage of elongation = = = 0.245
Original length 200
= 24.5%.

3. An axial pull of 35000 N is acting on a bar consisting of three lengths as shown in fig.
If E=2.1x105N/mm2, determine: (i) stress in each section (ii) total extension of the bar. (

(i) Stress in each Section:

𝑃
𝜎1 = = 111.4 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚 2 ; 𝜎2 = 49.51 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚 2 ; 𝜎2 = 49.51 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚 2
𝐴1
(ii) Total extension of the bar:
𝑃 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ( + + ) = 0.183𝑚𝑚
𝐸 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3

4. A brass bar having cross-sectional area of 1000 mm2 is subjected to axial forces
shown in the fig. Find the total elongation of the bar. Take E=100GN/m 2.

𝑃𝐿1 𝑃𝐿2 𝑃𝐿3

𝜕𝑙1 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 (+); 𝜕𝑙2 = &𝜕𝑙3 = 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 (−);
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
𝑙
𝝏𝒍 = 𝜕𝑙1 − 𝜕𝑙2 − 𝜕𝑙3 = (𝑃 𝑙 − 𝑃2 𝑙2 − 𝑃3 𝑙3 ) = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝒎
𝐴𝐸 1 1
Taper Sections
5. A rod, which tapers uniformly from 40 mm diameter to 20 mm diameter in a length of
400 mm, is subjected to an axial load of 5000 N. If E=2.1x105 N/mm2, find the
extension of the rod.
4𝑃𝐿 4 × 5000 × 400
𝒅𝑳 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝒎𝒎
𝜋𝐸𝐷1 𝐷2 𝜋 × 2.1 × 105 × 40 × 20
6. The extension in a rectangular steel bar of length 400 mm and thickness 10 mm, is
found to be 0.21 mm. The bar tapers uniformly in width from 100 mm to 50 mm. If
E=2x105 N/mm2, determine the axial load of the bar.
𝑃𝐿 𝑎 𝑃 × 2800 100
𝑑𝐿 = log𝑒 ; 0.21 = 5
log𝑒 ( )
𝐸𝑡(𝑎 − 𝑏) 𝑏 2 × 10 × 10(100 − 50) 50
0.21 = 0.000004𝑃 × 0.6931; 𝑷 = 75746𝑁 = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟕𝟒𝟔 𝒌𝑵

6
 Composite Bars:
7. A concrete column of cross-sectional area 400 mm x 400 mm is reinforced by four
longitudinal 50 mm diameter round steel bars placed at each corner. If the column
carries a compressive load of 300 kN, determine: (i)Loads carried (ii) The compressive
stress produced in the concrete and steel bars. Youngs modulus of steel is 15 times of
concrete.
Cross-sectional area of the column: A = 0.4X0.4=0.16m2
𝜋
Area of Steel bars: 𝐴𝑠 = 4 × × (0.05)2 = 0.00785 𝑚 2
4
Area of Concrete: A c = A – A s = 0.16 − 0.00785 = 0.1521 m2
𝜎𝑠 𝜎𝑐 𝐸𝑠
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑒𝑠 = 𝑒𝑐 ; 𝑆𝑜 = 𝑜𝑟, 𝜎𝑠 = 𝜎𝑐 × = 15𝜎𝑐 ; ∴ 𝐸𝑠 = 15𝐸𝑐
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑐
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 + 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 = 300000 𝑁
𝑃𝑠 + 𝑃𝑐 = 300000 𝑁
(𝜎𝑠 × 𝐴𝑠 ) + (𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴𝑐 ) = 300000 𝑁
Now substitute 𝜎𝑠 = 15𝜎𝑐 ; we will get
𝝈𝒄 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑵/𝒎𝟐; So 𝒔 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
Load carried by steel bars, 𝑷𝒔 = 𝝈𝒔 × 𝑨𝒔 = 𝟏𝟑𝟎. 𝟕 𝒌𝑵. ; 𝑷𝒄 = 𝟏𝟔𝟖. 𝟗 𝒌𝑵
8. A solid steel bar 500mm long and 70mm diameter is placed inside an aluminium tube
having 75mm inside diameter and 100mm outside diameter. The aluminium cylinder is
0.16mm longer than the steel bar. An axial load of 500kN is applied to the bar and the
cylinder through rigid cover plates. Compute the stresses developed in the steel bar
and the aluminium tube. Assume Es = 220 GN/mm2 and Eal = 70 GN/m2. (dig.)
Since Al cylinder is 0.16 mm longer than steel cylinder, now find load required to compress
the Al cylinder
𝑃𝑙 𝐸𝐴𝑎𝑙 𝑒 70×109×𝐴×0.00016
.𝐸 = ; 𝑃= = = 76944 𝑁
𝐴𝐸 𝑙 0.50016
When Al cylinder compressed by its extra length 0.16mm, the then shared by both Al as well
as steel cylinder will be,
500000 – 76944 = 423056 N
𝜎𝑠 𝜎𝑎 𝐸𝑠 220 × 109 22
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑒𝑠 = 𝑒𝑠 ; 𝑆𝑜 = 𝑜𝑟, 𝜎𝑠 = 𝜎𝑎 × = 𝜎𝑎 = 𝜎
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑎 𝐸𝑐 70 × 109 7 𝑎
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝑃𝑠 + 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃
(𝜎𝑠 × 𝐴𝑠 ) + (𝜎𝑎 × 𝐴𝑎 ) = 423056 𝑁; 𝜎𝑎 = 27.24𝑀 𝑁⁄𝑚 2 ; 𝜎𝑠 = 85.61𝑀𝑁/
76944
Stress in the Al cylinder due to load 76944 N = = 22.39 MN/m2
A al
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐴𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 27.24 + 22.39 = 𝟒𝟗. 𝟔𝟑 𝑴𝑵/𝒎𝟐
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝟖𝟓. 𝟔𝟏 𝑴𝑵/𝒎𝟐

9. A compound tube consists of a steel tube 140 mm internal diameter and 160 mm
external diameter and an outer brass tube 160 mm internal diameter and 180 mm
external diameter. The two tubes are of the same length. The compound tube carries
an axial load of 900 kN. Find the stresses and the load carried by each tube and the
amount it shortens. Length of each tube is 140 mm, Take E s=2x105N/mm2 and
Eb=1x105N/mm2.
Now, Strain in steel = strain in Brass; 𝑒𝑠 = 𝑒𝑏

7
 𝜎𝑠 𝜎𝑏 𝐸𝑠 2 × 105
= ; 𝜎𝑠 = × 𝜎𝑏 = 𝜎 = 2𝜎𝑏
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑏 𝐸𝑏 1 × 105 𝑏
Now, Load on steel + Load on brass= Total load
𝑵
𝜎𝑠 × 𝐴𝑠 + 𝜎𝑏 × 𝐴𝑏 = 900000; 𝑆𝑜, 𝝈𝒃 = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟗𝟓 ; 𝝈𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐𝟏. 𝟗 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝒎𝒎𝟐
Load Carried by brass tube= stress X Area = 𝜎𝑏 × 𝐴𝑏 = 325.515 𝑘𝑁
Total Load carried by steel tube = 900 – 325.515 = 574.48 kN.
Decrease in length of the compound tube dl = Decrease in length of either of the tubes; l
=decrease in length of brass tube
𝜎𝑏 60.95
𝝏𝒍 = ×𝐿 = × 140 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟓𝟑 𝒎𝒎
𝜎𝑏 1 × 105
10. Two brass rods each of diameter 35 mm and a steel rod of diameter 45 mm together
support a load of 50 kN as shown in Fig. Find the stresses in the rods. Take
Es=2x105N/mm2 and Eb=1 x 105 N/mm2. All dimensions are in mm.

𝐿𝑏 = 250 𝑚𝑚; 𝐿𝑠 = 350 𝑚𝑚; 𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑠 = 𝑒𝑏

𝝈𝒔 𝝈𝒔 𝝈𝒃
𝜕𝑙𝑠 = 𝜕𝑙𝑏 ; 𝝏𝒍𝒔 = × 𝑳𝒔 = 𝟓
× 𝟑𝟓𝟎; 𝒍𝒚 𝜕𝑙𝑏 = × 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝑬𝒔 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓
Equating the decrease in length of Steel and Brass rods,
𝒃 = 0.7𝝈𝒔
Result: 𝝈𝒔 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟏𝟒𝟗 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐 ; 𝝈𝒃 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎𝟕𝟓 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐

Thermal stress:
11. A rod consists of two parts that are made of steel and aluminum as shown in fig..
The elastic modulus and coefficient of thermal expansion for steel are 200GPa and
11.7 x 10-6 per 0C respectively and for aluminum 70GPa and 21.6 x 10 -6 per 0C
respectively. If the temperature of the rod is raised by 50 0C, determine the
deflection of the rod.

Deflection of the rod under free expansion,

𝛿𝑙 = 𝛿𝑙𝑠 + 𝛿𝑙𝑎𝑙 = 𝑙. ∝. 𝑇 = (500 × 11.7 x 10−6 × 50) + (750 × 21.6 x 10−6 × 50) = 1.1025mm
Restrained deflection of rod = 1.1025 - 0.4 = 0.7025 mm

8
12. A steel rod of 20mm diameter passes centrally through a copper tube of 50mm
external diameter and 40mm internal diameter. The tube is closed at each end by rigid
plates. If the temperature of the assembly is raised by 50°C, find the stresses in steel
rod and copper tube. Take Es = 200 kN/mm2, EC =100 kN/mm2, αS=12x10-6/°C, αC =18 x 10-
6
/ °C.
𝐴𝑠 = 314.159 𝑚𝑚 2 ; 𝐴𝑐 = 706.858 𝑚𝑚 2 ; 𝑇 = 50℃
𝐸𝑠 = 200 × 103 𝑁/𝑚𝑚 2 ; 𝐸𝑐 = 100 × 103 𝑁/𝑚𝑚 2 ;
𝜎𝑠 = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙; 𝜎𝑐 = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟.
For the equilibrium of the system,
Tensile load on Steel = Compressive load on Copper
𝐴𝑐 706.858
𝜎𝑠 × 𝐴𝑠 = 𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴𝑐 ; 𝜎𝑠 = × 𝜎𝑐 = × 𝜎𝑐 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.
𝐴𝑠 314.159
We know that the Copper tube and steel rod will actually expand by the same amount.
Actual expansion of steel = Actual expansion of copper - - - - - - -2.
But actual expansion of steel = Free expansion of steel + Expansion
𝜎
due to tensile stress in steel=𝛼𝑠 . 𝑇. 𝐿 + 𝑠 . 𝐿
𝐸𝑠
and Actual expansion of copper = Free expansion of steel – Contraction due to compressive
𝜎
stress in copper=𝛼𝑐 . 𝑇. 𝐿 − 𝑐 . 𝐿
𝐸𝑐
Substituting these values in equation 1, we get
𝜎𝑠 𝜎𝑐
𝛼𝑠 . 𝑇. 𝐿 + . 𝐿 = 𝛼𝑐 . 𝑇. 𝐿 − . 𝐿
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑐
𝜎𝑠 𝜎𝑐
𝛼𝑠 . 𝑇 + = 𝛼𝑐 . 𝑇 − ; Now substitute al values
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑐
30 𝑁
𝜎𝑐 = = 14.117 ; 𝜎 = 14.117 × 2.25 = 31.76 𝑁/𝑚𝑚 2
2.125 𝑚𝑚 2 𝑠
13. A steel tube of 30 mm external diameter and 20 mm internal diameter encloses a
copper rod of 15 mm diameter to which it is rigidly joined at each end. If, at a
temperature of 10oC there is no longitudinal stress, calculate the stresses in the rod
and tube when the temperature is raised to 200 oC. Take Es = 210 kN/mm2, EC =100
kN/mm2, αS =11x10-6/°C, αC=18 x 10-6 / °C respectively.
Rise of Temperature, T=200-10 190oC
𝐴𝑐 392.69
𝜎𝑠 × 𝐴𝑠 = 𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴𝑐 ; 𝜎𝑐 = × 𝜎𝑠 = × 𝜎𝑠 = 2.22𝜎𝑠 - - - - - - - - - 1.
𝐴𝑠 176.71
Actual expansion of steel = Actual expansion of copper - - - - - - -2.
But actual expansion of steel = Free expansion of steel + Expansion
𝜎
due to tensile stress in steel=𝛼𝑠 . 𝑇. 𝐿 + 𝑠 . 𝐿
𝐸𝑠
and Actual expansion of copper = Free expansion of steel – Contraction due to compressive
𝜎
stress in copper=𝛼𝑐 . 𝑇. 𝐿 − 𝑐 . 𝐿
𝐸𝑐
Substituting these values in equation 1, we get
𝜎𝑠 𝜎𝑐
𝛼𝑠 . 𝑇. 𝐿 + . 𝐿 = 𝛼𝑐 . 𝑇. 𝐿 − . 𝐿
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑐
𝜎𝑠 𝜎𝑐
𝛼𝑠 . 𝑇 + = 𝛼𝑐 . 𝑇 − ; Now substitute al values
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑐
𝝈𝒔 = 49.33 𝑵⁄𝒎𝒎𝟐 ; 𝝈𝒄 = 109.51 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐

9
 Poisson’s Ratio & Elastic Constants:
14. A steel rod of 5 m long and 30 mm in diameter is subjected to an axial tensile load of
50 kN. Determine the change in length, diameter and volume of the rod. Take E=2x10 5
N/mm2 and Poisson’s ratio=0.25.
π π
Volume, V = d2 × L = (30)2 × 5 × 103 = 35.343 × 103 ;
4 4
5
10 N
P=2× ; ∂d = Change in dia; ∂L = Change in Length; ∂V = Ch. Volm.
mm2
𝜕𝐿 𝜎 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 1
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = = = × = 0.0003536;
𝐿 𝐸 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐸
𝜕𝐿
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, = 0.0003536; 𝝏𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟑𝟔 × 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟔𝟖𝒎𝒎
𝐿
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜕𝑑
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛 ′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝜇 = ; 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜇 × 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛; = 0.25 × 0.0003536 = 0.0000884
𝜕𝑑
= 0.0000884; 𝝏𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟖𝟒 × 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟓𝟐 𝒎𝒎
𝑑
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝐿 2𝜕𝑑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, = − = 0.0001768
𝑉 𝐿 𝑑
𝝏𝑽 = 𝑽 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟔𝟖 = 𝟔𝟐𝟒. 𝟖𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟑
15. A cast iron flat 300mm long, 30mm thick and 50mm wide is acted by the following
forces 25 kN (Tension) in the direction of its length, 350 kN (compression) in the
direction of its width and 200 kN (Tension) in the direction of its thickness. Determine
the change in volume of the flat. Assume the modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio
of cast iron as 140 GN/m2 and 0.25 respectively.
350000
𝜎𝑥 = = 38.8 × 106 𝑁/𝑚 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒);
0.03 × 0.3
𝜎𝑦 = 16.67 × 106 𝑁/𝑚 2 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒); 𝜎𝑧 = 13.33 × 106 𝑁/𝑚 2 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒)
The Strain along three principal directions are:
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 38.8 × 106 16.67 × 106 13.33 × 106
𝑒𝑥 = − − ;= − − –
𝐸 𝑚𝐸 𝑚𝐸 𝐸 𝑚𝐸 𝑚𝐸
6 6
10 30 10 25.47 106 22.13
𝑒𝑥 = − [38.8 + ] ; 𝑒𝑦 = [16.67 + ] ; 𝑒𝑧 = [13.33 + ];
𝐸 𝑚 𝐸 𝑚 𝐸 𝑚
106
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑒𝑉 = 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒𝑦 + 𝑒𝑧 = (−4.4)
140 × 109
𝒆𝑽 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟒(𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑. )
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒) , 𝝏𝑽 = 𝒆𝑽 × 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟑 𝒎𝒎𝟑
16. Calculate the modulus of rigidity and bulk modulus of a cylindrical bar of diameter 30
mm and of length 1.5 m if the longitudinal strain in a bar during a tensile stress is
four times the lateral strain. Find the change in volume, when the bar is subjected to
a hydrostatic pressure of 100 N/mm2. Take E=1x105 N/mm2.
𝜋
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝑉 = 𝑑2 × 𝐿 = 1060287.52 𝑚𝑚 3
4
Longitudinal strain = 4 × Lateral strain
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 1
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛 ′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝜇 = = = 0.25;
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 4
Using equ , E = 2C (1 + μ); 1 × 105 = 2C (1 + 0.25) ; 𝐂 = 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐

10
 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠, : 𝐸 = 3𝐾 (1 − 2𝜇) ; 𝑲 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎
𝐾= = 𝑑𝑉 ;
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑉
100
0.667 × 105 = 𝑑𝑉
; 𝒅𝑽 = 𝑽 × 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟏𝟓𝟗𝟎. 𝟒𝟑 𝒎𝒎𝟑
( )
𝑉
Strain Energy:
17. A tensile load of 60 kN is gradually applied to a circular bar of 4 cm diameter and 5 m
long. If E=2x105 N/mm2, determine: (i) stretch in the rod, (ii) stress in the rod and (iii)
strain energy absorbed by the rod.
𝑃 60000
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝝈 = = = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟕𝟒𝟔 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝐴 1256.63
𝜎 47.746
𝒙= ×𝐿 = × 5000 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗 𝒎𝒎
𝐸 2 × 105
𝜎2 47.4762
𝑼= ×𝑉 = × 6283185.3 = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟖𝟏 𝑵 − 𝒎𝒎
2𝐸 2 × 2 × 105
18. A tensile load of 60 kN is suddenly applied to a circular bar of 4 cm diameter and 5 m
long. If E=2x105 N/mm2, determine: (i) stretch in the rod, (ii) stress in the rod and (iii)
strain energy absorbed by the rod.
𝑃 60000
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝝈 = 2 × = 2 × = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟒𝟗𝟑 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝐴 1256.63
𝜎 95.493
𝒙= ×𝐿 = × 5000 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟖 𝒎𝒎
𝐸 2 × 105
𝜎2 95.4932
𝑼= ×𝑉 = × 6283185.3 = 𝟏𝟒𝟑𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝑵 − 𝒎𝒎
2𝐸 2 × 2 × 105

UNIT II
UNIT IITRANSVERSE LOADING ON BEAMS AND STRESSES IN BEAM

Beams – Types transverse loading on beams – Shear force and bending

moment in beams – Cantilevers – Simply supported beams and over – hanging beams.
Theory of simple bending– bending stress distribution – Load carrying capacity –
Proportioning of sections – Flitched beams – Shear stress distribution.

Introduction:
Apart from axial and torsional forces there are other types of forces to which members may be
subjected. In many instances in structural and machine design, members must resist forces applied
laterally or transversely to their axes. Such members are called beams. The main members
supporting floors of buildings are beams, just as an axle of a car is a beam.
Beam is a structural member which is supported along the length and subjected to external
force acting transversely or laterally to the centreline of the member.

11
Many shafts of machinery act simultaneously as torsion members
and as beams. With modern materials, the beam is a dominant
member of construction. For the axially or torsionally loaded
members previously considered, only one internal force was
required at an arbitrary section to satisfy the conditions of
equilibrium. However, even for a beam with all forces in the same
plane, i.e., a planar beam problem, a system of three internal force
components can develop at a section. These are the axial force, the
shear, and the bending moment.
Beams: Bars Subjected to transverse loads, Planar and slender
members. Supports: Identified by the resistance offered to forces.
(a) Rollers/Links: Resists forces in a direction along the line of action
(Figure 5.1(a)). (b) Pins: Resists forces in any direction of the plane
(Figure 5.1(b)). (c) Fixed Support: Resists forces in any direction
(Figure 5.1(c)). Resists moments.

Classification of Beams
(a) Statically determinate or indeterminate.
Statically determinate - Equilibrium conditions sufficient to compute
reactions.
Statically indeterminate - Deflections (Compatibility conditions) along
with equilibrium equations should be used to find out reactions.
(b) Cross sectional Shapes - I, T, C or other cross sections.
(c) Depending on the supports used
1) Simply supported - pinned at one end and roller at the other (Figure
5.1.2(a))
2) Cantilever - fixed at one end and the other end free (Figure 5.1.2(b)).
3) Fixed beam - fixed at both ends (Figure 5.1.2(c)).Where W – loading
acting, L – span.
4) Over Hanging Beam: If the one or both end portions are extended beyond the support.
5) Continuous Beam: A beam which has more than two supports

Transverse loading on beams:A load which is acting vertically downwards on a horizontal beam.
Types:
1. Point (or) concentrated load- a load which is acting at a particular point
2. Uniformly distributed load (UDL)- a load which is spread over a beam in such manner that the
rate of loading “w” is uniform throughout the length
3. Uniformly varying load (UVL)- a load which is spread over a beam in such manner that the rate of
loading “w” is varies from point to point along the length of the beam.

Calculation of beam reactions

When all the forces are applied in a single plane, the three equations of static equilibrium are
available for analysis.
ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0 and ΣM3 = 0

12
Employing these, the reactions at supports could be found out.
Shear Force:Algebraic sum of the forces acting on one side of the section (or) the other. An
unbalanced vertical force to the right or left of the section.
Bending Moment: Algebraic sum of the moments of all the force acting on
one side of the section (or) the other. The sum of the moments of the force to
the right or left of the section.

Sign convention: Shear Force

 If the extension loads on the left of the section are acting upward arrow (or)
right portion down ward arrow, +ve. SF.
 If the loads on the left portion are acting down ward or right portion
acting upward arrow, – ve SF.
Sign convention: Bending Moment: As Shown in Figure, sagging (beam retains water)
moment is positive, the bending moment is said to be positive sagging , if the moment of the force in
the left side of the beam is clockwise (or) right side of the beam is counter clockwise, otherwise
bending moment is negative.

Key points for drawing shear force & bending moment diagram:
1. Consider either left or right portion of the section.
2. Consider right side force acting downward is +ve, force acting upward is –ve.
3. Position values of shear force & bending moments are plotted above the base line & negative
values below the base line
4. The shear force diagram will increase (or) decrease suddenly due to the vertical point load.
5. The shear force between any two vertical loads will be constant & hence the shear force diagram
between 2 vertical loads will be horizontal.
6. The bending moment at the two supports of SSB & at the free end of cantilever beam is zero.
Problems:
P1. A cantilever beam of the length 2m carries the
point loads as shown in the figure. Draw the shear
force diagram and bending moment diagram.
Shear force calculation:
SF at D, FD = 800 N
SF at C, FC = 800 + 500 =1300 N
SF at B, FB = 800 + 500+300 =1600 N
SF at A, FA = 800 + 500+300 =1600 N
Bending Moment calculation:
BM at D, MD = 0
BM at C, MC = -800 * 0.8 =-640 Nm
BM at B, MB = -800*1.5- 500*0.7 = -1550
Nm
BM at A, MA = -800*2- 500*1.2-300 *0.5= -
2350 Nm

P2. Draw the SFD and BMD for the SSB

shown in the figure.
Reaction calculation:
Ra + Rb = 2+4+2= 8 kN

13
Taking moment about “A”, Rb*4 = 2*3 + 4*2 + 2*1, therefore Rb= 4 kN., Ra=4kN.
Shear force calculation:
SF at B, Fb = 4 k N
SF at E, Fe = 4-2= 2 kN
SF at D, Fd = 2- 4 = -2 kN
SF at C, Fc = -2-2 = -4 kN
SF at A, Fa = -4 kN
Bending Moment calculation:
BM at B, Mb = 0
BM at E, Me = 4*1= kNm
BM at D, Md = 4*2-2*1=6kNm
BM at C, Mc = 4*3-2*2-4*1= 4kNm
BM at A, Ma = 4*4-2*3-4*2-2*1=0kNm.

P3. A SSB 6m long is carrying a UDL 5kN/m over a length of 3m from the right end. Draw the
SFD and BMD. Also calculate maximum bending moment.
Reaction calculation:
Ra + Rb = 5*3= 15 kN
Taking moment about “A”, Rb*6 = 5*3 *(3/2+3)
therefore Rb= 11.25 kN., Ra= 3.75 kN.
Shear force calculation:
SF at B, Fb = 11.25 k N
SF at C, Fc = 11.25-5*3= -3.75 kN
SF at A, Fa = --3.75+3.75=0 kN
Bending Moment calculation:
BM at B, Mb = 0,
BM at C, Mc = 11.25x3-5x3x3/2= 11.25 kNm
BM at A, Ma = 11.25x6-5x3(3/2+3) =0kNm.
To find maximum bending moment:
(3-x)/x= 3.75/11.25
X=2.25 m
Mmax = 11.25 x2.25- 5x2.25x2.25/2
= 12.65 kNm

P4. A SSB AB 6m long is shown in the figure. Draw the SFD and BMD. Also calculate the
maximum bending moment.
Reaction calculation:
Ra + Rb = 5+2x3+4x1.5= 17 kN
Taking moment about “A”,
Rb*6 = 5x4.5+2x3(3/2+3) +4x1.5 (1.5/2) therefore
Rb= 9 kN., Ra= 8 kN.
Shear force calculation:
SF at B, Fb = 9 k N
SFe= 9-5 =4 kN with point load
SF e = 4 -2X1.5=1 kN
SF d= 1-2X1.5=-2 kN
SF a-c= -2-4x1.5 = -8 kN
Bending Moment calculation:
BM at B, Mb = 0,

14
BMe =9x1.5 – 2 x 1.5 (1.5/2) = 11.25kNm
BMd =9x3-2x3(3/2)-5x1.5 =10.5 kNm
BM at C, Mc = 8x1.5-4 x 1.5(1.5/2) =7.5 kNm
BM at A, Ma = 0kNm.
To find maximum bending moment:
(1.5-x)/x= 2/1
X=0.5 m
Mmax = 9x2-2x2(2/2)-5x0.5-2 x 0.5(0.5/2) = 11.25 kNm
POINT OF CONTRAFLEXURE:
 BM is zero at both the ends and it may vary from positive to negative in between the region. The
point where the BM changes its sign.

P5. Draw the SFD and BMD for the given figure. Also find point of contra-flexure.
Reaction calculation:
Ra + Rb = 1000+2000+800= 3800 N
Taking moment about “A”,
Rb*8 = 1000x10+ 2000x8-800x3.
Rb=2200N,
Ra=1600 N
Shear force calculation:
SFe= -1000 N
SF b= - 1000 +2200=1200 N
SF d= 1200-2000= -800 N
SF a = - 800 + 1600 = 800 N
SFc =800 -800 = 0 N
Bending Moment calculation:
BMe =0
BMb= -1000x2= -2000 Nm
BMd= -1000x5 +2200x3 = 1600 Nm
BMa =-1000x10 + 2200x8 -2000x5 = -2400
Nm
BM at C, Mc = -1000x13+ 2200x11-2000x8-
1600x3= 0Nm
There are 2 points of contra-flexure O1 & O2,
where BM become zero. After changing its
sign, point O1, lies in between A&D. where
the point O2 lies between D&B.
Let the point O1 is x1 moment from A,
-800x (3+x1) + 1600 x1=0 therefore X1=3m
Let the point O2 is x2 moment from B,
-1000(2+x2) + 2200x2 =0 therefore X2=1.67 m
THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING:
When some external load act on a beam, the shear force & bending moment are set up at all sections
of the beam due to the shear force and bending moment, the beam undergoes certain deformation.
The material of the beam will offer resistance or stresses against those deformation. Those stresses
with certain assumptions can be calculated. The stresses introduced by bending moment are known
as bending stresses.

15
Plane sections normal to the axis before bending remain plane and normal after
bending also, as shown in Figure.
From Figure ab, cd, ef are sections which remain plane and normal. Beam is
subjected to pure bending (no shear). Longitudinal top fibers are in compression
and bottom fibres in tension.
Layer of fibres in between which is neither in tension or compression, is called the
neutral surface. Neutral axis is the intersection of such a surface with the right
section through the beam.
Assumptions of the theory of bending
Deflection of the beam axis is small compared to span of the beam.
Shear strains, along the plane xy are negligible.
Effect of shear stress in the plane xy(τxy )on normal stress(σx)is neglected.
Note: Even through pure bending is assumed, distribution of normal stresses at any given
Cross section does not get significantly changed due to non-uniform bending.
For pure bending of a beam, beam axis deforms into part of a circle of radius ρ; for an
Element defined by an infinitesimal angle d_, the fiber length is given by

16
Bending Moment Equations, , where, R= radius of curvature
I= moment of inertia, y = distance from neutral axis., E= young’s modulus, M= bending moment.
Shear modulus (z) = I/y for rectangular section= z= bd 2/6, circular section= 𝜋d3/32

17
P2: A CLB of length 2m fails when a load of 2 kN is applied at the free end of the section of the
beam is 40x60 mm. find the stresses at the failure.

18
19
20
Problem 6:

21
22
 UNIT 3 – TORSION

UNIT III : TORSION

Torsion formulation stresses and deformation in circular and hollows shafts – Stepped
shafts–Deflection in shafts fixed at the both ends – Stresses in helical springs –
Deflection of helical springs,carriage springs.

Torsion:
In solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. In sections
perpendicular to the torque axis, the resultant shear stress in this section is perpendicular to the radius.
For solid shafts of uniform circular cross-section or hollow circular shafts with constant wall thickness,
the torsion relations are:
𝑇 𝜏 𝐺∅
= =
𝐽 𝑅 𝑙
where:
 R is the outer radius of the shaft i.e. m, ft.
 t is the maximum shear stress at the outer surface.
 f is the angle of twist in radians.
 T is the torque (N.m or [Link]).
 l is the length of the object the torque is being applied to or over.
 G is the shear modulus or more commonly the modulus of rigidity and is usually given in
gigapascals (GPa), lbf/in 2 (psi), or lbf/ft2 .
 J is the torsion constant for the section. It is identical to the polar moment of inertia for a round
shaft or concentric tube only. For other shapes J must be determined by other means. For solid
shafts the membrane analogy is useful, and for thin walled tubes of arbitrary shape the shear
flow approximation is fairly good, if the section is not re-entrant. For thick walled tubes of
arbitrary shape there is no simple solution, and finite element analysis (FEA) may be the best
method.
 The product GJ is called the torsion.
Beam Shear:
Beam shear is defined as the internal shear stress of a beam caused by the sheer force applied to the
beam.
VQ
τ=
It
 V = total shear force at the location in question;
 Q = statical moment of area;
 t = thickness in the material perpendicular to the shear;
 I = Moment of Inertia of the entire cross sectional area.
This formula is also known as the Jourawski formula
Semi-monocoque shear:
Shear stresses within a semi-monocoque structure may be calculated by idealizing the cross-section of
the structure into a set of stringers (carrying only axial loads) and webs (carrying only shear flows).
Dividing the shear flow by the thickness of a given portion of the semi monocoque structure yields the

23
shear stress. Thus, the maximum shear stress will occur either in the web of maximum shear flow or
minimum thickness.
Also constructions in soil can fail due to shear; e.g., the weight of an earth filled dam or dike may
cause the subsoil to collapse, like a small and slide.
Impact shear:
The maximum shear stress created in a solid round bar subject to impact is given as the equation:
UG
τ = 2√
V
where:
U = change in kinetic energy;
G = shear modulus;
V = volume of rod;
and
U=Urotating+Uapplied
Iω2
Urotating=
2
Uapplied=Tθdisplaced
Bars of Solid and hollow circular section:
The stiffness, k, of a body is a measure of the resistance offered by an elastic body to deformation. For
an elastic body with a single Degree of Freedom (for example, stretching or compression of a rod), the
stiffness is defined as
𝐹
k=
𝑑
where:
 F is the force applied on the body
 d is the displacement produced by the force along the same degree of freedom (for instance, the
change in length of a stretched spring)
Stepped shaft, Twist and torsion stiffness:
Shaft: The shafts are the machine elements which are used to transmit power in machines.
Twisting Moment: The twisting moment for any section along the bar/shaft is defined to be the
algebraic sum of the moments of the applied couples that lie to one side of the sectionunder
consideration. The choice of the side in any case is of course arbitrary.
Shearing Strain: If a generator is marked on the surface of the unloaded bar, then after the twisting
moment 'T' has been applied this line moves. The angle measured in radians, between the final and
original positions of the generator is defined as the shearing strains at the surface of the bar or shaft.
The same definition will hold at any interior point of the bar.
Modulus of Elasticity in shear: The ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain is called
themodulus of elasticity in shear OR Modulus of Rigidity and in represented by the symbol
Angle of Twist: If a shaft of length L is subjected to a constant twisting moment T along its length,
than the angle through which one end of the bar will twist relative to the other is known is the angle of
twist.
Simple Torsion Theory or Development of Torsion Formula:
Here we are basically interested to derive an equation between the relevant parameters.
Relationship in Torsion:
24
1st Term:It refers to applied loading ad a property of section, which in the instance is thepolar
second moment of area.
2nd Term:This refers to stress, and the stress increases as the distance from the axisincreases.
3rd Term:It refers to the deformation and contains the terms modulus of rigidity.
Assumption:
 The materiel is homogenous i.e. of uniform elastic properties exists throughout thematerial.
 The material is elastic, follows Hook's law, with shear stress proportional to shear strain.
 The stress does not exceed the elastic limit.
 The circular section remains circular
 Cross section remains plane.
 Cross section rotates as if rigid i.e. every diameter rotates through the same angle.
Non Uniform Torsion:
The pure torsion refers to torsion of a prismatic bar subjected totorques acting only at the ends. While
the non-uniform torsion differs from pure-torsion in asense that the shaft need not to be prismatic and
the applied torques may vary along thelength.
Here the shaft is made up of two different segments of different diameters and having torques applied
at several cross sections. Each region of the bar between the applied loads between changes in cross
section is in pure torsion, hence the formula's derived earlier may be applied. Then form the internal
torque, maximum shear stress and angle of rotation for each region can be calculated from the relation.
The total angle to twist of one end of the bar with respect to the other is obtained by summation using
the formula.
Application to close-coiled helical springs:
Closed Coiled helical springs subjected to axial loads:
A spring may be defined as an elastic member whose primary function is to deflect or distortunder the
action of applied load; it recovers its original shape when load is released. (Or) Springs are energy
absorbing units whose function is to store energy and to restore it slowly or rapidlydepending on the
particular application.
Important types of springs are:
There are various types of springs such as
 Helical spring: They are made of wire coiled into a helical form, the load being applied
along the axis of the helix. In these type of springs the major stresses is torsional shear stress due
to twisting. They are both used in tension and compression.
 Spiral springs: They are made of flat strip of metal wound in the form of spiral and loaded
in torsion. In this the major stresses are tensile and compression due to bending.
 Leaf springs: They are composed of flat bars of varying lengths clamped together so as to
obtain greater efficiency. Leaf springs may be full elliptic, semi elliptic or cantilever types. In
these types of springs the major stresses which come into picture are tensile & compressive.
These types of springs are used in the automobile suspension system.
Uses of springs:
(a) To apply forces and to control motions as in brakes and clutches.
(b) To measure forces as in spring balance.
(c) To store energy as in clock springs.
(d) To reduce the effect of shock or impact loading as in carriage springs.
(e) To change the vibrating characteristics of a member as inflexible mounting of motors.
25
Wahl's factor
Assumptions:
(1) The Bending & shear effects may be neglected
(2) For the purpose of derivation of formula, the helix angle is considered to be so small that it may be
neglected.
Helical spring design
Springs in Series:If two springs of different stiffness are joined end on and carry a common load
W, they are said to be connected in series and the combined stiffness and deflection are given by the
following equation.
Springs in parallel:If the two springs are joined in such a way that they have a common deflection
‘x’; then they are said to be connected in parallel. In this case the load carried is shared between the
two springs and total load W = W1 + W2 stresses in helical coil springs under torsion loads.
Stresses under torsion
Shear Stress in the Shaft:
When a shaft is subjected to a torque or twisting, a shearing stress is produced in the [Link] shear
stress varies from zero in the axis to a maximum at the outside surface of theshaft.
The shear stress in a solid circular shaft in a given position can be expressed as:
s = T r / Ip (1)
where:
 s = shear stress (MPa, psi)
 T = twisting moment (Nmm, in lb)
 r = distance from center to stressed surface in the given position (mm, in)
 Ip = "polar moment of inertia" of cross section (mm4, in4)
The "polar moment of inertia" is a measure of an object's ability to resist torsion.
Circular Shaft and Maximum Moment
Maximum moment in a circular shaft can be expressed as:
Tmax = smax Ip / R (2)
where
Tmax= maximum twisting moment (Nmm, in lb)
smax= maximum shear stress (MPa, psi)
R = radius of shaft (mm, in)
Combining (2) and (3) for a solid shaft
Tmax= (p/16) smax D3(2b)
Combining (2) and (3b) for a hollow shaft
Tmax= (p/16) smax(D4 - d4) / D (2c)
Circular Shaft and Polar Moment of Inertia:
Polar moment of inertia of a circular solid shaft can be expressed as
Ip = p R 4/2 = p D4/32 (3)
where
D = shaft outside diameter (mm, in)
Polar moment of inertia of a circular hollow shaft can be expressed as
Ip = p (D4 - d4) /32 (3b)
where
26
d = shaft inside diameter (mm, in)
Diameter of a Solid Shaft:
Diameter of a solid shaft can calculate by the formula
D = 1.72 (T max/smax) 1/3 (4)

Problems:
1) A solid shaft of 150 mm diameter is used to transmit torque. Find the
maximum torque transmitted by the shaft if the maximum shear stress induced
to the shaft is 45N/mm2.
Given:
D=150 mm , τ=45 N/mm2
Let T be maximum torque transmitted by the shaft.
𝜋 𝜋
𝑇= 𝜏𝐷3 = x45x1503
16 16
T = 29820586 N-mm
T = 29820.586 N-m
2) The shearing stress in a solid shaft is not to exceed 40 N/mm2 when the
torque transmitted is 20000N-m. Determine the minimum diameter of the shaft.
Given:
τ=40 N/mm2, T=20000 N-m=20000x103
Let D be minimum diameter of the shaft
𝜋
𝑇= 𝜏𝐷3
16
3 16𝑇
𝐷=√
𝜋𝜏
16x20000x103
D=
πx40
D = 136.2mm
3) In a hollow cylindrical shaft of outer and inner diameters of 20cm and 10cm
respectively, the shear stress is not to exceed 40 N/mm2. Find the maximum
torque which the shaft can safely transmit.
Given:
Do = 20cm , Di= 10cm, τ = 40 N/mm2
𝜋 Do2−Di2
T= 𝜏[ ]
16 Do
𝜋 2002 −1002
T= 40[ ]
16 200
T = 58904.86 Nm.

27
 4) Two shafts of the same material and of same lengths are subjected to the
same torque, if the first shaft is of solid circular section and the second shaft is of
hollow circular section, whose internal diameter is 2/3 of the outer diameter and
the maximum shear stress developed in each shaft is the same, compare the
weights of the shafts.
Given:
Let T = torque transmitted by each shaft
τ = maximum shear stress developed in each shaft
D = outer diameter of the solid shaft
Do = outer diameter of the hollow shaft
Di = inner diameter of the hollow shaft = 2/3 Do
Ws = weight of the solid shaft
Wh = weight of the hollow shaft
L = length of each shaft
ω = weight density of the material of each shaft
Torque transmitted by the solid shaft:
𝜋
𝑇= 𝜏𝐷3
16
Torque transmitted by the hollow shaft:
𝜋 𝐷𝑜 4 − 𝐷𝑖 4
𝑇= 𝜏[ ]
16 𝐷𝑜
𝜋 𝐷𝑜4 −(2/3𝐷𝑜)4
T= 𝜏[ ]
16 𝐷𝑜
𝜋 𝐷𝑜4 −16/81𝐷𝑜4
T= 𝜏[ ]
16 𝐷𝑜
𝜋 65
T= 𝜏x Do3
16 81
As torque transmitted by solid and hollow shafts are equal, hence equating equations
5) A hollow shaft of external diameter 120mm transmits 300kW power at
200rpm. Determine the maximum internal diameter if the maximum stress in
the shaft is not to exceed 60N/mm2.
Given:
Do = 120 mm, P = 300 kW
N = 200 rpm , τ = 60 N/mm2
Di be the internal diameter of shaft
2𝜋𝑁𝑇 2𝜋x200x𝑇
𝑃= Or 300000 =
60 60
𝑃x60
𝑇= = 14323.9 N-m = 14323900 N-mm
2𝜋𝑁
𝜋 𝐷𝑜 4 − 𝐷𝑖 4
𝑇= 𝜏[ ]
16 𝐷𝑜
𝜋 1204 −𝐷𝑖 4
14323900 N-mm = 60[ ]
16 120

28
 Di = 88.5 mm
6) Find the maximum shear stress induced in a solid circular shaft of diameter
15cm when the shaft transmits 150kW power at 180rpm.
Given:
D = 15 cm = 150 mm
P = 150 kW = 150 x 1000 W
N = 180 rpm
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑃=
60
2𝜋x180x𝑇
150 x 1000 =
60
T = 7957.7 Nm = 7957700 Nmm
𝜋
𝑇= 𝜏𝐷3
16
𝜋
7957700 = 𝜏1503
16
τ = 12 N/mm2
7) A hollow shaft, having an internal diameter 60% of its outer diameter, is to
replace a solid shaft transmitting the same power at the same speed. Calculate
the % saving in material, if the material to be used is also the same.
Given:
Let Do be the outer diameter of the hollow shaft
Di be the inner diameter of the hollow shaft = 60% of D o = 0.6 Do
D be the diameter of the solid shaft
P be the power transmitted by the hollow shaft or by solid shaft
N be the speed of the shaft
τ be the maximum shear stress induced in each shaft
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑃=
60
𝑃x60
𝑇= = constant
2𝜋𝑁
Torque transmitted by solid shaft,
𝜋
𝑇= 𝜏𝐷3
16
Torque transmitted by hollow shaft,
𝜋 𝐷𝑜 4 − 𝐷𝑖 4
𝑇= 𝜏[ ]
16 𝐷𝑜
𝜋 𝐷𝑜 4 −. 6𝐷𝑜 4
𝑇= 𝜏[ ]
16 𝐷𝑜
𝜋
𝑇= 𝜏x0.8704𝐷𝑜3
16
Since the torque transmitted by both the shafts are the same.

29
 𝜋 𝜋
𝜏𝐷3 = 𝜏x0.8704𝐷𝑜3
16 16
D = 0.9548 Do
𝜋 2
Area of the solid shaft = 𝐷 = 0.716 Do2
4
𝜋
Area of the hollow shaft = [𝐷𝑜 2 − Di2 ] = 0.502 Do2
4
For shafts of the same material, the weight of the shafts is proportional to the areas.
Saving in material = saving in area
area of solid shaft – area of hollow shaft
=
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
0.716 Do2 – 0.502 Do2
= = 0.2988
0.716Do2
Percentage saving in material = 0.2988 x 100 = 29.88%
8) A solid shaft of diameter 80mm is subjected to a twisting moment of 8MN-
mm and a bending moment of 5MN-mm at a point. Determine:
i) Principal stresses and
ii) Position of the plane on which they act.
Given:
D=80mm , T=8MN-mm, M=5MN-mm
16
Major principle stress = (𝑀 + √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )
𝜋𝐷 3
16
= ((5x106 ) + √(5x106 )2 + (8x106 )2 ) =143.57 N/mm2
𝜋x803
16
Minor principle stress = (𝑀 − √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )
𝜋𝐷 3
16
= ((5x106 ) − √(5x106 )2 + (8x106 )2 ) = - 44.1N/mm2
𝜋x803
𝑇 8x106
Position of the plane is given by, tan2θ = = =1.6
𝑀 5x106
θ = 28o59.84’
9) A leaf spring carries a central load of 3000N. The leaf spring is to be made of
10 steel plates of 5 cm wide and 6mm thick. If the bending stress is limited to
150N/mm2. Determine:
i. Length of the spring and
ii. Deflection at the center of the spring.
Take E=2x105 N/mm2
Given:
W=3000N , n=10, b=50mm, t=6mm, σ=150N/mm2, E=2x105N/mm2
3𝑊𝑙
𝜎=
2𝑛𝑏𝑡 2
3x3000xl
150 =
2x10x50x62
150x2x10x50x62
l= = 600mm
3x3000
30
 𝜎𝑙2 150x6002
𝛿= = = 11.25mm
4𝐸𝑡 4x2x105x6
10) A closely coiled helical spring is to carry a load of 500N. Its mean coil
diameter is to be 10 times that of the wire diameter. Calculate these diameters if
the maximum shear stress in the material of the spring are to be 80N/mm2.
Given:
W=500N ,τ=80N/mm2 ,
Let d be diameter of wire & D be mean diameter of coilD=10d
16𝑊𝑅
𝜏=
𝜋𝑑 3
𝐷
16x500x
2
80 = 3
(𝜋𝑑 )
𝑑 2 = 159.25
d=12.6mm=1.26cm
D=10xd=10x1.26=12.6cm.
11) A closely coiled helical spring made of 10 mm diameter steel wire has 15 coils
of 100 mm mean diameter. The spring is subjected to an axial load of 100 N.
Calculate:
 Maximum shear stress, Deflection, Stiffness of the spring
Given:
C = 8.16 * 104 N/mm2, d = 10 mm , n = 15
Mean diameter, D = 100 mm; Mean radius, R = 50mm
W = 100 N
Maximum stress induced:
16𝑊𝑅 16∗100∗50
𝜏= = = 24.46 N/mm2
𝜋𝑑3 𝜋∗103
Deflection:
64𝑊𝑅 3 𝑛 64∗100∗503∗15
𝛿= = = 14.7 mm
𝐶𝑑4 8.16∗104∗104
Stiffness of the spring:
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 100
𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = = 6.802 N/mm
𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 14.7
12) If the stiffness of the spring is 20 N/mm deflection and modulus of rigidity =
8. 6 * 104 N/mm2, find the number of coils in the closely coiled helical spring.
Given:
S = 20 N/mm
C = 8.4 * 104 N/mm2
W = 500 N
τ = 80 N/mm2
d = 12.6 mm
31
D = 126 mm
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Stiffness =
𝛿
500
20 =
𝛿
δ = 25 mm
65𝑊𝑛𝑅3
δ=
𝐶𝑑 4
65∗500∗𝑛∗633
25 =
8.4∗ 104 ∗12.64
n = 6.6
n=7
13) A closely coiled helical spring of round steel wire 10 mm in diameter having
10 complete turns with a mean diameter of 12 cm is subjected to an axial load of
200 N. Determine:
 Deflection of the spring
 Maximum shear stress in the wire
 Stiffness of the spring
Given:
C = 8.4 * 104 N/mm2 ,d = 10 mm, n = 10, D = 12 cm = 120 mm & R = 60mm
W = 200 N
Deflection of the spring:
65𝑊𝑛𝑅3
δ=
𝐶𝑑 4
64∗200∗10∗603
δ=
8∗ 104 ∗104
δ = 34.5 mm
Maximum shear stress:
16𝑊𝑅
𝜏=
𝜋𝑑 3
16 ∗ 200 ∗ 60
𝜏=
𝜋 ∗ 103
𝜏 = 61.1 N/mm2
Stiffness of the spring:
𝑊 200
s= = = 5.8 N/mm
𝛿 34.5
14) A close coiled helical spring of 10 cm mean diameter is made up of 1 cm
diameter rod and has 20 turns. The spring carries an axial load of 200 N.
Determine the shearing stress. Taking the value of modulus of rigidity = 8.4 *
104 N/mm2, determine the deflection when carrying this load. Also calculate the
stiffness of the spring and the frequency of free vibration for a mass hanging
from it.
Given:

32
D= 10 cm = 100 mm, R = 50 mm, d = 10 mm, n = 20
W = 200N, C = 8.4 * 104 N/mm2
Maximum shear stress:
16𝑊𝑅
𝜏=
𝜋𝑑 3
16 ∗ 200 ∗ 50
𝜏=
𝜋 ∗ 103
𝜏 = 50.93 N/mm2
Deflection:
65𝑊𝑛𝑅3
δ=
𝐶𝑑 4
64∗200∗20∗503
δ=
8.4∗ 104 ∗104
δ = 38.095 mm
Stiffness of the spring:
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
200
=
38.095
= 5.25 N/mm
Frequency of free vibration:
1 𝑔 1 981
𝜏= √ = √ = 2.55 cycle/sec
2𝜋 𝛿 2𝜋 3.8095
15) A closely coiled helical spring of mean diameter 20 cm is made of 3 cm
diameter rod and has 16 turns. A weight if 3 kN is dropped on this spring. Find
the height by which the weight should be dropped before striking the spring so
that the spring may be compressed by 18 cm.
Given:
D = 200 mm, R = 100 mm, d = 30 mm, n = 16, W = 3kN = 3000 N, δ = 180 mm
C = 8. * 104 N/mm2
65𝑊𝑛𝑅3
δ=
𝐶𝑑 4
64∗𝑊∗16∗1003
180 =
8∗ 104 ∗304
W = 11390 N
Work done by falling weight on spring = weight falling (h+δ)
= 3000 (h+180) Nmm
Energy stored in the spring = ½ Wδ
= ½ * 11390 * 180 = 1025100 N mm.
Equating the work done by the falling weight on the spring to the energy stored in the
spring, we get.
33
 3000(h+180) = 1025100
1025100
h+180 = = 341.7 mm
3000
h = 161.7 mm

UNIT 4 – DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

UNIT IV: TORSION
Double Integration method – Macaulay’s method – Area moment method for
computation of slopesand deflections in beams - Conjugate beam and strain energy –
Maxwell’s reciprocal theorems.

ELASTIC CURVE OF NEUTRAL AXIS

Assuming that the I-beam is symmetric, the neutral axis will be situated at the
midsection of the beam. The neutral axis is defined as the point in a beam where there is
neither tension nor compression forces. So if the beam is loaded uniformly from above,
any point above the neutral axis will be in compression, whereas any point below it will
be in tension.
However, if the beam is NOT symmetric, then you will have to use the following
methodology to calculate the position of the neutral axis.
1. Calculate the total cross-sectional area of the beam (we shall call this A). Let x denote
the position of the neutral axis from the topmost edge of the top flange of the beam.
2. Divide the I-beam into rectangles and find the area of these rectangles (we shall
denote these areas as A1, A2, and A3 for the top flange, web and bottom flange
respectively).
Additionally, find the distance from the edge of the top flange to the midsection of these
3 rectangles (these distances will be denoted as x1, x2 and x3).
3. Now, to find the position of the neutral axis, the following general formula must be
used:
A*x = A1*x1 + A2*x2 + A3*x3
We know all the variables in the above formula, except for x (the position of the neutral
axis from the top edge of the top flange). So it is just a case of rearranging the formula
to find x.
DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD:
The double integration method is a powerful tool in solving deflection and slope of a
beam at any point because we will be able to get the equation of the elastic curve.
𝐄𝐈 𝟏
=
𝐌 𝐲′′
34
MACAULAY M ETHOD:
The starting point for Macaulay’s method is the relation between bending moment and
curvature from Euler-Bernoulli beam theory.
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
𝑬𝑰 𝟐 = 𝑴
𝒅𝒙
This equation is simpler than the fourth-order beam equation and can be integrated
twice to find y if the value of M as a function of x is known. For general loadings, M can
be expressed in the form:
M = M1(x) + P1(x-a1) + P2(x-a2) + P3(x-a3) + …
Where the quantities Pi(x-ai) represents the bending moments due to point loads and the
quantity (x-ai) is a Macaulay bracket defined as,
(𝒙 − 𝒂𝒊) = {𝟎 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 < 𝒂𝒊 & (𝒙 − 𝒂𝒊) 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 > 𝑎𝑖
MOMENT AREA METHOD:
THEOREM I:
The change in slope between the tangents drawn to the elastic curve at any two points A
and B is equal to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the area of the moment diagram
between these two points.
THEOREM II:
The deviation of any point B relative to the tangent drawn to the elastic curve at any
other point A, in a direction perpendicular to the original position of the beam, is equal
to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the moment of an area about B of that part of the
moment diagram between points A and B.
RULES OF SIGN:
1. The deviation at any point is positive if the point lies above the tangent, negative
if the point is below the tangent.
2. Measured from left tangent, if it is counterclockwise, the change of slope is
positive, negative if it is clockwise.
THERE ARE PRACTICALLY BUT THREE KINDS OF END CONDITIONS,
NAMELY:
1. "Hinge" or "pin" ends,
2. " Flat" or “square” ends, and
3. "Fixed" ends
CLASSES OF COLUMNS:
 Both ends hinged or pinned
 One end hinged and one flat
 both ends flat
Problem 1: A beam 6m long, simply supported at its ends, and is
carrying a point load of 50kN at its center. The moment of inertia of the
35
beam is given as equal as 78x106 mm4. If E foe the material of the beam
= 2.1x105 N/mm2. Calculate:
i. Deflection at the centre of the beam and
ii. Slope at the supports.
Given:
L = 6m = 6000 mm, W = 50 kN = 50,000 N
I = 78x106 mm4, E = 2.1x105 N/mm2
Let y be the deflection at the centre and θ A is the slope at the support
𝑾𝑳𝟑
𝒚=
𝟒𝟖𝑬𝑰
50000∗60003
=
48∗2.1∗105 ∗78∗106
= 13.736 mm.
𝑾𝑳𝟐
θA = θB = −
𝟏𝟔𝑬𝑰
𝑊𝐿2
=
16𝐸𝐼
50000∗60003
=
16∗2.1∗105 ∗78∗106
= 0.06868 radians.
= 3.935o.
Problem 2: A beam 4 m long, simply supported at its ends, and carries a
point load W at its centre. If the slope at the ends of the beam is not to
exceed 1o, find the deflection at the centre of the beam.
Given:
L = 4m = 4000 mm. , θA = θB = 1o = 0.01745 radians.
W be the load
Let yc be the deflection at the centre.
𝑊𝐿2
θA =
16𝐸𝐼
𝑊𝐿2
0.01745 =
16𝐸𝐼
𝑊𝐿3
yc =
48𝐸𝐼
𝑊𝐿2 L
= x
16𝐸𝐼 3
4000
= 0.01745 x
3
= 23.26 mm.
36
Problem 3: Determine:
1. Slope at the left support
2. Deflection under the load and
3. Maximum deflection of a simply supported beam of length 5m,
which is carrying a point load of 5 kN at a distance of 3 m from the
left support. Take E = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and I = 1 x 108 mm4.
Given:
L = 5m = 5000 mm, W = 5 kN = 5000 N
Distance between point load and left support:
a = 3m = 3000 mm, b = L – a = 2000 mm , E = 2 x 10 5 N/mm2, I = 1 x 10 8
mm4
Let θA be the slope at the left support, yc be the deflection under the load and
ymax be the maximum deflection
𝑊𝑎𝑏
θA = − (𝑎 + 2𝑏)
6𝐸𝐼𝐿
5000∗3000∗2000
=- (3000+2*2000)
6∗2∗105∗108∗5000
= - 0.00035 radians.
Negative sig means that the angle made by the tangent at A is ani-clockwise.
Wa2b2
yc =
3EIL
5000∗30002∗20002
=
3∗2∗105∗108∗5000
= 0.6 mm
Wb
ymax = (a2 + 2ab)3/2
9√3EIL
5000∗2000
= (30002 + 2*2000*3000) 3/2
9∗√3∗2∗105∗108∗5000
= 0.6173 mm.
Problem 4: A beam of uniform rectangular section 200 mm wide and
300 mm deep is simply supported at its ends. It carries uniformly
distributed load of 9 kN/m run over the entire span of 5 m. If the value
of E for the beam material is 1 * 104 N/mm2, find
 Slope at the supports and
 Maximum deflection
Given:
b = 200 mm , d = 300 mm

37
 𝑏𝑑3 200∗3003
I= = = 4.5 * 108 mm4
12 12
w = 9000 N/m
L = 5 m = 5000 mm, W = w*L = 45000 N, E = 1 * 104 N/mm2
𝑊𝐿2
θA= −
24𝐸𝐼
45000∗50002
=
24∗1∗104∗4.5∗108
= 0.0104 radians
5 𝑊𝐿3
yc=
384 𝐸𝐼
5 45000∗50003
=
384 1∗104∗4.5∗108
= 16.27 mm
Problem 5: A beam of length 5 m and of uniform rectangular section is
supported at its ends. It carries a uniformly distributed load of 9kN/m
run over the entire span. Calculate he width and depth of the beam if
permissible bending stress is 7N/mm2 and central deflection is not to
exceed 1 cm.
Given:
L = 5000 mm, w = 9kN/m
W = w*L = 45000 N, σ = 7N/mm2
yc = 1 cm = 10 mm, E = 1 * 104 N/mm2
Let b be the width and d be the depth
𝑏𝑑 3
𝐼=
12
5 𝑊𝐿3
yc=
384 𝐸𝐼
5 45000∗50003
10 =
384 1 ∗104∗𝑏𝑑3
12
bd3 = 878.906 * 107 mm4
𝑤 ∗ 𝐿2 𝑊𝐿
𝑀= =
8 8
45000∗5000
=
8
= 28125000 Nmm
𝑴 𝝈
=
𝑰 𝒚

38
 28125000 7
𝑏𝑑3
= 𝑑
12 2

bd2 = 24107142.85 mm3

From the above two equations:d = 364.58 mm, b = 181.36 mm
Problem 6: A beam of length 6 m is simply supported at its ends and
carries a point load of 40 kN at a distance of 4 m from the left support.
Find the deflection under the load and maximum deflection. Also
calculate the point at which maximum deflection takes place.
Given:
E = 2*105 N/mm2, I = 7.33*107 mm4,L = 6 m = 6000 mm,
W = 40 kN = 40000 N, a = 4 m = 4000 mm, b = L-a = 2000 mm
𝑊𝑎 2 𝑏2
yc= −
3𝐸𝐼𝐿
40000∗40002∗20002
= −
3∗2∗105∗7.33∗107∗6000
= - 9.7 mm
Problem 7: A beam of length 6 m is simply supported at its ends and
carries two point loads of 48
kN and 40 kN at a
distance of 1 m and 3 m
respectively from the left
support. Find:
 Deflection under each load
 Maximum deflection and
 The point at which maximum deflection occurs.
Given:
E = 2*105 N/mm2
I = 85*106 mm4
RA + RB = 48 + 40 = 88 kN
Take moment about A,
RB * 6 = 48 * 1 + 40 * 3 = 168
RA = 60 kN
RB = 28 kN
Consider the section X in the last part of the beam at a distance x from the
left support A. The BM at this section is given by,

39
 𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = RAx – 48(x-1) – 40(x-3)
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = 60x – 48(x-1) – 40(x-3)
𝑑𝑥 2
Integrating the above equation;
𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = 30x2 + C1 – 24(x-1)2 – 20(x-3) 2 ______________ (1)
𝑑𝑥
Integrating the above equation;
20
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 10x3 + C1x + C2 – 8(x-1) 3 – (x-3)3 ______________ (2)
3
The boundary conditions are:
i. At x=0 & y=0
ii. At x=6 & y=0
Substituting the first boundary condition in (2) up to first part of the
equation,
C2 = 0
Substituting the second boundary condition in (2) up to whole part of the
equation,
C1 = -163.33
After substituting the values of C 1& C2 we get:
20
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 10x3 – 163.33x – 8(x-1)3 – (x-3)3
3
Deflection under first load, put x = 1 in the first part of the equation:
𝐸𝐼yC = 10(1) 3 – 163.33(1)
= - 153.33 kNm3
− 153.33
yc = = - 9.019 mm
EI
Deflection under second load, put x = 3 in the second part of the equation:
𝐸𝐼yD = 10(3)3 – 163.33(3) – 8(3-1)3
= - 283.99 kNm3
− 283.99
yD = = -16.7 mm
𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑦
Maximum deflection occurs at x say, then = 0. Substitute in the first
𝑑𝑥
equation up to the second part.
0 = 30x2 – 163.33 – 24(x-1)2
0 = 6x2 + 48x –187.33
Therefore x= 2.87 m
Then EIymax = 10(2.87)3 – 163.33(2.87) – 8(2.87-1)3
40
 = -284.67 * 1012 Nmm3
−284.67 ∗1012
ymax = = -16.745 mm
𝐸𝐼
Problem 8: A beam of length8 m is simply supported at its ends. It
carries a uniformly distributed load of 40 kN. Determine the deflection
of the beam at its midpoint and also the position of maximum deflection
and maximum deflection.
Given:
E = 2*105 N/mm2, I = 85*106 mm4, L = 8 m, W = 40 kN/m
RA + RB = 40*4 = 160 kN
Take moment about A,
RB * 8 = 40 * 4 * (1+4/2) = 480
RA = 100 kN
RB = 60 kN
Consider the section X in the last part of the beam at a distance x from the
left support A. The BM at this section is given by,
𝑑2𝑦 (x−1) 2 (x−5) 2
𝐸𝐼 = RAx – 40 + 40
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = 100x – 20(x-1)2+20(x-5)2
𝑑𝑥 2
Integrating the above equation;
𝑑𝑦 20 20
𝐸𝐼 = 50x2 + C1 – (x-1)3+ (x-5)3 ______________ (1)
𝑑𝑥 3 3
Integrating the above equation;
50 3 5 5
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = x + C1x + C2 – (x-1)4+ (x-5)4 ______________ (2)
3 3 3
The boundary conditions are:
i. At x=0 & y=0
ii. At x=8& y=0
Substituting the first
boundary condition in
(2) up to first part of the
equation,
C2 = 0
Substituting the second boundary condition in (2) up to whole part of the
equation,
C1 = -583.33
41
After substituting the values of C 1& C2 we get:
50 3 5 5
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = x – 583.33x – (x-1)4+ (x-5)4
3 3 3
Deflection at the centre, put x = 4up to the second part of the equation:
50 5
𝐸𝐼y = (4)3 – 583.33(4) – (4-1)4
3 3
3
= - 1401.66 kNm
− 1401.66
y= = - 16.29 mm
EI
𝑑𝑦
Maximum deflection occurs at x say, then = 0. Substitute in the first
𝑑𝑥
equation up to the second part.
0 = 50x2 – 583.33 – 6.667(x-1)3
Therefore x= 3.83 m
50 5
Then EIymax = (3.83)3 – 583.33(3.83) – (3.83-1)4
3 3
12 3
= -1404.69 * 10 Nmm
−1404.69∗1012
ymax = = -16.33 mm.
𝐸𝐼

UNIT V : THIN CYLINDERS, SPHERES AND THICK CYLINDERS

Stresses in thin cylindrical shell due to internal pressure circumferential and
longitudinal stresses anddeformation in thin and thick cylinders – spherical shells
subjected to internal pressure –Deformationin spherical shells – Lame’s theorem.

STRESSES IN TWO DIMENSIONS

THIN SHELLS
•In engineering field, we daily come across vessels of cylindrical and spherical shapes
containing fluids such as pipes, tanks, boilers, compressed air receivers etc.
•Generally, the walls of such vessels are very thin as compared to their diameters.
In general, if the thickness of the wall of a shell is less than 1/l0th to 1/15th (approximately
7%) of its diameter, it is known as a thin shell.
•These vessels, when empty, are subjected to atmospheric pressure internally as well as
externally. In such a case, the resultant pressure on the walls of the shell is zero. whenever a
cylindrical shell is subjected to an internal pressure, its walls are subjected to tensile
stresses.
•It will be interesting to know that if these stresses exceed the permissible limit, the cylinder is
likely to fail in anyone of the following two ways as shown in Fig. 11.1 (a) and (b).

42
 Fig.11.1
Stresses in a Thin Cylindrical Shell
The walls of the cylindrical shell will be subjected to the following two types of tensile
stresses:
1. Circumferential stress and
2. Longitudinal stress.
In case of thin shells, the stresses are assumed to be uniformly distributed across the
wall thickness. However, in case of thick shells, the stresses are no longer uniformly
distributed across the thickness and the problem becomes complex.
Circumferential Stress
•Consider a thin cylindrical shell subjected to an internal pressure as shown in Fig.11.2( b)
•We know that as a result of the internal pressure, the cylinder has a tendency to split up into
two troughs Fig.11.2(a)

Longitudinal (or
Axial) stress

43
•Consider the same cylindrical shell, subjected to the same internal pressure as shown in
Fig.11.5
•We know that as a result of the internal pressure, the cylinder also has a tendency to split
into two pieces as shown in the figure.11.5(a)

Note
•Since hoop stress is twice the longitudinal stress, the cylinder would fail by tearing along a
line parallel to the axis, rather than on a section perpendicular to the axis.
•The equation for hoop stress is therefore used to determine the cylinder thickness.
• Allowance is made for this by dividing the thickness obtained in hoop stress equation by
efficiency (i.e. tearing and shearing efficiency) of the joint.

1. A stream boiler of 800 mm diameter is made up of 10 mm thick plates. If the

boiler is subjected to an internal pressure of 2 MPa, find the circumferential and
longitudinal stresses induced in the boiler plates.

2. A cylindrical shell of 1.5 m diameter is made up of 16 mm thick plates. Find the

circumferential and longitudinal stress in the plates, if the boiler is subjected to
an internal pressure of 2.5 MPa. Take efficiency of the joints as 80%.
44
 3. The diameter of a city water supply pipe is 750 mm. It has to withstand a water
head of 60 m. Find the thickness of the pipe, if the permissible stress is 18
N/mm2. Take unit weight of water as 9810 N/m3.

4. A cylindrical shell of 500 mm diameter is required to withstand an internal pressure

of 4 MPa. Find the minimum thickness of the shell, if maximum tensile strength in the
plate material is 300 MPa and efficiency of the joints is 70%. Take factor of safety as 5.

Change in Dimensions of a thin Cylindrical Shell:

45
Change in volume of Cylinder Shell:

46
7. A cylindrical shell is 2m long, and is having 1 m internal diameter and 15 mm
thickness. Calculate the maximum intensity of shear stress induced and the changes
in the shell, if it is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 1.5 N/mm 2. Take E=2x10 5
N/mm2 and µ = 0.3.

47
6. A cylindrical boiler is subjected to an internal pressure, p. If the boiler has a mean
diameter, d and a wall thickness, t, derive expressions for the hoop and longitudinal stresses
in its wall. If Poisson‟s ratio for the material is 0.30, find the ratio of the hoop strain to the
longitudinal strain and compare it with the ratio of stresses.

WIRE-BOUND THIN CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

•Sometimes, we have to strengthen a cylindrical shell against bursting in longitudinal
section(i.e., due to hoop or circumferential stress).
•This is done by winding a wire under tension, closely round the shell as shown in Fig. 11.7.
• Its effect will be to put the cylinder wall under initial compressive stress.

The tension in wires gives rise to external pressure on the cylinder and hence introduces
compressive hoop stress in the cylinder.
When internal pressure is applied, hoop tension is introduced.

48
•Hence, net hoop stress is algebraic sum of the above two types of stresses, which is
obviously less than hoop tension that would have developed if there is no wire winding.
•This technique of strengthening cylinders is usually adopted for materials which are not very
strong in tension (like cast iron) and in such cases steel wires are used.

7. A 250 mm diameter cast iron pipe has metal thickness of 10 mm. It is closely
wounded with 6mm diameter steel wire with an initial stress of 80 N/mm2. Find the final
stress developed in cylinder and wire when fluid is admitted at a pressure of 3 N/mm 2,
Take E c= 100 kN/mm2, µ=0.3 and, Ew = 200 kN/mm2,

49
THIN SPHERICAL SHELLS
•Consider a thin spherical shell subjected to an
internal pressure as shown in Fig. 11.12

Change in Diameter and Volume of a Thin Spherical

Shell

50
9. At atmospheric pressure, a thin spherical shell has diameter 750 mm and thickness
8 mm. Find the stress introduced and change in diameter and volume when the fluid
pressure is increased to 2.5 N/mm2. Take E=2x105 N/mm2 and µ=0.3.

51