The Periodic Table

Periodic Table : The periodic table is a table listing all the elements in an organized form. The periodic
table is organized by the similar characteristics of the elements. Elements are listed in order of increasing
atomic number.
Development of the Periodic Table :
1864 - John Newlands - Law of Octaves- every 8th element had similar properties when arranged by atomic
masses
In 1869, a Russian chemist named Dmitri Mendeleev created the first periodic table of the elements, which
become famous in Chemistry as the periodic table. For his great contribution he called the father of
periodic table.
Mendeleeff’s Periodic Law : The Physical and Chemical properties of elements are a period
function of their atomic weights i.e., if the elements are arranged in order of atomic weights,
similar elements occur at regular intervals. This is known as Mendeleeff’s Periodic Law. But there
are some defects in putting the elements according to the atomic masses. Such as argon (Ar) has more
atomic mass (39.9) than potassium (39.1). But argon is placed before potassium in the periodic table. Such
regulation is also arises for cobalt and nickel, tellurium and iodine.
Modern Periodic Law : After Mendeleev's death, a British physicist named Henry Moseley (1913) carried
on Mendeleev's work. He stated that “The properties of the elements are a periodic function of
their atomic number.” This is called the modern periodic law. In other words, if the elements are
arranged in the increasing order of their atomic number, similar elements occur at regular interval or
periods.
Modern periodic table in the light of electronic configurations of elements :
In this table there are 7 rows, which are called periods and 18 columns which are considered as groups. The
periods are denoted by English number 1 to 7 and groups are denoted by Roman numerals I to VIII and 0
groups. Periods starts from alkali metals and ends at inert gases. The vertical columns in the periodic table
are called groups. There are 18 groups in the long form periodic table. One example of a group is the noble
or inert gases. These elements all line up in the eighteenth or last column of the periodic table. They all
have a full outer shell of electrons, making them very stable (they tend not to react with other elements).
Another example is the alkali metals which all align on the left-most column. They are all very similar in
that they have only 1 electron in their outer shell and are very reactive. You can see all the groups in the
table below. There are three main types of elements in periodic table: metals, non-metals and metalloids.
Metal elements are usually good conductors of electricity and heat. The subgroups within the metals are
based on the similar characteristics and chemical properties of these collections.
Alkali metals: The alkali metals make up most of Group 1, the table's first column. Shiny and soft enough
to cut with a knife, these metals start with Lithium (Li) and end with Francium (Fr). They are also extremely
reactive and will burst into flame or even explode on contact with water, so chemists store them in oils or
inert gases. Hydrogen, with its single electron, also lives in Group 1, but the gas is considered a nonmetal.
Alkaline-earth metals: The alkaline-earth metals make up Group 2 of the periodic table, from Beryllium
(Be) through Radium (Ra). Each of these elements has two electrons in its outermost energy level, which
makes the alkaline earths reactive enough that they're rarely found alone in nature. But they're not as reactive
as the alkali metals. Their chemical reactions typically occur more slowly and produce less heat compared
to the alkali metals.
Metalloids: The metalloids are boron (B), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), antimony
(Sb), tellurium (Te) and polonium (Po). They form the staircase that represents the gradual transition from
metals to nonmetals. These elements sometimes behave as semiconductors (B, Si, Ge) rather than as
conductors. Metalloids are also called "semimetals" or "poor metals."
Nonmetals: Everything else to the upper right of the staircase — plus hydrogen (H), stranded way back in
Group 1 — is a nonmetal. These include carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), oxygen (O), sulfur (S)
and selenium (Se).
Halogens: The top four elements of Group 17, from fluorine (F) through astatine (At), represent one of
two subsets of the nonmetals. The halogens are quite chemically reactive and tend to pair up with alkali
metals to produce various types of salt. The table salt in your kitchen, for example, is a marriage between
the alkali metal sodium and the halogen chlorine.
Noble gases: Colorless, odorless and almost completely nonreactive, the inert, or noble gases round out
the table in Group 18.

What are noble gases ? What are their properties?

Noble gases are a group of elements in the periodic table that are odorless, colorless, and chemically inert.
They have full outer shells of electrons, which makes them stable and unlikely to react with other elements.
Inert gases have the electronic configuration ns2 np6 (except He —Is2). The elements are helium (He), neon
(Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), radon (Rn).
Properties
 Inertness: Noble gases are chemically inert, meaning they are unlikely to react with other elements.
 Monatomic: Noble gases exist as single atoms in nature, rather than in pairs like many other elements.
 Low melting and boiling points: Noble gases have very low melting and boiling points.
 Color: Noble gases are colorless under standard conditions.
 Odor: Noble gases are odorless under standard conditions.
 Taste: Noble gases are tasteless under standard conditions.
 Nonflammable: Noble gases are nonflammable under standard condition
Inert Gas and their Stability :
Elements of Atomic number Electronic configuration
group 18
He 2 1s2
Ne 10 1s22s22p6
Ar 18 1s22s22p63s23p6
Kr 36 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6
Xe 54 1s22s22p63p63d104s24p64d105s25p6
 Rn 86 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d104f145s25p65d106s26p6

Why the inert gases are mono atomic?

Inert gases have the electronic configuration ns2 np6 (except He —Is2). This electronic configuration
is very stable. They have no tendency to gain or lose electron. That is why they are inactive. They
are inactive that the atoms of a same gas even cannot react among themselves to form di-atomic
molecules. Hence, inert gases are mono-atomic.
Physical properties of inert gases:
All inert gases are colorless and odorless gases at normal temperature and pressure. With the
increase of atomic radius the density increases. As the inert gases have no intermolecular forces,
due only weak Vander Waals' forces their b.p. and m.p. are very low and thus increase with
increasing atomic masses. Only under high pressure and cooling they can be liquefied. The physical
properties of inert gases are summarized in Table-1.
Table-1: Physical properties inert gases:
Properties He Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn
1. Atomic number 2 10 18 36 54 86
2. Atomic mass 4 20.2 40 83.8 131 222
3. Atomic radius, A 0.93 1.60 1.91 2.0 2.2 ---
4. Melting point, C -272 -249 -187 -157 -112 -71
5. Boiling point, C -269 -246 -180 -153 -107 -62
6. Color of spectra yellow red orange green blue ----

Uses of inert gases:

The inert gases are now-a day’s being put to the following uses:
Helium :
i) Since helium is light it is used for filling balloons & airships for weather study.
ii) A mixture of oxygen (20%) & helium (80%) is used by deep-sea divers.
iii) Same mixture used to assist breathing in asthma and other respiratory diseases.
iv) Neon is used in neon sign for advertising purposes and in lightening of houses.
v) It is used in producing inert atmosphere to carry out air sensitive reactions in the laboratory.
vi) Helium is used in research work for maintaining very low temperature, in cooling FT NMR machine.

Neon:
i) ‘Neon lights' are used as advertising signs as well as beacon lights for air pilots. Since the neon
lights are visible from long distance and even visible through fog and mist.
ii) It is used in safety devices for protecting electrical instruments as it has a property of carrying
exceedingly high currents under high voltages.
Argon:
i) It is extensively used in electric lamp industry in gas balloons and in radio valves and tubes.
 ii) It is used in producing inert atmosphere during welding and extraction of various metals.
Krypton & Xenon:
i) These two gases have been found to be more efficient than argon in gas-filled electric lamps tube
lights.
ii) They are also used in "neon signs" to a limited extent.
Radon: It is used-in the non-surgical treatment of cancer.
Classification of elements on the basis of electronic configurations :
The elements in the periodic table are classified into four classes according to their electronic configuration of
outer most sub layer. These classes are as follows:
s-block elements : The elements in which the last electron enters the s-orbital of their outer most energy layer
are called s- block element. The s- block in the periodic table of elements occupies the alkali metals and alkaline
earth metals, also known as groups 1 and 2. Helium is also part of the s- block. There is the total of 14 elements
in s-block. Electronic configuration of this block is ns1 or ns2. The principal quantum number “n” fills the s
orbital. There is a maximum of two electrons that can occupy the s orbital.
1 2
H (1) = 1s1 He(2) = 1s2
Li(3) = 1s2 2s1 Be(4) = 1s2 2s2
Na(11) = [Ne]10 3s1 Mg(12) = [Ne]10 3s2
K(19) = [Ar]18 4s1 Ca(20) = [Ar]18 4s2

p-Block elements : The elements in which the last electron enters the p-orbital of their outer most energy layer
are called p- block element. The p-block contains groups 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18, with the exception of
Helium. (Helium is part of the s-block.) the elements of p-block contain np1 to np6 electron in their outer most
orbit or valance shell. There is the total of 30 elements in p-block. The principal quantum number “n” fills the p
orbital. There is a maximum of six electrons that can occupy the p orbital.

B(5) = 1s22s22p1 O(8) = 1s22s22p4

C(6) = 1s22s22p2 F(9) = 1s22s22p5
N(7) = 1s22s22p3 Ne(10) = 1s22s22p6
d-Block elements : The d-block elements are defined as the elements from periodic table in which, last electron
enters into the ‘d-orbital’ of the penultimate shell i.e. (n-1)d orbital. Where ‘n’ is the last shell. The d-block
elements are found in groups 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 of the periodic table. The electronic configuration
of this group is (n-1)d1-10ns1-2.
Sc(21) [Ar]18 3d14s2 Cr(24) [Ar]18 3d54s1
Ti(22) [Ar]18 3d24s2 Mn(25) [Ar]18 3d54s2
V(23) [Ar]18 3d34s2
The d-block elements are also called transition elements, because their properties are intermediate between the
properties of highly electropositive s-block elements and highly electronegative p-block elements. Transition
elements have at least one stable positive ion with partly or incompletely filled (n-1)d i.e., d1-d9 orbital in their
elementary states. The transition elements exhibit variable valency, form colored ions, used as catalyst and
complex compounds. As per definition of transition elements, two elements of d-block like Sc (21) and Zn(30)
of 4th period is not transition elements. Because they form only Sc3+ ion and Zn2+ ion.
In Sc3+ ion there is no electron in 3d orbital and Zn2+ ion has fully filled 3d10 orbital.
Sc (21) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2
 Sc3+ = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d0, For Zn,

Zn(30) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2

Zn2+ = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10
For that reason it is called, all transition elements are d-block elements but all d-block elements are not
transition elements.
f-Block elements: The elements in which the last electron enters into f-orbitals of the atom are called f–
block elements. The f–block elements of the periodic table consists of those elements whose atoms or ions
have valence electrons in f–orbitals of anti–penultimate shell. f–block elements are also termed as inner
transition elements as they are transition elements within the transition elements i.e., d–block elements.
The general electronic configuration of the f–block elements is given as (n − 2)f 1 − 14(n − 1)d0 − 1ns1 − 2. The
elements included in these two series are called the inner transition elements. It is so because they form
transition series within the transition elements of d-block.
Classification of f–block elements: Depending upon whether the last electron enters a 4f orbital or a 5f
orbital, the f–block elements have been divided into two series as lanthanides and actinides.
Lanthanides: The elements in which the last electron enters one of the 4f orbitals are called 4f–block
elements or first inner transition series. These are also called lanthanides, because they come immediately
after lanthanum. The third group is much too long to fit into the third column, so it is broken out and flipped
sideways to become the top row of the island that floats at the bottom of the table. This is the lanthanides,
elements 57 through 71 — lanthanum (La) to lutetium (Lu). The elements in this group have a silvery white
color and tarnish on contact with air.
Actinides: The elements in which the last electron enters one of the 5f orbitals are called 5f–block
elements or second inner transition series. These are also called actinides because they come immediately
after actinium. The actinides line the bottom row of the island and comprise elements 89, actinium (Ac), through
103, lawrencium (Lr). Of these elements, only thorium (Th) and uranium (U) occur naturally on Earth in substantial
amounts. All are radioactive. The actinides and the lanthanides together form a group called the inner transition
metals. The General electronic configuration in the case of Actinides it is [Rn]5f1–146d0–17s2.
Determine the position of elements in Periodic Table :
To determine Period : The highest principal quantum number in the electronic configuration of any
element represents its number of period. For Example the electronic configuration of potassium, K(19) is
1s22s22p63s23p64s1. Here the highest value of principal quantum number, n is 4. Hence this element, K is
in 4th period.
To determine Group : To know the group of an element, its valence electron number and its block are
to know. For example,
1. For s-block element ns1-2 electron distribution is considered.
Here ns1 indicates group-1 and ns2 indicates group-2.

1 2
H (1) = 1s1 He(2) = 1s2
Li(3) = 1s2 2s1 Be(4) = 1s2 2s2
Na(11) = [Ne]10 3s1 Mg(12) = [Ne]10 3s2
K(19) = [Ar]18 4s1 Ca(20) = [Ar]18 4s2

K(19) 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 Here period = 4; group = 1

Ca(20) 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 Here period = 4; group = 2
2. For p-block element (10+ ns2np1-6) formula is considered.
Here ns2np1 valance electrons indicates group number (10+2+1) =13;
Similarly, ns2np2 valance electrons indicates group number (10+2+2) =14.

B(5) = 1s22s22p1 O(8) = 1s22s22p4

C(6) = 1s22s22p2 F(9) = 1s22s22p5
N(7) = 1s22s22p3 Ne(10) = 1s22s22p6
Cl(17) 1s22s22p63s23p5 Here period = 3; group = (10 + 7) = 17
Ar(18) 1s22s22p63s23p6 Here period = 3; group = (10 + 8) = 18
3. For d-block element total electrons of two orbitals (n-1)d ns indicates group number.
Sc(21) [Ar]18 3d14s2 Cr(24) [Ar]18 3d54s1
Ti(22) [Ar]18 3d24s2 Mn(25) [Ar]18 3d54s2
V(23) [Ar]18 3d34s2
Fe(26) 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2 Here period = 4; group = 8
Zn(30) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2 Here period = 4; group = 12
4. For f-block elements, valance shell contain f-electron and are in group number 3.
U(92) [Rn(86)]5f36d17s2 Here period = 7; group = 3
Periodic properties of the elements :
The properties, which repeat with the change of atomic number after a definite intervals according to
their increasing atomic numbers, are called periodic properties or periodicity of the elements. The
properties repeat after certain duration (2, 8,8,18,18,32). So the periodicity in properties of the elements
is a speciality having the meaning of these magic numbers order i.e., 2, 8,8,18,18,32. The properties are
as follows;
i) Atomic Radius, ii) Ionic radius iii) Covalent Radius iv) Ionization Energy v) Electronegativity
vi) Electron Affinity etc.7k
Atomic Radius : Atomic radius is the distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell
containing electrons. In other words, it is the distance from the center of the nucleus to the point up to
which the density of the electron cloud is maximum.

Variation within a Period

 The Atomic radii decrease with an increase in the atomic number as we move from left to right in
a period. The alkali metals at the extreme left of the periodic table have the largest size in a period.
The halogens at the extreme right of the periodic table have the smallest size. The atomic size of
nitrogen is the smallest. After nitrogen, atomic size increases for Oxygen and then decreases for
fluorine. The size of atoms of inert gases is larger than those of the preceding halogens.
 As we move from left to right in a period, the nuclear charge increases by 1 unit in each succeeding
element while the number of shells remains the same. This enhanced nuclear charge pulls the
electrons of all the shells closer to the nucleus. This makes each individual shell smaller and smaller.
This results in a decrease in the atomic radius as we move from left to right in a period.
Variation within a Group
The atomic radius of elements increase with an increase in the atomic number from top to bottom in a group.
As we move down the group, the principal quantum number increases. A new energy shell is added at each
succeeding element. The valence electrons lie farther and farther away from the nucleus. As a result, the
attraction of the nucleus for the electron decreases.
Ionic radius
Ionic radius is the distance from the nucleus of an ion up to which it has an influence on its electron cloud.
Ions are formed when an atom loses or gains electrons. When an atom loses an electron it forms a cation
and when it gains an electron it becomes an anion. The Ionic radius can be described as the distance between
the nucleus of an ion and the outermost shell of the ion.
The atomic size of a cation will be smaller than that of the parent atom. An anion is relatively larger in size
than its parent atom. This is because when an atom gains electrons the total number of electrons increases
which tends to create more repulsion between electrons and thus overshadows the net effective nuclear
charge.
For example,
 Radius of potassium = 243pm.
 Radius of potassium ion = 138pm.
The radius of a cation will be smaller than that of the anion as a cation will have a greater positive charge
(i.e. number of protons) so it will attract the electrons in the outermost orbital with greater force and hence
the smaller size.
Periodic trends in ionic radius in modern periodic table :

Trends in Ionic Radius in Groups

In a periodic table while moving down in a group, atoms add extra shell (number of electrons) due to which
ionic radius of elements increases down a group.
Ionic Ionic
Ions Configuration Ions Configuration
radii(nm) radii(nm)
Li+ 2 0.076 F– 2,8 0.133
Na+ 2,8 0.102 Cl– 2,8,8 0.181
K+ 2,8,8 0.138 Br– 2,8,18,8 0.196

Trends in Ionic Radius Across a Period

Let us understand the trends in the ionic radius of elements across a period with an example. In period 3 we
find that the atomic radius first decreases and then suddenly increases and then again it slowly decreases.
This is because the starting elements in a period tend to form cations, and the elements towards the end of
a period tend to form anions.
Trends in ionic radii of ions in period 3
Period 3 Na2+ Mg2+ Al3+ P3- S2- Cl–
Number of
11 12 13 15 16 17
protons
Electronic
2,8 2,8 2,8 2,8,8 2,8,8 2,8,8
configuration
Ionic radius 0.102 0.072 0.054 0.212 0.184 0.181
Ions are formed as a result of the gain or loss of electrons. The formation of ions plays a vital role in any
chemical reaction to form a new substance. By knowing the ionic radii we can study various chemical bonds
formed during a reaction.

Explain the periodicity of atomic volume and valency.

Atomic volume and valency exhibit periodicity, meaning they change predictably across the periodic
table. Atomic volume generally decreases as you move from left to right across a period and increases down
a group, while valency typically increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases to 0 across a period.
Atomic Volume
Definition: Atomic volume refers to the volume occupied by one mole of atoms of an element. It's
directly related to atomic size (atomic radius).
Trend Across a Period:
As you move from left to right across a period, the atomic size (and thus atomic volume decreases. This
is because the number of protons (nuclear charge) increases, leading to a stronger attraction between the
nucleus and the electrons, pulling them closer.
Trend Down a Group:
As you move down a group, the atomic size (and thus atomic volume) increases. This is because the
number of electron shells increases, meaning the outermost electrons are further from the nucleus and
experience less attraction.
Valency
Definition: Valency, or combining capacity, refers to the number of chemical bonds an atom can
form when participating in chemical reactions.
Trend Across a Period: As you move from left to right across a period, the valency increases from 1 to
4 and then decreases to 0. Consider the elements in the second period (Li to Ne):
 Lithium (Li) has a valency of 1, as it can lose one electron.
 Beryllium (Be) has a valency of 2, as it can lose two electrons.
 Boron (B) has a valency of 3, as it can lose three electrons.
 Carbon (C) has a valency of 4, as it can form four bonds.
 Nitrogen (N) has a valency of 3, as it can form three bonds.
 Oxygen (O) has a valency of 2, as it can form two bonds.
 Fluorine (F) has a valency of 1, as it can form one bond.
 Neon (Ne) has a valency of 0, as it has a full outer shell and is unreactive.
 Trend Down a Group:
Valency generally remains the same or changes predictably down a group.
Example: Elements in Group 1 (alkali metals) typically have a valency of 1, as they can lose one
electron to form a +1 ion.

Covalent Radius
Covalent radius is one half the distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms of the same
element in a molecule. Therefore, r covalent = ½ (internuclear distance between two bonded atoms). The
internuclear distance between two bonded atoms is called the bond length.
Variation in Covalent Radius
We know that as we scan down a group, the principal quantum number, n, increases by one for each element.
Thus, the electrons are being added to a region of space that is increasingly distant from the nucleus.
Consequently, the size of the atom (and its covalent radius) must increase as we increase the distance of the
outermost electrons from the nucleus. This trend is illustrated for the covalent radii of the halogens in the
table below and the figure below. The trends for the entire periodic table can be seen in the figure below.
r covalent = ½( bond length), pm (trillionths of a meter, piko meter),

Covalent Radii of the Halogen Group Elements

Atom Covalent radius (pm) Nuclear charge
F 64 +9
Cl 99 +17
Br 114 +35
I 133 +53
At 148 +85

(a) The radius of an atom is defined as one-half the distance between the nuclei in a molecule consisting of two
identical atoms joined by a covalent bond. The atomic radius for the halogens increases down the group as n
increases.

Ionization Energy : Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its
ground state to form positive ion. The ionization energy is measured in k cal or kJ mol-1 . The energy required to
remove one electron is called 1st ionization energy(E1), the energy required to remove another electron is called
2nd ionization energy(E2). E2 is always higher than E1.
Such as, K(g) – e- = K+ (g); E1 = + 418 kJ mol-1
K+ (g) – e- = K2+ (g); E2 = + 3070 kJ mol-1
K(19) 1s22s22p63s23p64s1
The higher the ionization energy, the more difficult it is to remove an electron. Therefore, ionization energy is in
indicator of reactivity. Ionization energy is important because it can be used to help predict the strength of chemical
bonds.
Ionization Energy Trend in the Periodic Table
 Ionization energy generally increases moving from left to right across an element period (row). This
is because the atomic radius generally decreases moving across a period, so there is a greater
effective attraction between the negatively charged electrons and positively-charged nucleus.
Ionization is at its minimum value for the alkali metal on the left side of the table and a maximum
for the noble gas on the far right side of a period. The noble gas has a filled valence shell, so it resists
electron removal.
 Ionization decreases moving top to bottom down an element group (column). This is because the
principal quantum number of the outermost electron increases moving down a group. There are
more protons in atoms moving down a group (greater positive charge), yet the effect is to pull in the
electron shells, making them smaller and screening outer electrons from the attractive force of the
nucleus. More electron shells are added moving down a group, so the outermost electron becomes
increasingly distance from the nucleus.
First, Second, and Subsequent Ionization Energies
The energy required to remove the outermost valence electron from a neutral atom is the first ionization
energy. The second ionization energy is that required to remove the next electron, and so on. The second
ionization energy is always higher than the first ionization energy. Take, for example, an alkali metal atom.
Removing the first electron is relatively easy because its loss gives the atom a stable electron shell.
Removing the second electron involves a new electron shell that is closer and more tightly bound to the
atomic nucleus.
Q: Why the ionization energy of boron is less than beryllium?
The reason behind these deviations is their electronic distributions. The half-filled and fully filled orbitals
with electrons of atoms are more stable. The electronic configurations of Be (4) and B (5) are as follows:
Be (4) 1s22s2 Ei = 899 kJ mol-1
B (5) 1s22s2 2px1 2py 2pz Ei = 800 kJ mol-1
Here less energy is needed to remove one electron from boron atom, because after then a stable electronic
configuration like Is22s2 is achieved. On the other hand, the electronic configuration of beryllium is 1s2 2s2;
which is stable due to fully filled 2s orbital. To remove one electron from Be-atom more energy is needed,
because then the stable 2s2 configuration is broken down. For this reason the ionization energy of beryllium
is more than normally expected value and it is more than that of boron.
Q : Ionization energy of O (8) is less than that of N (7) atom; explain why?
The electronic configurations of oxygen and nitrogen are as follows :
O (8) 1s22s22px2 2pyl 2pzl Ei = 1314 kJ mol-1
N (7) 1s22s2 2px1 2py1 2pzl , Ei = 1402 kJ mol-1
When one electron is removed from O-atom then electronic configuration like Is22s2 2pxl 2pyl 2pz1 is
obtained, which is exactly half filled 2P orbitals. This configuration is relatively more stable and hence
less energy than usual is needed to remove one electron from oxygen atom. Then first ionisation energy of
oxygen is relatively low.
On the other hand, electronic configuration of nitrogen is N(7) = 1s2 2s2 2px1 pyl 2pz1 is relatively stable due
to exactly half filled 2P orbitals. Removal of one electron needs to break this stable configuration and hence
relatively more energy is needed. Hence the first ionisation potential of nitrogen is higher than that of
oxygen.
Electronegativity : The electronegativity of an element present in a covalent compound is defined as
its relative ability to attract the shared electron pair of the covalent bond towards itself.

Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom to attract the electrons when the atom is part of a
compound. Electronegativity differs from electron affinity because electron affinity is the actual energy released
when an atom gains an electron. Electronegativity is not measured in energy units, but is rather a relative scale. All
elements are compared to one another, with the most electronegative element, fluorine, being assigned an
electronegativity value of 3.98. Fluorine attracts electrons better than any other element. The table below shows
the electronegativity values for the elements.
Since metals have few valence electrons, they tend to increase their stability by losing electrons to become cations.
Consequently, the electronegativities of metals are generally low. Nonmetals have more valence electrons and
increase their stability by gaining electrons to become anions. The electronegativities of nonmetals are generally
high.
Electronegativities Trend in the Periodic Table
Electronegativities generally increase from left to right across a period. This is due to an increase in nuclear
charge. Alkali metals have the lowest electronegativities, while halogens have the highest. Because most
noble gases do not form compounds, they do not have electronegativities. Note that there is little variation
among the transition metals. Electronegativities generally decrease from top to bottom within a group due
to the larger atomic size.
Of the main group elements, fluorine has the highest electronegativity (EN =4.0) and cesium the lowest
(EN =0.79). This indicates that fluorine has a high tendency to gain electrons from other elements with
lower electronegativities. We can use these values to predict what happens when certain elements combine.
When the difference between electronegativity is greater than ~1.7, then a complete exchange of electrons
occurs. Typically this exchange is between a metal and a nonmetal. For instance, sodium and chlorine will
typically combine to form a new compound and each ion becomes isoelectronic with its nearest noble gas.
When we compare the EN values, we see that the electronegativity for Na is 0.93 and the value for Cl is 3.2.
The absolute difference between ENs is |0.93−3.2|=2.27. This value is greater than 1.7, and therefore
indicates a complete electron exchange occurs. The value is in between 0.5 or 0 indicates covalent
compound.

In HCl molecule, bond pair electron is unsymmetrically distributed; H atom end gets delta positive (+)
charge and Cl atom end gets delta negative (-) charge. When difference of electronegativities of two
bonded atoms is in between 0.5 to 1.9; then the two ends of the covalent molecule attain partial positive
charge and partial negative charge and the molecule becomes polar.

Electron Affinity : The electron affinity of an element is defined as the energy released when 1 mol of
electron is added to one mol of isolated gaseous atom in its ground state to form anion. Such as:

Such as, X(g) + e-  X- (g) + Energy

(Atom of an element) (negative ion)
Periodic Trends
Electron affinity increases going left to right across a period. The overall trend across a period occurs
because of increased nuclear attraction. In a period, as we move from left to right the atomic size decreases
due to the increase in the nuclear force hence the electron gain enthalpy increases. When an electron is added
to elements with very high electron affinity, high energy is released.
Going down the group the electron affinity should decrease since the electron is being added increasingly
further away from the atom. Less tightly bound and therefore closer in energy to a free electron. While
moving down a group in the periodic table, the atomic size increases thereby causing a decrease in the value
of electron gain enthalpy.
Explain why- the electron affinity of fluorine is lower than that of chlorine.
The electron affinity of fluorine is lower than chlorine because fluorine is significantly smaller in size,
leading to greater electron-electron repulsion within its compact 2p subshell, making it less favorable to
accept an additional electron compared to chlorine with its larger 3p subshell; essentially, the added
electron in fluorine experiences more repulsion from existing electrons due to the smaller space available.
(i) F is an element of 2nd orbit; it has 2s2 2p5 valence electrons.
(ii) Cl is an element of 3rd orbit; it has 3s2 3p5 valence electrons.
The outermost orbit of fluorine atom is second orbit and that of chlorine is third orbit. In both cases seven
valence electrons are present. The size of the 2nd orbit is small, hence the seven electrons cloud density in
this orbit is high. The electrons of the 2nd orbit repel the incoming electron strongly. Hence the electron
affinity of fluorine decreases. On the other hand, the comparatively large third orbit of chlorine atom can
accommodate its seven valence electrons easily. Hence electron cloud density in Cl-atom is normal. So
incoming electron is attracted by Cl-nucleus more. Hence electron affinity of Cl-atom is higher than that of
F-atom.
Why does the electron affinity decrease down a group except fluorine ?
Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)
Nuclear charge is a measure of the effect of the number of protons in the nucleus and their ability to attract the
negative electrons in orbits around the nucleus. Nuclear charge is the total charge of a nucleus. Effective nuclear
charge is the net charge that an outermost shell electron experiences. The main difference between nuclear charge
and effective nuclear charge is that the value of the effective nuclear charge is always a lower value than that of
the nuclear charge.
According to Coulomb's law, the attraction of an electron to a nucleus depends only on three factors: the
charge of the nucleus (+Z), the charge of the electron (-1), and the distance between the two (r).
Electrons within a multi-electron atom interact with the nucleus and with all other electrons. Each electron
in a multi-electron atom experiences both attraction to the nucleus and repulsion from interactions with
other electrons. The presence of multiple electrons decreases the nuclear attraction to some extent. Each
electron in a multi-electron atom experiences a different magnitude of (and attraction to) the nuclear charge
depending on what specific subshell the electron occupies. The amount of positive charge experienced by
any individual electron is the effective nuclear charge (Zeff).
This is the pull exerted on a specific electron by the nucleus, taking into account any electron–electron
repulsions. For hydrogen, there is only one electron and so the nuclear charge (Z) and the effective nuclear
charge (Zeff) are equal. For all other atoms, the inner electrons partially shield the outer electrons from the
pull of the nucleus, and thus:
Zeff=Z−shielding

Shielding is determined by the probability of another electron being between the electron of interest and the
nucleus, as well as by the electron–electron repulsions the electron of interest encounters. Core electrons
are adept at shielding, while electrons in the same valence shell do not block the nuclear attraction
experienced by each other as efficiently.
 Figure : Effective nuclear charge in a Li atom
For example, in lithium (Li), none of the three electrons "feel" the full +3 charge from the nucleus. Rather,
each electron "feels" a Zeff that is less than the actual Z and that depends on the electron's orbital. The actual
nuclear charge in Li is +3; the 1s electrons experience a Zeff =+2.69, and the 2s electron experiences a Zeff =
1.28. In general, core electrons (or the electrons closest to the nucleus), "feel" a Zeff that is close to, but less
than, the actual nuclear charge (Z). On the other hand, outer valence electrons experience a Zeff that is much
less than Z.
Essential elements in Human Body
What elements are present in the human body?
Scientists believe that about 25 of the known elements are essential to life. Just four of these – carbon (C),
oxygen (O), hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N) – make up about 96% of the human body.
25 elements are known to be essential to life. This diagram divides the essential elements into three main
groups depending on the amount needed.
These four elements are found in the basic structure of all biochemical molecules. For example, glucose is
a carbohydrate and its molecular formula is C6H12O6 – each molecule of glucose is made up of 6 carbon
atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms and 6 oxygen atoms.
The other elements found can be divided into two main groups – major elements and trace elements.
The human body functions as a result of a large number of chemical reactions involving compounds of all
of these elements.

Trace elements are important

Although many of the elements are required in only very small amounts, they do play a very important role
in keeping the body working effectively:
 Much of the 3–4 grams of iron in the body is found in haemoglobin, the substance responsible for
carrying oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.
 The body has about 75 mg of copper, about one-third of which is found in the muscles. Copper
combines with certain proteins to produce enzymes that act as catalysts to help a number of body
functions. Some are involved in the transformation of melanin for pigmentation of the skin, and
others help to form cross-links in collagen and elastin and thereby maintain and repair connective
tissues. This is especially important for the heart and arteries. Research suggests that copper
deficiency is one factor leading to an increased risk of developing coronary heart disease.
Too much or too little?
Large amounts of essential elements can prove toxic:
 Too much copper in the diet can result in damage to the liver, discolouration of the skin and hair.
 Too much iron in the diet can result in damage to the heart and liver.
Too little of any given essential element can result in ill health and, if left untreated, could result in death:
 Zinc is a component of certain digestive enzymes and other proteins. Not enough in the diet can
result in growth failure, scaly skin inflammation, reproductive failure and impaired immunity.
 People who suffer from iron deficiency show symptoms such as lack of energy, getting tired easily
and being short of breath.

Recommended Books:
D. N. Singh. Basic Concept of Inorganic Chemistry, 2010, Dorling Kindersley, India.
James E. House. Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd ed., 2013, Publisher: Elsevier, 225 Wyman Street, Waltham,
MA 02451, USA.