INSTRUMENTATION CONTROL (LC-ME-220G)

LABORATORY MANUAL
[Link]. Semester- IV

INSTRUMENTATION CONTROL
Subject code: LC-ME-220G

Prepared by: Checked by: Approved by:

Mrs. Neha Chauhan Mrs. Neha Chauhan Name : Prof. (Dr.) Isha Malhotra

Sign.: ……………………. Sign.: …………………. Sign.: ………………….

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DRONACHARYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
KHENTAWAS, FARRUKH NAGAR, GURUGRAM (HARYANA)
 Instrumentation and Control Lab (LC-ME 220G)

Table of Contents

1. Vision and Mission of the Institute

2. Vision and Mission of the Department
3. Programme Educational Objectives (PEOs)
4. Programme Outcomes (POs)
5. Programme Specific Outcomes (PSOs)
6. University Syllabus
7. Course Outcomes (COs)
8. CO- PO and CO-PSO mapping
9. Course Overview
10. List of Experiments
11. DOs and DON’Ts
12. General Safety Precautions
13. Guidelines for students for report preparation
14. Lab assessment criteria
15. Details of Conducted Experiments
16. Lab Experiments

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 Instrumentation and Control Lab (LC-ME 220G)

Vision and Mission of the Institute

Vision:

To impart Quality Education, to give an enviable growth to seekers of learning, to groom them as World Class
Engineers and managers competent to match the expending expectations of the Corporate World has been ever
enlarging vision extending to new horizons of Dronacharya College of Engineering.

Mission:

1. To prepare students for full and ethical participation in a diverse society and encourage lifelong learning by
following the principle of ‘Shiksha evam Sahayata’ i.e. Education & Help.

2. To impart high-quality education, knowledge and technology through rigorous academic programs, cutting-edge
research, & Industry collaborations, with a focus on producing engineers& managers who are socially responsible,
globally aware, & equipped to address complex challenges.

3. Educate students in the best practices of the field as well as integrate the latest research into the academics.

4. Provide quality learning experiences through effective classroom practices, innovative teaching practices and
opportunities for meaningful interactions between students and faculty.

5. To devise and implement programmes of education in technology that are relevant to the changing needs of
society, in terms of breadth of diversity and depth of specialization.

Vision and Mission of the Mechanical Department

Vision:

“To become a Centre of Excellence in teaching and research in the field of Mechanical Engineering for
producing skilled professionals having a zeal to serve society.”

Mission:

M1: To create an environment where students can be equipped with strong fundamental concepts, various
experiments and problem solving skills.

M2: To provide an exposure to emerging technologies by providing hands on experience for generating
competent professionals.

M3: To promote Research and Development in the frontier areas of Mechanical Engineering and encourage
students for pursuing higher education

M4: To inculcate in students ethics, professional values, team work and leadership skills.

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Programme Educational Objectives (PEOs)

PEO 1: Engineers will practice the profession of engineering using a systems perspective and analyze,
design, develop, optimize & implement engineering solutions and work productively as engineers,
including supportive and leadership roles on multidisciplinary teams.

PEO 2: Continue their education in leading graduate programs in engineering & interdisciplinary areas to
emerge as researchers, experts, educators & entrepreneurs and recognize the need for, and an ability to
engage in continuing professional development and life-long learning.

PEO 3: Engineers, guided by the principles of sustainable development and global interconnectedness, will
understand how engineering projects affect society and the environment.

PEO 4: Promote Design, Research, and implementation of products and services in the field of Engineering
through Strong Communication and Entrepreneurial Skills.

PEO 5: Re-learn and innovate in ever-changing global economic and technological environments of the
21st century.

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Programme Outcomes (POs)

Over completion of the Course our graduates will have ability to

1. Apply knowledge of computing, mathematical foundations, algorithmic principles, and engineering

theory in the modeling and design of systems to real-world problems (fundamental engineering
analysis skills).
2. Apply and integrate knowledge and understanding of other engineering disciplines to support study of
their own engineering discipline.
3. Design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret data (information retrieval skills).
Practical application of engineering skills, combining theory and experience, and use of other relevant
knowledge and skills.
4. Analyze a problem, identify, formulate and use the appropriate computing and engineering
requirements for obtaining its solution(engineering problem solving skills).
5. Understand the appropriate codes of practice and industry standards.
6. Identify, classify and describe the performance of systems and components through the use of
analytical methods and modeling techniques.
7. Investigate and define a problem and identify constraints including environmental and sustainability
limitations, health and safety and risk assessment issues.
8. Communicate effectively, both in writing and orally (speaking / writing skills).
9. Understand professional, ethical, legal, security and social issues and responsibilities (professional
integrity).
10. Understand customer and user needs and the importance of considerations such as Aesthetics.
11. Use creativity to establish innovative solutions.
12. Adapt to a rapidly changing environment by having learned and applied new skills and new
technologies.
13. To Significantly contribute to delivery of desired component, product, or process.
14. Formulate and solve moderately complex engineering problems, accounting for
hardware/software/human interactions.
15. Recognize the importance of professional development by pursuing postgraduate studies or face
competitive examinations that offer challenging and rewarding careers in computing.
16. Apply the Knowledge of management techniques which may be used to achieve engineering
Objectives within that context.

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Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

On successful completion of the Mechanical Engineering Degree programme, the Graduates shall exhibit
the following:

PSO1: Apply the knowledge gained in Mechanical Engineering for design and development and
manufacture of engineering systems.

PSO2: Apply the knowledge acquired to investigate research-oriented problems in mechanical engineering
with due consideration for environmental and social impacts

PSO3: Use the engineering analysis and data management tools for effective management of
multidisciplinary projects.

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University Syllabus
List of Experiments :
1. To Study various Temperature Measuring Instruments (a) Mercury – in glass thermometer (b)
Thermocouple

2. To study the working of Bourdon Pressure Gauge and to check the calibration of the gauge in a dead-
weight pressure gauge calibration set up.

3. To study a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) and use it in a simple experimental set up
to measure a small displacement.

4. To measure load (tensile/compressive) using load cell on a tutor.

5. To measure torque of a rotating shaft using torsion meter/strain gauge torque transducer.

6. To measure the speed of a motor shaft with the help of non-contact type pick-ups (magnetic or
photoelectric).

7. To measure the stress & strain using strain gauges mounted on simply supported beam/cantilever beam.

8. To measure static/dynamic pressure of fluid in pipe/tube using pressure transducer/pressure cell.

9. To test experimental data for Normal Distribution using Chi Square test.

10. Vibration measurement.

11. To study various types of measurement Error

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Course Outcomes (COs)

Upon successful completion of the course, the students will be able to:

C220.1: To understand about the applications of measurement systems

C220.2: To understand about the basics and working principle of pressure, temperature and flow measurement.

C220.3: Identify the different variation of measurement parameter with various input conditions.

C220.4: To analyze the primary, secondary and tertiary measurements.

C220.5: To learn about the various control devices and parts of measurement systems

CO-PO Mapping
COs/POs PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PO13 PO14 PO15 PO16
C220.1 3 3 3 - 2 - 3 3 3 2 - 3 3 - - 3
C220.2 - 2 - 2 2 3 - - 2 3 3 - - 2 3
C220.3 3 - 3 3 2 3 - - 3 - 3 - 3 3 -
C220.4 3 - 3 - 3 - 3 3 - 2 - 3 3 3 2 3
C220.5 3 3 - 3 - 3 - 2 3 2 3 - 3 3 2 3

CO-PSO Mapping
PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

C220.1 3 3 -
C220.2 2 3 -

C220.3 2 3 -
C220.4 3 2 3
C220.5 3 3 3

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Course Overview
Instrumentation and Control is a multidisciplinary subject that focuses on the principles, techniques, and
applications of measuring and controlling physical variables in various engineering systems. It plays a
crucial role in fields such as chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and
industrial automation. Throughout the course, students are typically exposed to hands-on laboratory work,
simulation exercises, and case studies to reinforce theoretical concepts and develop practical skills in
instrumentation and control. The course aims to equip students with the knowledge and skills required to
design, analyze, and maintain instrumentation and control systems in various industrial settings.

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LIST OF THE EXPERIMENT mapped with COs

Sr. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT COs

NO
.
1. To Study various Temperature Measuring Instruments and to Estimate their C220.2
Response times.
(a) Mercury – in glass thermometer
(b) Thermocouple

2. To study the working of Bourdon Pressure Gauge and to check the C220.2
calibration of the gauge in a deadweight pressure gauge calibration set up.

3. To study a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) and use it in a C220.1

simple experimental set up to measure a small displacement.
4. To measure load (tensile /compressive) using load cell on a tutor. C220.4

5. To measure torque of a rotating shaft using torsion meter/strain gauge torque C220.5
transducer.

6. To measure the speed of a motor shaft with the help of non –contact type C220.3
pick-ups (magnetic or photoelectric).
7. To measure the stress &strain using strain gauge mounted on cantilever C220.4
beam.

8. To measure the static/dynamics pressure of fluid in pipe/tube using pressure C220.3

transducer /pressure cell.

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DOs and DON’Ts

DOs
1. Work deliberately and carefully.
2. Keep your work area clean.
3. Students must wear college uniform and carry their college ID.
4. Students should have separate note book for practical.
5. Students should have their own pencil, eraser, scale, along with pen and lab note book.
6. Handle the equipment /models carefully.

DON’Ts
1. Do not wander around the room, distract other students, startle other students or interfere with the
laboratory experiments of others.
2. Do not eat food, drink beverages or chew gum in the laboratory.
3. Do not open any irrelevant internet sites on lab computer.

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General Safety Precautions

Precautions (In case of Injury or Electric Shock)
1. To break the victim with live electric source, use an insulator such as fire wood or plastic to break the
contact. Do not touch the victim with bare hands to avoid the risk of electrifying yourself.
2. Unplug the risk of faulty equipment. If main circuit breaker is accessible, turn the circuit off.
3. If the victim is unconscious, start resuscitation immediately, use your hands to press the chest in and out
to continue breathing function. Use mouth-to-mouth resuscitation if necessary.
4. Immediately call medical emergency and security. Remember! Time is critical; be best.

Precautions (In case of Fire)

1. Turn the equipment off. If power switch is not immediately accessible, take plug off.
2. If fire continues, try to curb the fire, if possible, by using the fire extinguisher or by covering it with a
heavy cloth, if possible, isolate the burning equipment from the other surrounding equipment.
3. Sound the fire alarm by activating the nearest alarm switch located in the hallway.

Emergency: Reception

Security : Main Gate

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Guidelines to students for report preparation

All students are required to maintain a record of the experiments conducted by them. Guidelines for its
preparation are as follows:
1) All files must contain a title page followed by an index page. The files will not be signed by the faculty
without an entry in the index page.

2) Student’s Name, Roll number and date of conduction of experiment must be written on all pages.

3) For each experiment, the record must contain the following

(i) Aim/Objective of the experiment
(ii) Pre-experiment work (as given by the faculty)
(iii) Lab assignment questions and their solutions
(iv) Test Cases (if applicable to the course)
(v) Results/ output
Note:
1. Students must bring their lab record along with them whenever they come for the lab.
2. Students must ensure that their lab record is regularly evaluated.

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Lab assessment criteria
An estimated 10 lab classes are conducted in a semester for each lab course. These lab classes areassessed
continuously. Each lab experiment is evaluated based on 5 assessment criteria as shown in following table.
Assessed performance in each experiment is used to compute CO attainment as well as internal marks in the lab
course.

GradingCriteria Exemplary (4) Competent (3) Needs Poor (1)

Improvement (2)

AC1: Complete procedure Underlined conceptis Not able to Underlined concept

Pre-Lab written with underlined written but procedure is writeconcept is not clearly
work (this may be concept is properly incomplete and procedure understood
assessed through written
viva)

AC2: Assigned problem is Assigned problem is Assigned problem Assigned

Manual Writing/ properly analyzed, properly analyzed, is properly problem is
Modeling correct solution correct solution analyzed &correct properly
designed, designed, appropriate solution designed analyzed and
appropriate language language constructs/ corrected
constructs/tools are tools are applied
applied,
Program/solution
written is readable
Able to identify Able to identify Unable to
AC3: errors and remove errors/and remove Is dependent understand the
Identification & them them with little bit of totallyon someone reason for errors
Removal of errors guidance for identification even after they
of errors and their are explicitly
removal pointed out

AC4:Execution & All variants of input Only few Solution is not well
Demonstration All variants of input /output are not variants of input demonstrated and
/output are tested, However, /output are implemented
tested,Solution solution is well tested, Solution is concept is not
is well demonstrated and well clearly explained
demonstrated implemented demonstrated but
and concept is clearly implemented
implemented explained concept is not
concept is clearly explained
clearlyexplained

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All assigned problems More than 70 % ofthe Less than 70 % of
AC5:Lab Record Less than 40 %
are well recorded assigned problems the assigned
Assessment of the assigned
with objective, are well recorded problems are well
design constructs and with objective, design recorded with problems are
solution along with contracts and objective, design well recorded
Performance analysis solution along with contracts and with objective,
using all variants of Performance analysis solution along with design
input and output is done with all Performance contracts and
variants ofinput and analysis is done solution along
output with all variants of with
input and output Performance
analysis is done
with all variants
ofinput and
output

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 Instrumentation and Control Lab (LC-ME 220G)
Experiment No: 1

Aim: To Study various Temperature Measuring Instruments and to Estimate their Response times.
(a) Mercury – in glass thermometer
(b) Thermocouple

Apparatus used: Mercury thermometer, Thermocouple setup, Platinum thermometer and Bi-
metallicstrip.

Theory:
(a) Mercury – in glass thermometer:

A liquid-in-glass thermometer is widely used due to its accuracy for the temperature range -200
to 600°C. Compared to other thermometers, it is simple and no other equipment beyond the
human eye is required. The LIG thermometer is one of the earliest thermometers. It has been
used in medicine, metrology and industry. In the LIG thermometer the thermally sensitive
element is a liquid contained in a graduated glass envelope. The principle used to measure
temperature is that of the apparent thermal expansion of the liquid. It is the difference between
the volumetric reversible thermal expansion of the liquid and its glass container that makes it
possible to measure temperature.
The liquid-in-glass thermometer comprises of
1. A bulb, a reservoir in which the working liquid can expand or contract in volume
2. A stem, a glass tube containing a tiny capillary connected to the bulb and enlarged at the bottom
into a bulb that is partially filled with a working liquid. The tube's bore is extremely small - less
than 0.02 inch (0.5 millimetre) in diameter
3. A temperature scale is fixed or engraved on the stem supporting the capillary tube to indicate the
range and the value of the temperature. It is the case for the precision thermometers whereas for
the low accurate thermometers such as industrial thermometer, the scale is printed on a separate
card and then protected from the environment. The liquid-in-glass thermometers is usually
calibrated against a standard thermometer and at the melting point of water
4. A reference point, a calibration point, the most common being the ice point
5. A working liquid, usually mercury or alcohol
6. An inert gas is used for mercury intended to high temperature. The thermometer is filled with an
inert gas such as argon or nitrogen above the mercury to reduce its volatilization.
The response of the thermometer depends on the bulb volume, bulb thickness, total weight and
type of thermometer. The sensitivity depends on the reversible thermal expansion of the liquid
compared to the glass. The greater the fluid expansion, the more sensitive the thermometer.
Mercury was the liquid the most often used because of its good reaction time, repeatability,
linear coefficient of expansion and large temperature range. But it is poisonous and so other
working liquids are used.

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Fig: Liquid in Glass Thermometer

A mercury-in-glass thermometer, also known as a mercury thermometer, consisting of

mercury in a glass tube. Calibrated marks on the tube allow the temperature to be read by the
length of the mercury within the tube, which varies according to the heat given to it. To increase
the sensitivity, there is usually a bulb of mercury at the end of the thermometer which contains
most of the mercury; expansion and contraction of this volume of mercury is then amplified in
the much narrower bore of the tube. The response time of the thermometer is nothing but as time
constant or the time of consideration for measuring particular temperature.

(b) Thermocouple:

Thermocouple rely on the physical principle that, when any two different Metals are connected
together, an e.m.f., which is a function of the temperature, is Generated at the junction between
the metals. The construction of a thermocouple is quite simple. It consists of two wires of
different metals twisted and brazed or welded together with each wire covered with insulation
.Thermocouples are manufactured from various combinations of the base metals copper and iron,
the base-metal alloys of alumel (Ni/Mn/Al/Si), chromel (Ni/Cr),constantan (Cu/Ni), nicrosil
(Ni/Cr/Si) and nisil (Ni/Si/Mn), the noble metals platinum and tungsten, and the noble-metal
alloys of platinum/rhodium and tungsten/rhenium. Only certain combinations of these are used
as thermocouples and each standard combination is known by an internationally recognized type
letter, for instance type K is chromel–alumel.

An electric current flows in a closed circuit of two dissimilar metals if their two junctions are at
different temperatures. The thermoelectric voltage produced depends on the metals used and on
the temperature relationship between the junctions. If the same temperature exists at the two
junctions, the voltage produced at each junction cancel each other out and no current flows in the
circuit. With different temperatures at each junction, different voltage is produced and current
flows in the circuit. A thermocouple can therefore only measure temperature differences between
the two junctions.

Fig: Thermocouple

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Thermocouples response time is measured as a “time constant.” The time constant is defined as
the time required for a thermocouple‟s voltage to reach 63.2% of its final value in response to a
sudden change in temperature. It takes five time constants for the voltage to approach 100% of
the new temperature value. Thermocouples attached to a heavy mass will respond much
slower than one that is left free standing
because its value is governed by the temperature of the large mass. A free standing (exposed or
bare wire) thermocouple‟s response time is a function of the wire size (or mass of the
thermocouple bead) and the conducting medium. A thermocouple of a given size will react much
faster if the conducting medium is water compared to still air.

Conclusion: Hence the study of various temperature measuring instruments and their response times is completed.

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Experiment -2

Aim: To study the working of Bourdon Pressure Gauge and to check the calibration of the gauge
in adeadweight pressure gauge calibration set up.

Apparatus used: Deadweight Pressure Gauge calibration set up

Theory: These are used for measurement of pressure and vacuum and are suitable for all clean
and non-clogging liquid and gaseous media. Bourdon gauge consists of a hollow metal tube
with an oval cross section, bent in the shape of a hook. One end of the tube is closed, the other
open and connected to the measurement region. If pressure (above local atmospheric pressure) is
applied, the oval cross section will become circular, and at the same time the tube will straighten
out slightly. The resulting motion of the closed end, proportional to the pressure, can then be
measured via a pointer or needle connected to the end through a suitable linkage.

Fig: Bourdan Tube Gauge

Fig: Bourdon Tube Designs

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Working of the Bourdon Pressure Gauge: In order to understand the working of the bourdon pressure
gauge, we need to consider a cross-section of the Bourdon tube, as shown in the figure.

Fig: Working of Bourdon Gauge

Assume that a pressure P, which is greater than the atmospheric pressure, acts on at the pressure
inlet ofthe gauge. According to the Pascal‟s Law, the pressure is transmitted equally in all
directions. Therefore, Pressure acting on the Inner Wall = Pressure acting on the Outer Wall.
Now,
Area of Outer Wall projected to the pressure = 2πRod

Therefore,
Force on Outer wall = Fo = Pressure x Area = 2PπRod

Similarly,
Force on Inner Wall = Fi = 2PπRid

Since, Ro>Ri then, Fo>Fi.

So, the force that tries to unwind the tube is greater than the force that tries to bend it further.
Therefore, the tube unwinds due to the extra pressure exerted on it. This unwinding is then
recorded on a scale by using a series of gears and a pointer.

Calibration is the name of the term applied to checking the accuracy or the working condition of
the concerned device. So, the calibration of Bourdon Pressure Gauge refers to the checking of its
accuracy or reliability in taking a reading. The apparatus used for this purpose is called the Dead-
Weight Gauge Tester.

Working of the Dead-Weight Gauge Tester: The working of this gauge tester can be understood easily
with the help of the following diagram.

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Fig: Dead-Weight Gauge Tester

In this figure gauge A and B are the ones to be calculated. We can at any stage disengage any
gauge byclosing the respective valve.
For the illustration purpose, we will just consider the calibration of Gauge A and assume that
valve B remains closed.

Let
Weight of Plunger = W
Cross-sectional Area of the stem of Plunger = A

Therefore,
Pressure exerted on the fluid = P = W/A

Now, according to Pascal‟s Law, pressure is transmitted equally in all direction. Therefore pressure
encountered at the inlet of Gauge A is the same as P

Now,
if Pressure registered by Gauge A = PA = P
within experimental limits, then the gauge is working properly. If not, then there is some
problem whichmust be detected and accounted for.

Procedure:

1. Fix the gauge to be tested on one end of the Dead-Weight Gauge tester and make sure that the valve
is fully opened. Meanwhile close the other valve tightly so that no leakage of fluid is ensured.
2. Next, gently place the plunger in the tester ensuring that the plunger should not touch the edges of the
bowl. Allow some time for the system to attain equilibrium, than take the reading from the gauge.
Record both the applied and registered pressure in a table of values. Now, remove the plunger and
once again after some time record the reading on the gauge. Record it in the table.
3. Now place some weights on the plunger so that the applied pressure is varied. Then, repeat the above
mentioned procedure until there are at least six readings. Record them all in the table.

Conclusion: Hence the working of Bourdon Pressure Gauge and checking of calibration on a
deadweight pressure gauge is completed.

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Experiment No: 3

Aim: To study a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) and use it in a simple
experimental set up to measure a small displacement.

Apparatus used: LVDT setup

Theory: The letters LVDT are an acronym for Linear Variable Differential Transformer, a
common typeof electromechanical transducer that can convert the rectilinear motion of an
object to which it is coupled mechanically into a corresponding electrical signal. LVDT linear
position sensors are readily available that can measure movements as small as a few millionths
of an inch up to several inches, but are also capable of measuring positions up to ±20 inches
(±0.5 m). The transformer's internal structure consists ofa primary winding centered between a
pair of identically wound secondary windings, symmetrically spaced about the primary. The
coils are wound on a one-piece hollow form of thermally stable glass reinforced polymer,
encapsulated against moisture, wrapped in a high permeability magnetic shield, and then
secured in cylindrical stainless steel housing. This coil assembly is usually the stationary
element ofthe position sensor. The moving element of an LVDT is a separate tubular armature
of magnet i cal l
y permeable material called the core, which is free to move axially within the coil's hollow bore,
and mechanically coupled to the object whose position is being measured. This bore is typically
large enough to provide substantial radial clearance between the core and bore, with no physical
contact between it and the coil.

Fig: LVDT

The device consists of a primary coil, two secondary coils, and a moveable magnetic core which
is connected to an external device whose position is of interest. A sinusoidal excitation is applied

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to the primary coil, which couples with the secondary coils through the magnetic core (ie.
voltages are induced in the secondary coils). The position of the magnetic core determines the
strength of coupling between the primary and each of the secondary cores, and the difference
between the voltages generated across each of the secondary cores is proportional to the
displacement of the core from the neutral position, or null point.

Fig: LVDT Principle

Merits: -

1. It has been infinite resolution.

2. No sliding parts, so some reliable device.
3. Output impedance of LVDT remains constant.
4. It has low hysterias & a good repeatability.
5. It consumes very less power.
6. Good frequency response.
7. It has almost linear characteristic.
8. It can tolerate shock & vibration.

Demerits: -

1. Sensitive to stay magnetic field.

2. Relatively large displacement required.
3. Sometimes, the transducer performance is affective by the vibration.

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Application: -
LVDT are suitable for use in applications where the displacements are too large for strain gauge
to handle. There are often employed together other transducers for measurement of force, weight
pressure etc.

Procedure:

1. Arrange all the instruments respectively.

2. Set micrometer at predefined place.
3. With the help of span knob adjust the zero reading
4. Rotate the micrometer knob and note the micrometer displacement.
5. Measure the value of voltage from Digital Voltmeter.
6. Repeat the procedure.
7. Plot the graph (Displacement vs Voltage)
8. Make an unknown displacement and find corresponding voltage.
9. Find the unknown displacement from the graph for voltage.

Observations & Calculations:

S. No Displacement (mm) Voltage

Vi Vf V=Vf-Vi
1
2
3
4
5
6 Unknown

Graph:

Precautions:

1. All connections should be neat and clean.

2. Micrometer should be maintained properly.
3. Voltmeter should show reading accurately.

Conclusion: Graph between voltage and displacement is plotted. Hence, from graph, the
measurement of a unknown displacement using LVDT is .

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Experiment No: 4

Aim: To measure (tensile/compressive )using load cell on a tutor.

Apparatus used: Load cell on a tutor.

Theory: A Load Cell is defined as a transducer that converts an input mechanical force into an
electrical output signal. Load Cells are also commonly known as Load Transducers or Load
Sensors.

Load cell designs can be distinguished according to the type of output signal generated
(pneumatic,hydraulic, electric) or according to the way they detect weight (bending, shear,
compression, tension, etc.)

1. Diaphragm gauges: Diaphragm gauges is a thin plate of circular shape clamped firmly around its
edges. The diaphragm gets deflected in accordance with the pressure differential across the sides,
deflection being towards the law pressure side. The deflection can be sensed by an appropriate
displacement transducer i.e. it may be converted into electrical signal or may undergo in mechanical
amplification to permit display of the O/P of an indicator dial.

These are two basic types of diaphragms element design.

a. Metallic diaphragm which depends upon its own resilience for its operation.
b. Non-metallic or stuck diaphragm which employs a soft-flexible material with no elastic
characteristics. The movements of the diaphragm are opposed by a spring which determines
the deflection for given pressure.
The general requirement of the diaphragm are :

1. Dimensions and total load must be comparable with physical properties of intermediate
used.
2. Flexibility must be such as to provides the sensitivity required by secondary transducer.
3. Volume of displacement should be minimize to provide the reasonable dynamic response.
4. Natural frequency of diaphragm should be sufficiently high to provide satisfactory
frequency response.
5. The O / P should be linear.
6. The diaphragm to response linearly its maximum deflection „y‟ should be less than 1/3
of its thickness.
The deflection for diaphragm is given by
1 2
y R2 r2
2
3
Where P =
Pressure P
16 Et2

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= Poisson‟s ratio
E = Modules of elasticity of diaphragm.
R = radius of diaphragm
r = radius at point of interest
The natural frequency of diaphragm should be high enough for good dynamic response.

Advantages of Diaphragm :
Relatively small size and moderate cost.
1. Capability to withstand high over pressure and maintain good linearity over a wide range.
2. Availability of gauges for absolute and differential pressure.
3. Minimum of hysteretic k no permanent zero shift.

Disadvantages of diaphragm pressure cell:

1. Need protection from shock and vibration.
2. Cannot be used to measure high pressure & is difficult to repair.

Application of diaphragm pressure cell:

Typical applications are low pressure- absolute pressure gauges and many types of recorders and
controllers operating in low range of direct or diff. pressure.

2. Hydraulic load cells are force -balance devices, measuring weight as a change in pressure of the
internal filling fluid. In a rolling diaphragm type hydraulic load cell, a load or force acting on a
loading head is transferred to a piston that in turn compresses a filling fluid confined within an
elastomeric diaphragm chamber. As force increases, the pressure of the hydraulic fluid rises. This
pressure can be locally indicated or transmitted for remote indication or control. Output is linear and
relatively unaffected by the amount of the filling fluid or by its temperature. If the load cells have
been properly installed and calibrated, accuracy can be within 0.25% full scale or better, acceptable
for most process weighing applications. Because this sensor has no electric components, it is ideal for
use in hazardous areas. Typical hydraulic load cell applications include tank, bin, and hopper
weighing. For maximum accuracy, the weight of the tank should be obtained by locating one load cell
at each point of support and summing their outputs.

Fig: Hydraulic Load Cell

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3. Pneumatic load cells also operate on the force-balance principle. These devices use multiple
dampener chambers to provide higher accuracy than can a hydraulic device. In some designs, the first
dampener chamber is used as a tare weight chamber. Pneumatic load cells are often used to measure
relatively small weights in industries where cleanliness and safety are of prime concern. The
advantages of this type of load cell include their being inherently explosion proof and insensitive to
temperature variations. Additionally, they contain no fluids that might contaminate the process if the
diaphragm ruptures. Disadvantages include relatively slow speed of response and the need for clean,
dry, regulated air or nitrogen.

Fig. Pneumatic Load Cell

4. Elastic type devices
a. Mechanical Method

Fig: Proving Ring

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b. Electromechanical Methods:
i. LVDT type force transducer
ii. Strain Gauge type force transducer
1. Cantilever type load cell
2. Ring type load cell
3. Cylindrical type load cell

Fig. LVDT type Force Transducer

5. Strain-gauge load cells convert the load acting on them into electrical signals. The gauges
themselves are bonded onto a beam or structural member that deforms when weight is applied. In
most cases, four strain gages are used to obtain maximum sensitivity and temperature compensation.
Two of the gauges are usually in tension, and two in compression, and are wired with compensation.
When weight is applied, the strain changes the electrical resistance of the gauges in proportion to the
load. Other load cells are fading into obscurity, as strain gage load cells continue to increase their
accuracy and lower their unit costs.

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Fig. Ring type Load cell

Fig. Cantilever type Load cell

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Fig. Strain Gauge Load Cell

Fig. Quarter-bridge strain gauge circuit Fig. Half-bridge strain gauge circuit

Fig. Full-bridge strain gauge circuit

Both half-bridge and full-bridge configurations grant greater sensitivity over the quarter-
bridge circuit, but often it is not possible to bond complementary pairs of strain gauges to the
test specimen. Thus, the quarter-bridge circuit is frequently used in strain measurement
systems.

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Changed voltage obtained can be used for measuring the applied load, where change in voltage
is givenby
dR V
dV 2 1
0
R 4

where V is applied source and dV0 is changed output

voltage. R = resistance of gauges = Rg1 = Rg2 = Rg3 = Rg4
Uses:
Strain Gauge Load cells can be used in
1. Road Vehicle weighing devices
2. Draw bar and tool-force dynamometers
3. Crane load monitoring, etc.
Procedure:

1. Make setup of load cell and tutor.

2. Place weight on the load cell.
3. Note down the reading given by tutor separately for compression and tension.
4. Take 8-10 readings by increasing weight.
5. Compare actual weight & weight given by tutor.

Conclusion:
1. Actual tensile & compression loads are & .
2. Tutor tensile & compression loads are & .

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Experiment No: 5
Aim: To measure torque of a rotating shaft using torsion meter/strain gauge torque transducer.

Apparatus used: Torsion meter/strain gauge torque transducer.

Theory:

Torque is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. (or)
Torque is defined as a force around a given point, applied at a radius from that point.
An engine produces power by providing a rotating shaft which can exert a given amount of
torque on aload at a given rpm. The amount of torque the engine can exert usually varies with
rpm.

Facts about calculations:

1. Power (the rate of doing work) is dependent on torque and rpm.

2. Torque and rpm are the measured quantities of engine output.
3. Power is calculated from torque and rpm, by the following equation: P = Torque x RPM

The power transmitted can be calculated from the torque, using the equation
P=ωT

where,

P is the power (in watts), T is torque (N m), and ω is angular speed (rad / s).

The deflection measuring system is called torsion meter. An instrument for determining the
torque on a shaft, and hence the horse power of an engine by measuring the amount of twist of a
given length of the shaft. When a shaft is connected between a driving engine and driven load, a
twist (angular displacement) occurs on the shaft between its ends. This angle of twist is measured
and calibrated in terms of torque.

Devices used for power measurement are also known as dynamometers and may be classified
into three types, depending on the nature of machine arrangement, for which torque or power is
to be measured. Thethree types are: -
1. Transmission type dynamometers, in which the power being transmitted through the device is
measured. The device is neither a power generator nor a power absorber and is used on the shaft
transmitting power, between the prime mover and the load.
2. Driving type dynamometer, in which drive is obtained from the dynamometer itself or the
dynamometer is the power generator like an electric motor.
3. Absorption type dynamometer, in which mechanical energy is absorbed after it is measured. The
power generator may be an engine or a motor.

Construction of mechanical torsion meter: The main parts of the mechanical torsion meter are

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as follows: A shaft which has two drums and two flanges mounted on its ends as shown in the
diagram. One drum carries a pointer and other drum has a torque calibrated scale. A stroboscope
is used to take readings on a rotating shaft.

Operation of mechanical torsion meter: One end of the shaft of the torsion meter is connected
to the driving engine and its other end to the driven load. An angle of twist is experienced by the
shaft along its
length between the two flanges which is proportional to the torque applied to the shaft. A
measure of this angle of twist becomes a measure of torque when calibrated. The angular twist
caused is observed on the torque calibrated scale corresponding to the position of the pointer. As
the scale on the drum is rotating, reading cannot be taken directly. Hence a stroboscope is used.
The stroboscope‟s flashing light is made to fall on the scale and the flashing frequency is
adjusted till a stationary image is obtained. Then the scale reading is noted.

Fig. Mechanical Torsion Meter

The strain monitoring system is called torque meter (or) strain gauge torque transducer.
A Torque sensor is a transducer that converts a torsional mechanical input into an electrical
output signal. Torque Sensor, are also commonly known as a Torque Transducer.
Torque is measured by either sensing the actual shaft deflection caused by a twisting force, or by
detecting the effects of this deflection. The surface of a shaft under torque will experience
compression and tension, as shown in figure below.

Fig: Strain Gauge Torque Transducer

To measure torque, strain gage elements usually are mounted in pairs on the shaft, one gauge
measuring the increase in length (in the direction in which the surface is under tension), the other
measuring the decrease in length in the other direction.
A strain gage can be installed directly on a shaft. Because the shaft is rotating, the torque sensor

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can be connected to its power source and signal conditioning electronics via a slip ring. The
strain gage also can be connected via a transformer, eliminating the need for high maintenance
slip rings. The excitation voltage for the strain gage is inductively coupled, and the strain gage
output is converted to a modulated pulse frequency as shown in figure. Maximum speed of such
an arrangement is 15,000 rpm.

Fig: Strain Gauge Working

Procedure:

1. Arrange all the instruments respectively.

2. With the help of Set knob adjust the zero reading.
3. Set the range with the help of Span knob.
4. Place the weight in the pan.
5. Measure the value of voltage from Digital Voltmeter.
6. Repeat the procedure.
7. Compare actual and displaced values.
8. Plot the graph (Voltage vs Torque).
9. Place unknown mass and measure the voltage.
10. Obtain the value of torque from the graph for the obtained voltage.

Observations & Calculations:

Mass Voltage
Torque generated
S. No
(gms) (kg-cm f or N-m)
Vi Vf V=Vi-Vf
1
2
3
4
5
6 Unknown Unknown

Conclusion: Hence the torque obtained for the unknown weight is N-m.

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Experiment No: 6

Aim: To measure the speed of a motor shaft with the help of non-contact type pick-ups (magnetic or
photoelectric).

Apparatus used: Optical pick up

Theory:

Magnetic pickup tachometer: A coil wounded on permanent magnet, not on iron core, enable
us to measure rotational speed of the systems. In the construction of variable reluctance sensor,
we use ferromagnetic gearwheel. As the gearwheel rotates, change in magnetic flux take place in
the pickup coil which further induces voltage. This change in magnitude is proportional to the
voltage induced in the sensor.

Fig. Magnetic pickup

reading of digital meter
Number of pulses per second=
gating period

Speed = number of pulses per second

number of teeth

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Photo-electric tachometer: It consists of a opaque disc mounted on the shaft whose speed is to
be measured. The disc has a number of equivalent holes around the periphery. On one side of the
disc, there is a source of light (L) while on the other side there is a light sensor (may be a
photosensitive device or photo-tube) in line with it (light-source).

On the rotation of the disc, holes and opaque portions of the disc come alternately in between the
light source and the light sensor. When a hole comes in between the two, light passes through the
holes and falls on the light sensor, with the result that an output pulse is generated. But when the
opaque portion of the disc comes in between, the light from the source is blocked and hence
there is no pulse output.

Thus whenever a hole comes in line with the light source and sensor, a pulse is generated. These
pulses are counted/ measured through an electronic counter.

The number of pulses generated depends upon the following factors:

i. The number of holes in the disc;

ii. The shaft speed.
Since the number of holes is fixed, therefore, the number of pulses generated depends on the
speed of the shaft only. The electronic counter may therefore be calibrated in terms of speed
(r.p.m.)

Fig. Photo-electric tachometer

Stroboscope: The instrument operates on the principle that if a repeating event is only viewed
when at one particular point in its cycle it appears to be stationary. A mark is made on rotating
shaft, and a flashing light is subjected on the shaft. The frequency of the flashing is one very
short flash per revolution.

To determine the shaft speed we increases the frequency of flashing gradually from small value
until the rotating shaft appears to be stationary, then note the frequency. The frequency then

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doubled, if there is still one apparent stationary image, the frequency is again doubled. This
continued until two images appear 180 degrees apart. When first appear for these two images the
flash frequency is twice the speed of rotation.

Stroboscopes are used to measure angular speed between 600 to 20000 rpm. Its advantage is that
it doesn‟t need to make contact with the rotating shaft.

Fig. Shaft speed measurement using Stroboscope

Finding exact value of speed: Single line image is obtained by adjusting the stroboscope at its
highest flashing frequency (fm). The flashing rate is gradually reduced and the flashing
frequencies are noted for all single line images (m different flashing rates).

fm f1 m 1
N
fm f1
If the shaft rotates at speed slightly higher than the primary speed, the pattern appears to rotate
slowly forward. On the other hand, If the shaft rotates at speed slightly less than the primary
speed, the pattern appears to rotate in the reverse direction to that of the direction of rotation of
shaft.

Advantages:
1. Imposes no load on the shaft hence no power loss.
2. Non-contact type hence, no attachments needed.
3. Convenient to use for spot checks on machinery speeds and laboratory work.
Disadvantages:
1. The variable frequency oscillator circuit cannot be stabilized to give a fixed
frequency hence less accurate than digital meters.
2. Cannot be used where ambient light is above a certain level.
3. Requires well defined lighting conditions for efficient operations
4. Errors are caused due to slight variation in the frequency.

Pickups: There are electric tachometer consists of a transducer which converts rotational speed
into an electrical signal coupled to an indicator. The transducer produces an electrical signal in

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proportion to speed. The signal may be in the analog form or in the form of pulses. Tachometer
or pickups of this type produce pulses form a rotating shaft without being mechanically
connected to it. As the energy produced by these devices is not sufficient to actual an indicator
directly, amplifiers of sufficient sensitivity are employed. The various types of non-contact pick-
ups are optical pickups or photoelectric or photoconductive cell.
 Inductive pick up
 Capacitive pick up

Here we will measure the speed by optical pick up. As they don‟t have moving parts so speed up
to 3 million rpm. These are available in a variety of designs using the principle of shaft rotation
to interrupt a beam of light falling on a photoelectric or photo conductive cell. The pulse thus
obtained are first amplified & then either fed to an electric counter, or shaped to an along signal
and connected to the indicator. A bright white spot is made on the rotating shaft. A beam of light
originating from the tachometer case hits the white spot & the reflected light falls on
photoconductive cell inside the case, producing pulse in transistorized amplifier, which is turn,
causes the indicator to deflect which is measure of speed of the shaft.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit & CRO with the required apparatus & switch on the supply.
2. Adjust the speed of the DC motor by the knob and wait for some time till the motor attains the
maximum speed at corresponding knob position.
3. Measure the frequency (f) from output wave on CRO.
4. Find the speed of the motor by the given formula.
Observation Table:
S. No RPM Sensor Display reading
1
2
3

Sample Calculations: - At knob position (A)

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frequency (from CRO) Diameter of disk

Speed (rpm) of DC Motor =
No. of Segments
f d
N (rpm) =
S
Where f =
1/t Where
t = time period of one cycle of output
wave &t = 1.8 x 2 ms = 3.6 x 10-3 s [on
CRO] and
f 1/ t 1 3 2.78 102 s 1

3.6 1
0
d = 56.5mm.

Therefore, R.P.M = 2.78 x 102 x 56.5/ 60 = 262 rpm

Conclusion: Hence the Speed of position „A‟ = 262 rpm

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Experiment No: 7
Aim: To measure the stress & strain using strain gauges mounted on cantilever beam.

Apparatus used: Strain gauge Kit, cantilever beam weights, multimeter.

Theory:

When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and strain are the result. Stress is
defined as the object's internal resisting forces, and strain is defined as the displacement and
deformation that occur. For a uniform distribution of internal resisting forces, stress can be
calculated by dividing the force (F) applied by the unit area (A). Strain is defined as the amount
of deformation per unit length of an object when a load is applied. Strain is calculated by
dividing the total deformation of the original length by the original length (L).

Fig: Stress - Strain Concept

Fundamentally, all strain gauges are designed to convert mechanical motion into an electronic
signal. A change in capacitance, inductance, or resistance is proportional to the strain
experienced by the sensor. If a wire is held under tension, it gets slightly longer and its cross-
sectional area is reduced. This changes its resistance (R) in proportion to the strain sensitivity (S)
of the wire's resistance. When a strain is introduced, the strain sensitivity, which is also called the
gauge factor (GF), is given by:
GF= (∆R/R)/(∆L/L)

There are many types of strain gauges. Among them, a universal strain gauge has a structure
such that a grid-shaped sensing element of thin metallic resistive foil (3 to 6µm thick) is put on a
base of thin plastic film (15 to 16µm thick) and is laminated with a thin film.

Fig: Strain Gauge

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The strain gauge is tightly bonded to a measuring object so that the sensing element (metallic
resistive foil) may elongate or contract according to the strain borne by the measuring object.
When bearing mechanical elongation or contraction, most metals undergo a change in electric
resistance. The strain gauge applies this principle to strain measurement through the resistance
change. Generally, the sensing
element of the strain gauge is made of a copper-nickel alloy foil. The alloy foil has a rate of
resistance change proportional to strain with a certain constant.

Procedure:

1. Arrange the cantilever beam, ammeter and voltmeter as shown in figure.

2. After this, put the weight on the rod of cantilever beam.
3. Measure the digital display reading for a particular weight.
4. Measure the value of ammeter (along) and voltmeter reading (micro-volt)
5. Increase the strength of weight.
6. Repeat the steps for increased weight.
7. Measure all dimensions of scale of cantilever.
8. Plot a graph between R and strain
R 0 (ε).
1

 
9. Find Gauge Factor (GF) by finding the inverse of the slope i.e. ..

 R 
 R
10. Mark R on the graph and use Gauge Factor to find strain. 
R0

Observations & Calculations:

S. No. Load (gms) Resistance R Strain (ε)

Ro Rf ΔR=Rf-R0 R0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 Unknown -
l
Strain theoretical
6PL for cantilever type Elastic Member

l Ebt2

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exp erimental R/R0

Gauge Factor (GF )

Modulus of Elasticity E Stress Strain

Stress E Strain E e

Depending upon the beam used in apparatus force stress and strain values varies accordingly
with simplysupported or cantilever beam terminology.

Conclusion: Stress and Strain induced in cantilever are N/mm2 and respectively.

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Experiment No: 8
Aim: To measure static/dynamic pressure of fluid in pipe/tube using pressure transducer/pressure cell.

Apparatus used: Pressure transducer Kit, multimeter etc.

Theory:

Pressure is defined as force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its surroundings. A pressure
measurement can be described as either static or dynamic. The pressure in cases where no
motion is occurring is referred to as static pressure. Examples of static pressure include the
pressure of the air inside a balloon or water inside a basin. Often times, the motion of a fluid
changes the force applied to its surroundings. Such a pressure measurement is known as
dynamic pressure measurement. For example, the pressure inside a balloon or at the bottom of a
water basin would change as air is let out of the balloon or as water is poured out of the basin.

Because of the great variety of conditions, ranges, and materials for which pressure must be
measured, there are many different types of pressure sensor designs. Often pressure can be
converted to some intermediate form, such as displacement. The sensor then converts this
displacement into an electrical output such as voltage or current. The three most universal types
of pressure transducers of this form are the strain gage, variable capacitance, and piezoelectric.

Fig: Pressure Transducer

Procedure:

1. Firstly arrange the pressure transducer, Multimeter, Voltmeter.

2. After that increase the pressure in the pressure transducer.
3. Set the readings of pressure transducer on a particular reading.
4. Now note the display reading on Kit.
5. Also note the voltmeter & ammeter readings.
6. Repeat the numbers of reading with different pressure on transducer.
7. Compare the value of pressure applied on transducer & display readings.

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Observations & Calculations:

Theoretically,
P=ρg∆H Where,
ρ=density of water in
pipe g=acceleration due
to gravity
∆H=change in head

Conclusion: Hence the pressure of the fluid in pipe is .

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