Fundamentals of IOT(FIOT)

Chapter 3:
IOT Communication Protocols
Messaging Protocols:
MQTT:

Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, or MQTT, is a communications protocol designed for

Internet of Things devices with extremely high latency and restricted low bandwidth. Message
Queuing Telemetry Transport is a perfect protocol for machine-to-machine (M2M)
communication since it is designed specifically for low-bandwidth, high-latency settings.

What is Message Queue Telemetry Transport Protocol(MQTT)?

MQTT is a simple, lightweight messaging protocol used to establish communication between
multiple devices. It is a TCP-based protocol relying on the publish-subscribe model. This
communication protocol is suitable for transmitting data between resource-constrained devices
having low bandwidth and low power requirements. Hence this messaging protocol is widely
used for communication in the IoT Framework.
This model involves multiple clients interacting with each other, without having any direct
connection established between them. All clients communicate with other clients only via a
third party known as a Broker.

MQTT Client and Broker

Clients publish messages on different topics to brokers. The broker is the central server that
receives these messages and filters them based on their topics. It then sends these messages to
respective clients that have subscribed to those different topics. The heart of any
publish/subscribe protocol is the MQTT broker. A broker can handle up to thousands of
concurrently connected MQTT customers, depending on how it is implemented. All
communications must be received by the broker, who will then sort them, ascertain who
subscribed to each one, and deliver the messages to the clients who have subscribed. All
persistent customers' sessions, including missed messages and subscriptions, are likewise kept
by the Broker. Hence client that has subscribed to a specific topic receives all messages
published on that topic.
Here the broker is central hub that receives messages, filters them, and distributes them to
appropriate clients, such that both message publishers, as well as subscribers, are clients.
MQTT Architecture:

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Working of MQTT
MQTT's publish/subscribe (pub/sub) communication style, which aims to maximise available
bandwidth, is an alternative to conventional client-server architecture that communicates directly
with an endpoint. In contrast, the client who transmits the message (the publisher) and the client
or clients who receive it (the subscribers) are not connected in the pub/sub paradigm. Third
parties—the brokers—manage the relationships between the publishers and subscribers because
they don't communicate with one another directly.
Publishers and subscribers, which denote whether a client is publishing messages or has
subscribed to receive messages, are examples of MQTT clients. The same MQTT client can be
used to accomplish these two features. A publish occurs when a client or device want to submit
data to a server or broker.
The term "subscribe" refers to the reversal of the procedure. Several clients can connect to a
broker under the pub/sub paradigm and subscribe to subjects that interest them.
When a broker and a subscribing client lose contact, the broker will store messages in a buffer
and send them to the subscriber whenever the broker is back up and running. The broker has the
right to cut off communication with subscribers and send them a cached message containing
publisher instructions if the publishing client abruptly disconnects from the broker.
"Publishers send the messages, subscribers receive the messages they are interested in, and
brokers pass the messages from the publishers to the subscribers," reads an IBM write-up
describing the pub/sub paradigm. MQTT clients, such as publishers and subscribers, can only
speak with MQTT brokers. Any device or programme that runs a MQTT library can be a MQTT
client, ranging from microcontrollers like the Arduino to entire application servers housed in the
cloud.

MQTT Broker and its functions:

An MQTT broker in IoT is a central hub that manages message routing between devices
(publishers) and applications (subscribers) using a publish/subscribe model. It enables real-time

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data transmission, such as a temperature sensor publishing data to home/livingroom/temp, which

a mobile app subscribes to. Common examples include HiveMQ, EMQX, AWS IoT Core, and
Mosquitto.
Eclipse Mosquitto: Widely used on Raspberry Pi, edge devices, and small-to-medium
deployments due to its lightweight nature.
EMQX: Designed for high-performance, massive scalability (millions of connections), and
enterprise needs.
VerneMQ: Known for high-performance distributed messaging.
HiveMQ Cloud: A managed broker designed for IoT data scaling.
Azure IoT Hub: Provides secure, bi-directional communication for IoT devices.

Characteristics of MQTT
 Lightweight: MQTT is designed to be lightweight, making it suitable for use in aid-
restrained environments inclusive of embedded systems and low-strength devices. The
protocol minimizes bandwidth and processing overhead, enabling green communication even
on restricted networks.
 Publish-Subscribe Model: In the publish-subscribe version, clients (publishers) send
messages to subjects, and different clients (subscribers) acquire messages from subjects of
interest. This decoupling of producers and purchasers permits for flexible and dynamic
conversation styles.
 Quality of Service (QoS) Levels: MQTT supports exclusive stages of message delivery
warranty, referred to as Quality of Service (QoS). QoS levels range from 0 to 2, providing
various stages of reliability and message transport guarantees, relying at the utility
necessities.
 Retained Messages: MQTT lets in agents to store retained messages on topics, making sure
that new subscribers acquire the maximum latest message posted on a subject right now after
subscribing. This characteristic is beneficial for fame updates and configuration settings.
 Last Will and Testament (LWT): MQTT clients can specify a Last Will and Testament
message to be posted by way of the broker in the occasion of an sudden consumer disconnect.
This function affords a mechanism for detecting patron failures and dealing with them
gracefully.
 Security: MQTT helps various protection mechanisms, consisting of Transport Layer
Security (TLS) encryption and authentication mechanisms which include username/password
and consumer certificates. These capabilities make certain the confidentiality, integrity, and
authenticity of messages exchanged over MQTT connections.
Advantages of MQTT
This model is not restricted to one-to-one communication between clients. Although the
publisher client sends a single message on specific topic, broker sends multiple messages to all
different clients subscribed to that topic. Similarly, messages sent by multiple such publisher
clients on multiple different topics will be sent to all multiple clients subscribed to those
topics. Hence one-to-many, many-to-one, as well as many-to-many communication is possible
using this model. Also, clients can publish data and at the same time receive data due to this two-
way communication protocol. Hence MQTT is considered to be bi-directional protocol. The

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default unencrypted MQTT port used for data transmission is 1883. The encrypted port for
secure transmission is 8883.
 Lightweight protocol that is quick to create and allows for efficient data transport
 Minimal data packet usage, resulting in low network usage
 Effective data dispersion
 The effective use of remote sensing and control
 Prompt and effective message delivery
 Minimises power consumption, which is beneficial for the linked devices, and maximises
network capacity.
 Data transmission is quick, efficient, and lightweight because MQTT messages have small
code footprint. These control messages have a fixed header of size 2 bytes and payload
message up to size 256 megabytes.
Disadvantages of MQTT
 When compared to Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP), MQTT has slower send cycles.
 Resource discovery in MQTT is based on flexible topic subscription, while resource
discovery in CoAP is based on a reliable system.
 MQTT lacks encryption. Rather, security encryption is accomplished by TLS/SSL (Transport
Layer Security/Secure Sockets Layer).
 Building an internationally scalable MQTT network is challenging.

XMPP Protocol:

The Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) is an open-standard, XML-based

technology used in IoT for real-time, secure, and bidirectional communication between devices,
servers, and applications. Ideal for smart home and industrial automation, it enables
publish/subscribe, device discovery, and status monitoring (presence).

Key Aspects of XMPP in IoT:

 Real-Time Data Exchange: XMPP provides efficient, near-real-time streaming of XML

data, allowing for instant command and control.

 Presence Awareness: It natively supports monitoring the state (online/offline/busy) of

connected IoT devices

 PubSub (Publish/Subscribe): XMPP includes a robust PubSub extension that allows

sensors to publish data, which is then distributed to authorized subscribers, ideal for data
telemetry.

 Security & Scalability: XMPP offers strong, built-in security features, including TLS
encryption, and supports decentralized architectures, making it suitable for distributed
IoT networks.

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 Addressing: Devices are identified using Jabber Identifiers (JIDs), which resemble email
addresses, facilitating easy routing.

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XMPP architecture:

In IoT applications, the XMPP architecture enables real-time communication between smart
devices, servers, and users over the Internet. In this system, IoT devices such as ESP8266,
ESP32, or Raspberry Pi act as XMPP clients that connect to an XMPP server through a network
connection. The XMPP server performs important functions such as device authentication,
message routing, and presence management (online/offline status). Sensor data, alerts, and status
updates are sent from the IoT device to the server, and control commands are sent back from the
server to the device. To support communication with other systems, an XMPP gateway is used.

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This gateway acts as a protocol translator, allowing integration with services like SMS and
SMTP. For example, if a gas leakage or fire is detected, the IoT device sends an alert to the
XMPP server, which then forwards it through the gateway to an SMS server or an email server
so that the user receives a notification via SMS or email. This multi-protocol integration ensures
reliable and flexible communication. Therefore, XMPP-based architecture is suitable for IoT
systems because it supports real-time messaging, remote monitoring, interoperability, scalability,
and secure communication over the Internet.

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Transport Protocol:
BLE(Bluetooth Low Energy):

Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) is a low-power, short-range wireless protocol operating in the 2.4
GHz ISM band, designed specifically for IoT devices to exchange small data amounts while
running on minimal battery (0.01–0.5 W). It features rapid connection/disconnection, high
interoperability, and supports mesh networking, making it ideal for wearables, smart homes, and
industrial sensors

BLE PROTOCOL STACK ARCHITECTURE:

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Figure sh ows the

Bluetooth low
energy protocol stack architecture.

The Bluetooth low energy protocol stack (or protocol stack) consists of the controller and the
host. This separation of controller and host derives from the implementation of classic Bluetooth
BR/EDR devices, where the two sections are implemented separately. Any profiles and
applications sit on top of the GAP and GATT layers of the protocol stack.

The physical layer (PHY) is a 1-Mbps adaptive frequency-hopping GFSK (Gaussian frequency-
shift keying) radio operating in the unlicensed 2.4-GHz ISM (industrial, scientific, and medical)
band.

The Generic Access Profile (GAP) controls the RF state of the device, with the device in one of
five states:

 Standby

 Advertising

 Scanning

 Initiating

 Connected

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Advertisers transmit data without connecting, while scanners scan for advertisers. An initiator is
a device that responds to an advertiser with a request to connect. If the advertiser accepts the
connection request, both the advertiser and initiator enter a connected state. When a device is
connected, it connects as either master or slave. The device initiating the connection becomes the
master and the device accepting the request becomes the slave.

The HCI layer provides communication between the host and controller through a standardized
interface. This layer can be implemented either through a software API or by a hardware
interface such as UART, SPI, or USB. The Specification of the Bluetooth System describes
Standard HCI commands and events. TI’s proprietary commands and events are specified in TI
Bluetooth low energy Vendor-Specific HCI Reference Guide.

The L2CAP layer provides data encapsulation services to the upper layers, allowing for logical
end-to-end communication of data.

The Security Manager layer defines the methods for pairing and key distribution, and provides
functions for the other layers of the protocol stack to securely connect and exchange data with
another device.

The Generic Access Profile (GAP) layer directly interfaces with the application and/or profiles,
to handle device discovery and connection-related services for the device. GAP handles the
initiation of security features.

The ATT layer allows a device to expose certain pieces of data or attributes, to another device.
The Generic Attribute Profile (GATT) layer is a service framework that defines the sub-
procedures for using ATT. Data communications that occur between two devices in a Bluetooth
low energy connection are handled through GATT sub-procedures. The application and/or
profiles will directly use GATT.

Applications of Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)

Wearable Technology

BLE has become a main protocol in the development of wearable devices, powering
smartwatches, fitness trackers, and health monitoring devices. Its low power consumption is
applied in ensuring these devices can operate for extended periods without frequent recharging.

Healthcare Devices

BLE finds maximum use in healthcare applications, connecting medical devices to smartphones
for real-time monitoring. This includes devices like blood glucose monitors, heart rate monitors,
and temperature sensors.

Smart Home System

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BLE is a key enabler of smart home ecosystems. From smart bulbs and thermostats to door locks
and security systems, BLE provides seamless communication between devices, enhancing the
overall smart home experience.

Asset Tracking

BLE is used for asset tracking applications, and businesses to monitor the location of assets
within a limited space. This is valuable in industries such as logistics, where real-time tracking
can streamline operations.

Advantages of BLE in IoT

 Ultra-Low Power Consumption: Designed for small devices, enabling them to operate for
months or years on a single coin-cell battery.

 Low Cost & High Ubiquity: Inexpensive to implement and widely supported by
smartphones, tablets, and computers.

 Scalability & Flexibility: Supports multiple topologies (point-to-point, broadcast, and

mesh).

 Fast Connection Time: Connects and transfers data quickly, ideal for intermittent, low-
bandwidth data transfers.

 Easy Integration: Simple development process for manufacturers and developers

Disadvantages of BLE in IoT

 Limited Range: Typically effective within short distances (up to 100 meters in open
space), which is significantly reduced by obstacles like walls.

 Low Data Throughput: Not suitable for large data transfers or streaming; it is optimized
for small, intermittent data packets.

 Security Risks: Susceptible to eavesdropping and man-in-the-middle attacks if not

properly secured.

 Interference Issues: Operates on the 2.4 GHz spectrum, which can suffer from
interference from Wi-Fi and other devices.

 Dependency on Hubs: Often requires a central device (like a smartphone or gateway) to

connect to the internet.

Li-Fi(Light Fidelity):

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The Li-Fi (light fidelity) technology was proposed by the German Scientist namely Harald Haas.
The main function of this technology is to transmit the data via light. This technology is idyllic
for high-speed wireless communication in a restricted region, and it offers many benefits over
Wi-Fi technology such as high bandwidth, ease of use, efficiency, and safety. These systems can
communicate from street lights to auto-piloted cars using their headlights. As the light speed is
superior hence the data communication speed is also faster in the existing system. Furthermore,
this technology can be implemented for speedy data access for the laptops, and gadgets that will
be transmitted during the beam in a room.

Architecture:

 Transmitter (LED Driver/Lamp): The data source connects to an LED driver, which
modulates the intensity of the LED bulb to transmit data, typically using visible light,
infrared, or ultraviolet spectrum.

 Transmission Medium: Visible light spectrum (400-800 THz), which is 10,000 times
larger than the radio spectrum, allows for high-speed, secure, and interference-free
communication.

 Receiver (Photodetector/Dongle): A photodetector on the user device (laptop, phone)

detects the light fluctuations, amplifies them, and converts the signals back into digital
data.

Working:

The working of Li-Fi is very simple. There is a light emitter on one end i.e. an LED
transmitter, and a photo detector (light sensor) on the other. The data input to the LED
transmitter is encoded in to the light (technically referred to as Visible Light
Communication) by varying the flickering rate at which the LEDs flicker ‘on’ and ‘off’ to
generate different strings of 1s and 0s. The onoff activity of the LED transmitter which seems
to be invisible (The LED intensity is modulated so rapidly that human eye cannot notice, so

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the light of the LED appears constant to humans), enables data transmission in light form in
accordance with the incoming binary codes: switching ON a LED is a logical '1', switching it
OFF is a logical '0'. By varying the rate at which the LEDs flicker on and off, information
can be encoded in the light to different combinations of 1s and 0s. In a typical setup, the
transmitter (LED) is connected to the data network (Internet through the modem) and the
receiver (photo detector/light sensor) on the receiving end receives the data as light signal
and decodes the information, which is then displayed on the device connected to the receiver.
The receiver (photo detector) registers a binary ‘1’ when the transmitter (LED) is ON and a
binary ‘0’ when the transmitter (LED) is OFF. Thus flashing the LED numerous times or
using an array of LEDs (perhaps of a few different colours) will eventually provide data rates
in the range of hundreds of Mbps.

Advantages:

 High Speed: LiFi provides significantly faster data transfer rates than traditional Wi-Fi,
with potential speeds exceeding 100 Gbps.

 Enhanced Security: Data transmission is restricted to the area illuminated by the light
source, meaning signals cannot be intercepted through walls

 .No Electromagnetic Interference: Because it uses light waves instead of radio

frequencies, LiFi can be safely used in hospitals, airplanes, and other sensitive
environments.

 Energy Efficiency: Utilizing existing LED lighting infrastructure for data transmission
reduces energy consumption.

 Large Bandwidth: The visible light spectrum is 10,000 times larger than the radio
spectrum, allowing for higher capacity without overcrowding.

Key Disadvantages of LiFi

 Line-of-Sight Requirement: A clear, unobstructed path is generally required between

the light source and the receiver.

 Limited Range: LiFi signals have a limited range, typically covering only a few meters
from the light source.

 Dependence on Light Source: The system requires lights to be on, or at least dimmed to
a low level, to maintain connectivity.

 Interference from Ambient Light: Strong external light sources, such as sunlight, can
interfere with the signal.

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 High Initial Cost & Limited Compatibility: Currently, few devices have built-in LiFi
support, necessitating expensive adapters and causing high installation costs.

 Comparison with Wi-fi:

Feature LiFi Wi-Fi

Medium Light (Visible/Infrared) Radio Frequency

Speed Extremely High (100 Gbps) Moderate (Up to 7 Gbps)

Range Short (5-10 meters) Long (Through walls)

Security High (Confined to room) Moderate (Can pass through walls)

Interference Low High

Basics of sensor networks:

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) consist of spatially distributed, autonomous devices (nodes)
that monitor physical or environmental conditions—like temperature, sound, or pressure—and
cooperatively pass data through the network to a main location (sink/gateway). These networks
are self-organizing, low-power, and often use wireless communication to transmit data to a
central system for analysis.

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Wireless Sensor Network Architecture

 Sensor Nodes: Tiny, battery-powered devices consisting of a sensing unit (data

acquisition), processing unit, transceiver (communication), and power source.

 Sink Node/Gateway: Collects data from sensor nodes and acts as an interface to the user,
often via the internet.

 Topologies: Common structures include star (direct communication to base station),

mesh, and hybrid configurations.

A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) architecture is structured into three main layers:

 Physical Layer: This layer connects sensor nodes to the base station using technologies
like radio waves, infrared, or Bluetooth. It ensures the physical communication between
nodes and the base station.

 Data Link Layer: Responsible for establishing a reliable connection between sensor
nodes and the base station. It uses protocols such as IEEE 802.15.4 to manage data
transmission and ensure efficient communication within the network.

 Application Layer: Enables sensor nodes to communicate specific data to the base
station. It uses protocols like ZigBee to define how data is formatted, transmitted, and
received, supporting various applications such as environmental monitoring or industrial
control.

These layers work together to facilitate the seamless operation and data flow within a Wireless
Sensor Network, enabling efficient monitoring and data collection across diverse applications.

Point To Point Topology

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Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and
receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the
other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Common Components in a P2P Link

Even in a simple P2P setup, each sensor node (or "mote") typically contains:

 Sensing Unit: To capture physical data like temperature or pressure.

 Processing Unit: A microcontroller to handle data and control tasks.

 Communication Unit: A transceiver (using protocols like ZigBee or Bluetooth) to

send/receive signals.

 Power Unit: Usually a battery, sometimes supported by solar cells.

Characteristics:

 Direct Interaction: Each node can function as both a "client" and a "server" to the other
node in the pair.

 Dedicated Link: The connection is a single, secure data communication channel between
exactly two points.

 No Centralized Control: Unlike star topologies, there is no master node or

communications hub managing the traffic.

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 Simplicity: It is widely considered the most basic building block of any network
infrastructure.

Star Topology:

A star topology in sensor networking architecture is a communication layout where all individual
sensor nodes connect directly to a single central hub, gateway, or sink node. In this arrangement,
nodes do not communicate directly with each other; instead, all data transmissions are routed
through the central hub. This configuration is widely used for centralized control and low-power
applications.

Core Components

 Central Hub/Gateway/Sink Node: Acts as the master controller for the entire network,
managing data traffic, and often bridging the WSN to external networks.

 Sensor Nodes (End-Devices): Often reduced function devices that send data to the sink.
They generally do not have direct communication with other sensors.

 Point-to-Point Links: Each sensor node has a dedicated connection to the central node

Key Characteristics in WSNs

 Single-Hop Communication: Data travels directly from the sensor node to the gateway
(one hop), which minimizes latency and simplifies protocol design.

 Low Power Consumption: Because nodes do not need to act as routers for other nodes,
the energy consumption for each node is minimized.

 Limited Range: The entire network is confined to the radio coverage area of the central
hub, often making it suitable for smaller areas (e.g.,100mtrs)

 Dependency: If the central hub fails, the entire network fails

Advantages

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 High Reliability: If one sensor node or cable breaks, only that node fails, not the entire
network.

 Simple Implementation: Easy to set up, manage, and scale by simply adding or
removing nodes.

 Low Data Collision: Dedicated links reduce data collision and enable efficient
communication.

Disadvantages

 Single Point of Failure: Total dependency on the central node.

 Limited Coverage: Because every node must connect to the center, it cannot cover large
or scattered areas compared to mesh topologies.

 Scalability Limits: The network size is limited by the number of ports or connections the
central hub can manage.

Applications:

 Smart Homes: Sensors connected to a central router (Wi-Fi/ZigBee).

 Personal Area Networks (PANs): Smartphones connecting to multiple wearable

sensors.

 Industrial Monitoring: Short-range measurement of temperature or pressure within a

small room.

 Structural Health Monitoring: Permanently mounted sensors sending data to a local,

central unit

MESH TOPOLOGY:

Mesh topology in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) connects sensor nodes directly to each
other, allowing data to hop through multiple nodes to a gateway, which enhances network
reliability, scalability, and self-healing capabilities. This structure, common in industrial
monitoring and smart cities, ensures high fault tolerance where individual node failures do not

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disrupt the network. Mesh topologies are most commonly found in wireless networking Sensors
networks can also be described by their logical topology – the method they use to move data
around the network.[5] A Mesh network allows transmitting data to one node to other node in the
network that is within it radio transmission range.[7] In Mesh network topology, sensor nodes
are connected with each other. Mesh network topology is allowed for multi-hop communication.
If any sensor node which is out of radio transmission range want to communicate or broadcast
the message to other sensor node, then multi-hop communication can use intermediate sensor
nodes to communicate or broadcast the message to the desire sensor node. Mainly there are two
types of Mesh network topology. One is Partially connected mesh and another is Fully connected
mesh. In the Former one, one sensor node will be connected to more than one sensor nodes in a
network as shown in Figure 5. In the Fully connected mesh network, one sensor node is
connected with another sensor node as shown in Figure 6. This network topology has the
advantage of redundancy and scalability.[7] The radiotransmission range for sensor node is
notlimited up to some. So that, removal or addition of a sensor node is very easy. It will be easier
to identify and also to isolate the faulty sensor node in a network. The disadvantage of this type
of network is in power consumption for the nodes that implement the multi-hop communications
are generally higher than for the nodes that don’t have this capability, often limiting the battery
life.[7] If the number of communication hops to a destination increases, the time to deliver the
message also increases, especially if low power operation of the nodes is a requirement.[7] This
network is large and requires huge investment.[5] If any of the sensor node fails to communicate
or to broadcast the message efficiently, the nearest remote sensor node will communicate or
broadcast the message automatically. That it means the mesh network topology heals itself
automatically and so that no communication gap will be there to transmit the message to
intended sensor node.

Architecture:

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Advantages of Mesh Topology in WSNs

 High Reliability and Fault Tolerance: If a node or link fails, data is automatically
rerouted through an alternative path, ensuring continuous operation.

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 Self-Healing: The network automatically reconfigures to adapt to node failures or

environmental changes.

 Scalability: New nodes can be added without disrupting existing traffic, allowing the
network to grow easily.

 Extended Range: Nodes can communicate with distant gateways by hopping through
intermediate nodes, extending the overall network coverage.

 No Single Point of Failure: Unlike star networks, the failure of one node does not bring
down the entire network.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology in WSNs

 High Power Consumption: Because nodes act as routers (relaying data for others), they
drain batteries faster than endpoint-only nodes.

 Increased Complexity: Routing algorithms and node hardware are more complex to
manage, requiring more processing power.

 High Cost: Implementing and maintaining a full mesh network can be expensive due to
the need for advanced hardware at each node.

 Latency Issues: Data may experience higher latency (delay) as it jumps through multiple
nodes to reach the destination.

 Difficult Network Planning: While adding nodes is easy, planning the initial mesh
structure to optimize performance is complex.

Applications:
 Industrial Automation 🏭
Used in factories for machine monitoring and control systems. Mesh topology ensures
continuous operation by providing alternative communication paths in case of node failure.
 Military Communication Systems
Provides secure and reliable communication in dynamic environments such as battlefields, where
nodes can frequently move or fail.
 Smart Cities
Applied in street lighting, traffic control, and public safety systems. Mesh networks enable large-
scale coverage and reliable communication between devices.
 Disaster Recovery & Emergency Networks 🚑
Mesh networks can be quickly deployed in disaster-hit areas where existing communication
infrastructure is damaged, ensuring communication between rescue teams.
 Internet Service Distribution (Community Wi-Fi) 📶
Mesh topology is used to provide internet in large areas like campuses, villages, or cities using
systems like Google Nest Wifi, where multiple routers form a seamless network.

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Ring topology

As the name suggests, the Ring topology’s sensor nodes are connected with exactly two other
neighbor sensor nodes in a ring form. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction
(either clockwise or counterclockwise).[4] All the sensor nodes can transmit the data through
packets with all other sensor nodes by using neighbor sensor nodes because it does not have any
central node. It means, the message will broadcast from each and every sensor node in a
continuous pathway in the network but only intended sensor node will receive and process on the
message. Although, in comparison of bus topology, the ring network topology performs better in
heavy traffic load. Due to sensor node to sensor node connection, this topology is easy to install
and easy to reconfigure while removing or adding a sensor node. The faulty sensor nodes are
easy to identify and isolate. As message has to broadcast from entire network, it is very time
consuming and energy consuming topology. The Ring network topology has less communication
capabilities. Congestion of traffic and double path communication.[4] In Ring network topology,
communication delay is directly proportional to number of nodes in the network.[6] If any of the
sensor nodes fails to work efficiently in the sensor loop, entire network will be crashed.
Nowadays, ring topology is not preferred much in applications.[3] The overview of Ring
network topology in Wireless Sensor Network is presented in Figure 4.

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ARCHITECTURE OF RING TOPOLOGY:

The diagram represents a ring-based wireless sensor network (WSN) topology, where sensor
nodes are arranged in concentric circular layers around a central sink node. The outermost
nodes, called data acquisition nodes, are responsible for sensing environmental parameters such
as temperature, humidity, or motion and generating raw data. Since these nodes have limited
power and communication range, they do not transmit data directly to the sink node. Instead, the
data is forwarded through intermediate nodes, which are placed in inner rings. These
intermediate nodes act as relay or routing nodes, collecting data from nearby sensors, optionally
processing or aggregating it, and passing it toward the sink node. The red circular paths in the
diagram represent logical communication rings, where nodes in the same ring can communicate
with each other, and data is transferred from one ring to the next inner ring in a step-by-step
manner, known as multi-hop communication. Finally, all the data reaches the sink node, which
has higher power and processing capability and is responsible for sending the collected
information to external systems or cloud servers for analysis. This topology is energy-efficient
because it avoids long-distance communication, scalable as more nodes can be added in rings,
and reliable due to multiple communication paths, although it may introduce delays and requires
careful routing management.

Advantages:

 Energy Efficiency
Nodes transmit data over short distances to nearby nodes instead of directly to the sink, which
significantly reduces power consumption and increases network lifetime.
 Scalability
The network can be easily expanded by adding more nodes or additional rings without major
changes in the structure.
 Load Balancing
Data transmission is distributed among multiple intermediate nodes, preventing overloading of a
single node.
 Improved Reliability
Ring paths allow alternative routes for data transmission, making the network more robust
against failures.

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Efficient Data Aggregation

Intermediate nodes can combine or filter data, reducing redundancy and minimizing the amount
of data sent to the sink.

Disadvantages:
 Increased Delay (Latency)
Data travels through multiple hops (nodes), which increases the time required to reach the sink
node.
 Complex Routing Mechanism
Managing communication between rings and ensuring proper data flow requires more complex
algorithms.
 Node Failure Impact
Failure of an intermediate node can disrupt communication for nodes depending on it, especially
if no alternate path exists.
 Uneven Energy Consumption
Nodes closer to the sink handle more traffic and may drain faster, leading to network imbalance.
 Maintenance Difficulty
Monitoring and maintaining a structured ring topology can be challenging, especially in large-
scale deployments.

Applications:
 Smart Agriculture
Used for monitoring soil moisture, temperature, and humidity in farms. Sensor nodes collect data
and send it efficiently to the sink node for irrigation control and crop management.
 Environmental Monitoring
Helps in tracking environmental conditions like air pollution, forest temperature, and wildlife
activity. The ring structure ensures energy-efficient data collection over large areas.
 Smart Traffic Management
Deployed on roads to monitor vehicle density and traffic flow. Data is passed through
intermediate nodes to a central system for optimizing traffic signals.
 Industrial Automation
Used in factories to monitor machine conditions, temperature, and safety parameters. Ensures
reliable and continuous data transmission to control systems.
 Healthcare Monitoring
In hospitals or remote patient monitoring systems, sensors collect vital data (heart rate,
temperature) and send it to a central system for analysis.
 Military and Surveillance
Used for border monitoring, intrusion detection, and battlefield surveillance where reliable and
energy-efficient communication is critical.
 Smart Cities
Applied in waste management, street lighting, and pollution monitoring systems, where data
from distributed sensors is collected centrally.

Figure 3. A wireless mesh sensor network architecture

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In this model, every sensor network has a mesh router

which equipped with gateways. While mesh routers deployed
on every different sensor networks connect to the Internet via
powerful base stations, they connect to form a mesh network.
As seen on Figure 3, there are three logical layer [6]:

• Wireless Sensor Network: Its aim is monitoring

objects and reporting their information.

• Wireless Mesh Network: It is in charge of transmitting

sensed data to in long distance and secure way.

• The Internet: It provides accessing sensed data by

users.

As a result of this layered architecture, there are also three

types of nodes in WMSNs.

• Sensor nodes: They detect objects and send data which

are collected from this objects to most proper wireless mesh
gateway (WMG) based on specified routing policies.

• Wireless Mesh Gateways (WMGs): They work as sink

nodes, low-level WSNs’ gateways and also WMNs’ routers.

• Wireless Mesh Routers (WMRs): They just work as

routers of WMNs.

These different networks in the architecture use different

medium access control (MAC) and routing protocols [6].
WSNs use short-distance communication protocols like
802.15.4 while WMNs use long-distance protocols like
802.11.

B. Advantages of WMSNs
As we mentioned in the previous section, to solve problems
cause by inability of WSNs, a layered architecture include
WMNs and WSNs i

Figure 3. A wireless mesh sensor network architecture

In this model, every sensor network has a mesh router

which equipped with gateways. While mesh routers deployed
on every different sensor networks connect to the Internet via
powerful base stations, they connect to form a mesh network.
As seen on Figure 3, there are three logical layer [6]:

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Fundamentals of IOT(FIOT)

• Wireless Sensor Network: Its aim is monitoring

objects and reporting their information.

• Wireless Mesh Network: It is in charge of transmitting

sensed data to in long distance and secure way.

• The Internet: It provides accessing sensed data by

users.

As a result of this layered architecture, there are also three

types of nodes in WMSNs.

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