18 Variation and Selection
Notes
Variation
Variation refers to the differences between each organism in a species.
Variation is beneficial to a species as it allows natural selection to occur and
reduces the risk of extinction from diseases. There are two types of variation:
genetic variation and phenotypic variation.
● Genetic variation - each organism in a species has a different set of DNA,
which is due to genetic variation. Genetic variation is increased during
meiosis, which produces gametes. Each gamete has a different set of
alleles, which means that when the two gametes fuse an entirely new set
of genes are produced. Mutation, meiosis, random mating and random
fertilisation are sources of genetic variation in populations.
● Phenotypic variation - The phenotype of an organism refers to its observable
characteristics, such as height or hair colour. Phenotypical variation can
be caused by both genetic and environmental factors. For example, the
potential height of an
organism is decided in genes which come from the parents, although
some organisms will never reach this height as they do not receive
enough nutrients from their
environment.
Variation can be continuous and discontinuous. Continuous variation results
in a range of phenotypes between two extremes, for example height or weight.
Discontinuous variation, however, is limited to a discrete number of categories,
such as blood group, which is limited to A, B, AB, or O in humans, seed shape
and seed colour in peas. Discontinuous variation is mainly caused by genes
alone while continuous variation is caused by both genes and the environment.
Mutations:
Mutations are genetic changes which result in a random change in the
sequence of DNA bases. The rate of mutation can increase due to a variety of
factors, including exposure to some chemicals and ionising radiation. If the
mutation occurs at a particular allele, this allele may be altered, changing how
it functions. This is how new alleles are formed.
Adaptive features
Adaptive features are inherited functional features that help the organism by
increasing its fitness, which is the ability of the organism to survive and
reproduce in its environment.
Xerophytes are plants that are adapted to live in very dry climates, such as
cacti. They have a number of adaptive
features that help to increase survival
by reducing water loss:
● Fewer stomata - water
vapour diffuses out of the
plant via the stomata, thus
less water is lost if there
are fewer stomata. Stomata
are also sunken in pits in
the leaf, which allows
bubbles of moist air to be
trapped around them. This
lowers the water potential
gradient, so less water is lost from the leaf.
● Small, rolled leaves or spines - this reduces the surface area of the
leaf and traps
moisture to lower the
water potential
gradient, reducing
water loss.
● Deep roots - this allows
plants to absorb water
from the soil. Roots are
also adapted to absorb lots
of water when it rains for
storage, e.g. in monsoon
seasons.
● Thick waxy cuticle - this provides a waterproof barrier around the
leaf to prevent water loss.
Hydrophytes, in contrast, are plants which are adapted to live in very wet
conditions and include species such as water lilies and lotus. These plants are
adapted differently to xerophytes as they do not need to minimise water loss:
Leaf shape - leaves are usually
large and flat to have a large
surface area which promotes water
loss.
● Stomata - positioned on the top
of the leaf where the sun hits.
There is also a large number of
stomata, which are usually open
to allow water vapour to diffuse
out of the leaf.
● Thin/no waxy cuticle - water loss does not need to be restricted by
this layer in hydrophytes.
● Small root system - as there is a large amount of water readily available,
root systems can be shallow, and water can diffuse directly into the
stem.
Selection
Natural selection is where organisms with favourable alleles and advantageous
characteristics have a higher probability of surviving and reproducing. This is
due to competition within a population for resources and mates. Due to
variation in the alleles of each species, each organism within a species has
different traits, some positive and some negative.
Those with more positive traits can adapt to the environment more effectively
and are thus more likely to survive and produce many offspring, which inherit
these alleles. Over time, negative characteristics are lost from the species as
organisms with those characteristics are not able
reproduce to pass on their alleles. This is known as evolution. Evolution allows
a population to become more adapted to its environment over time, as a result
of natural selection.
Antibiotic resistance:
Some bacterial strains become resistant to antibiotics as a result of natural
selection:
1. A mutation occurs in a bacterial cell allele which makes it resistant to an
antibiotic.
2. When that antibiotic is administered, this cell is not killed, whereas
cells which have not become resistant are killed.
3. The resistant bacterial cell can therefore survive and reproduce,
passing on the resistant allele to produce more resistant bacteria.
Selective breeding:
Selective breeding is where humans select animals or plants with desirable
features and breed these together to make more offspring with these desirable
features. This process is repeated over many generations, where only offspring
showing desirable features will be chosen to be cross-bred together. As this
breeding is controlled by humans, it is known as artificial selection.
An example of selective breeding of animals is the German Shepherd. These dogs
were originally bred as working dogs to herd sheep as they are known for their
intelligence and agility. Humans selectively breed these dogs to exaggerate desirable
qualities, such as their sloping backs and large ears. This involves crossing dogs
which show these traits so that the alleles are passed on to their offspring. Farmers
also selectively breed crops. For example, bananas are selectively bred for their size,
shape and easiness to peel. This means that plants which express these
characteristics are bred to produce more offspring with desirable characteristics.
Differences between natural and artificial selection:
Natural selection Artificial selection
Process occurs in nature without Controlled by humans
human interference
Organisms with advantageous traits Individuals with the desirable trait
survive and reproduce and pass on are chosen to breed together to
the favourable allele to the offspring produce offspring with the trait
Takes a long time to occur Takes less time