Notes before MST

Dr. Mugdha Dongre

 Stress
When a force or pressure is applied to a material, it tries to change material’s shape – we call this Deformation.

But the material doesn’t just allow this to happen, at least not easily! They resist deformation by developing internal forces — we can think
of this as an internal resistance that pushes back against the applied load.

This internal resistance is called Stress. Or even more precisely, stress is defined as the force divided by the area over which it acts.

It’s usually denoted by the Greek letter sigma: σ

In SI units, stress is measured in Newton per square meter (N/m²)—or pascals (Pa). One pascal is one newton per square meter.
 Strain
But even though the material resists the deformation caused by external force, no real-world material is perfectly rigid. So under
that applied force, there will always be some change in the material’s shape or size. The amount of that deformation, relative to
the material’s original size, is called strain.

It’s defined as the ratio of the change in dimension to the original dimension.

It’s usually denoted by the Greek letter epsilon: ε.

Where ΔL is the change in length

Since it’s a ratio of two lengths, strain has no units — it’s dimensionless. It simply tells us how much the material stretches or
compresses compared to where it started.
 Tensile and Compressive Stress
Now, both stress and strain are of different types.

Stress is commonly categorized as normal stress, shear stress, bearing stress, bending stress, and torsional
stress—depending on how the force is applied.

When an external force tries to pull or push on a material, the internal forces resisting this act perpendicular to
the material’s cross-section—this is Normal Stress.

The pushing force brings compression in the material, which leads to development of Compressive Stress.
While the pulling force brings tension in the material and develops Tensile Stress.
Shear and Bending Stress
If the external force tries to slide one part of the material past another, the internal forces resisting
this act parallel to the cross-section—this is Shear Stress.

We also see Bending Stress develop when a force tries to bend or curve a material, creating
internal tension on one side and compression on the other.
A twisting force generates Torsional Stress, which is essentially shear stress acting around the axis of the
twist.

Depending on the type of stress developed, a corresponding type of strain is produced in the body.
We typically categorize strain as tensile strain, compressive strain, volumetric strain, or shear strain,
based on how the material deforms.

We should note that stress in a material induces strain, but opposite is equally true. That is, when a
body is strained, stresses generate in it.

When a material is subjected to an external force, it deforms—it changes shape or size. But if we
remove that force and the material returns to its original shape and size, we call it an elastic body.
But the thing is, recovery only happens if the deformation is within a certain limit. Go beyond that limit, and the material may never return to its original shape.
That limit is called the elastic limit. And the ability of a material to regain its original form after the force is removed is known as elasticity.

A classic example is a rubber band—stretch it, and it springs back when released.

So, how do stress and strain relate in that elastic region? This relationship is described by Hooke’s Law.

Hooke’s Law states that when a material is loaded within its elastic limit, the stress generated in the body is directly proportional to the strain produced.

Stress ∝ Strain
This means as the stress in the body increases, strain increases with it in a linear, predictable way till it is in the elastic limit.
Mathematically, this proportionality means that the ratio of stress to its corresponding strain is a
constant value within this elastic region.

This constant is incredibly important and is known as the Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s
Modulus, and it’s denoted by E

It is also called Modulus of Rigidity or Elastic Modulii.

Just remember—Hooke’s Law is only valid as long as the stress and strain are within the elastic
limit. Once that limit is crossed, the stress-strain relationship is no longer linear, and the material
starts behaving differently and deforms permanently.
Tensile Strength
● The tensile strength TS (MPa or psi) is the
stress at the maximum on the engineering
stress–strain curve.
● This corresponds to the maximum stress that
can be sustained by a structure in tension; if
this stress is applied and maintained, fracture
will result.
● All deformation to this point is uniform
throughout the narrow region of the tensile
specimen.
● However, at this maximum stress, a small
constriction or neck begins to form at some
point, and all subsequent deformation is
confined at this neck, this phenomenon is
termed necking.
Hardness
● Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to permanent deformation
such as indentation, wear, abrasion, and scratch.
● Principally, the importance of hardness testing has to do with the relationship
between hardness and other properties of materials.
● For example, both the hardness test and the tensile test measure the
resistance of a metal to plastic flow, and results of these tests may closely
parallel each other.
● The hardness test is preferred because it is simple, easy, and relatively
nondestructive.
● There are many hardness tests currently in use. The necessity for all these
different hardness tests is due to the need for categorizing the great range of
hardness from soft rubber to hard ceramics.
Hardness testing techniques
Toughness
● Toughness (or more specifically, fracture toughness) is a property that is
indicative of a material’s resistance to fracture when a crack (or other
stress-concentrating defect) is present.
● A number of different standardized tests have been devised to measure the
fracture toughness values for structural materials.
● For each test type, the specimen (of specified geometry and size) contains a
preexisting defect, usually a sharp crack that has been introduced.
● The test apparatus loads the specimen at a specified rate and also measures
load and crack displacement values.
Impact Testing Techniques
● Two standardized tests, the Charpy and the
Izod, are used to measure the impact energy
(sometimes also termed notch toughness).
● The Charpy V-notch (CVN) technique is
most commonly used in the United States.
● For both the Charpy and the Izod, the
specimen is in the shape of a bar of square
(a) Specimen used for Charpy and Izod impact tests.
cross section, into which a V-notch is
machined.
Izod Impact Test

● The load is applied as an impact blow from a weighted

pendulum hammer released from a cocked position at a
fixed height, h.
● The specimen is positioned at the base as shown. Upon
release, a knife edge mounted on the pendulum strikes
and fractures the specimen at the notch, which acts as a
point of stress concentration for this high-velocity impact
blow.
● The pendulum continues its swing, rising to a maximum
height h′, which is lower than h.
● The energy absorption, computed from the difference
between h and h′, is a measure of the impact energy.
● The primary difference between the Charpy and the Izod
techniques lies in the manner of specimen support.

(b) A schematic drawing of an impact testing apparatus.

Specimen placements for both the Charpy and the Izod tests
Notes given in class during lecture..

1. UTM testing details

2. Failure behaviour of samples
3. relationship between true stress and Engg. stress.
4. Solid solutions and Hume-Rothary Rules
5. Ashby diagrams
6. Classification and Engg. Properties of materials.
7. Numerical based on tensile test