Bilkent University

Department of Computer Engineering

CS342 Operating Systems

Chapter 1
Introduction
Dr. İbrahim Körpeoğlu
[Link]

Last Update: Sep 30, 2011

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 Outline and Objectives

Outline Objectives
• What Operating Systems Do • To provide a grand tour of the major
• Computer-System Organization and operating systems components
Architecture • To provide coverage of basic
• Operating-System Structure and computer system organization
Operations
• Major Operating Systems
Concepts/Components/Functionaliti
es
– Process Management
– Memory Management
– Storage Management
– Protection and Security
• Computing Environments

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Basic components of a computer system:
place of OS
• A computer system can be divided into
four components
– Hardware – provides basic computing
resources
• CPU, memory, I/O devices
– Operating system
• Controls and coordinates use
of hardware among various
applications and users
– Application programs –solve the
problems of the users: use system
resources
• Word processors, compilers, web
browsers, database systems,
video games
– Users
• People, machines, other
computers

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 What is an operating system?

• A program that acts as an intermediary between a User/

users/applications and the computer hardware User/
Application
User/
Application
Application
• Operating system functionalities/goals
– Start/terminate executing user programs
• Control execution of programs OS
– Make the system convenient to use; provide ease
of use
– Control and coordinate use of hardware HW
• Initiate/perform I/O, setup hardware
components
• resource allocation
– fair use; decide between conflicting CPU, Memory,
requests Devices
• Use the hardware in an efficient manner
– Increase resource utilization
– Implement common services

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 Operating System Definition

• No universally accepted definition

– “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is good
approximation
• But varies wildly
• Kernel: running all the time; having most of the functionality
• Everything else: either a system program (ships with the operating
system) or an application program

system
programs
+ you can install
kernel other applications
System programs: programs that are (Some
associated with the operating system application
programs) OS CD
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Computer System Organization and
Operation

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 Computer System Organization

• Computer-system operation
– One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus
providing access to shared memory
– Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles

Network
cable

Network
adapter

Bus

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 Computer Startup

• bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

– Typically stored in ROM or EPROM,
– generally known as firmware
– Initializes all aspects of the system
– Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
• Kernel runs and make the system ready for running applications
– Kernel is always ready to run (always in memory)

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 Computer system operation:
I/O and device interaction
• I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
• Each device controller has a local buffer
– Data movement (I/O) between device and local buffer (device
– Data movement between memory and local buffer (by CPU)

• Device controller
informs CPU that it
has finished its
operation by causing
an interrupt

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 Hardware interrupts

• When interrupt occurs, hardware does the following:

– CPU is interrupted
• at that time application code or kernel code might be running
• registers and the program counter saved in RAM to preserve CPU
state
• CPU starts running the respective Interrupt Service Routing (ISR)
– (kernel routine)
– ISR is found through interrupt vector
• (table containing addresses of ISRs)

• Incoming interrupts are disabled while an interrupt is being processed to

prevent a lost interrupt.

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 Direct Memory Access Structure

• Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close to

memory speeds

• Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly to main
memory without CPU intervention

• Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt per
byte

CPU
Main Memory

DMA
Device Controller Transfer
Controller
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 Software interrupts

• Running application software may generate interrupts as well.

– They are called software interrupts (also called traps)
• 1. exceptions (caused by errors)
• 2. system calls (service request)
– trap or syscall instruction is used

• An operating system (kernel) is interrupt-driven (event driven)

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 Interrupt-Driven OS

Applications or System Programs running in CPU

software interrupt / trap

(due to system service requests or errors)

Kernel Code

hardware interrupt

Devices disk, keyboard, timer, network adapter…

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 Storage Structure

• Main memory – only large storage media

that the CPU can access directly
Main
• Secondary storage – extension of main CPU
Memory
memory that provides large nonvolatile
storage capacity
– Magnetic disks
• Rigid metal or glass platters covered
with magnetic recording material Disk
• The disk controller determines the Controller
logical interaction between the
device and the computer

Spinning
Disk
secondary
storage

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 Storage Hierarchy

• Storage systems organized in hierarchy

– Speed
– Cost
– Volatility
• Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main memory can
be viewed as a last cache for secondary storage

results from tradeoff between size and speed

caching

small, fast large, slow

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Storage-Device Hierarchy

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 Caching

• Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer

(in hardware, operating system, software)
• Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
• Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is there
– If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
– If not, data copied to cache and used there
• The cache is smaller than the storage being cached
– Cache management important design problem
– Cache size and replacement policy

size?

cache
replacement policy?

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 Caching

caching

small, fast large, slow

Registers Main Memory

Hardware cache
Main Memory
L1, L2, etc
Main Memory Hard Disk

Hard Disk Tape

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Computer System Architecture

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 Computer System Architecture:
Single processor systems
• Most systems use a single general-purpose processor
– (PDAs through mainframes)
– Most systems have special-purpose processors as well

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 Computer System Architecture:
Multiprocessor systems

• Multiprocessor systems growing in use and importance

– Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems

– Advantages include
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale (cheaper than using multiple computers)
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance

– Two types
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing

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Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

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A Dual Core Design

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 Clustered Systems

• Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together

– Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
– Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
• Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
• Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,
monitoring each other
– Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
• Applications must be written to use parallelization

PC
PC
SAN

PC PC Disk Storage

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Operating System and Functionalities

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 Operating Systems: providing
multiprogramming
• Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
Main Memory
– Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O CPU
devices busy at all times Job

– Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and Job

I/O
data) so CPU always has one to execute
device
Job
I/O
– A subset of total jobs in system is kept in device
memory Operating
I/O System
device
– One job selected and run via job
scheduling Job
• OS selects which job System
– When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS
switches to another job

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 Operating Systems: providing time
sharing
• Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches
jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running,
creating interactive computing

– Response time should be < 1 second

– program loaded in memory process

– If several processes ready to run at the same time  CPU

scheduling

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 Operating System: how operates

• is interrupt driven

– Hardware interrupt causes ISR to run (which is a routine of OS)

– Software error or request creates exception or trap

• Division by zero, for example (exception)
• request for an operating system service (trap)

System call routing

Exception handlers

OS Code Other routines

(Kernel Code)
Interrupt handlers

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 Operating System: how operates

• Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components

– User mode and kernel mode

– Mode bit provided by hardware

• user code or kernel code in different modes

• Some machine instructions designated as privileged, only executable

in kernel mode

• System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
mode

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 Operating System: how operates

Dual mode system operation

Transition from User to Kernel Mode and Vice Versa

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 Operating System: how operates

• Timer device to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources

– 1) Set the timer device to interrupt after a while
• Can be a fixed or variable time period
– 2) CPU executes a program (a process)
– 3) Timer device sends an interrupt after that period
– 4) CPU starts executing timer handler: OS gains control
– 5) OS can schedule the same process or other process
– 6) OS sets the timer again before giving the CPU to the scheduled process

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 Major OS Functionalities

• Process Management
• Memory management
• Storage (disk) management
– File concept, file mapping to disk blocks, disk scheduling
• I/O control and management
– Device derivers (doing I/O),
buffering,
providing uniform access interface
• Protection and security
– Controlled access to resources,
preventing processes interfering with each other and OS

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 Process Management

• A process is a program in execution. For process management:

– Unit of work in the system • Creating and deleting both
– Process is an active entity (a program user and system processes and
is passive). • Suspending resuming
• Process executes instructions processes
sequentially, one at a time, until • Providing mechanisms for
completion process synchronization
• Process needs resources to accomplish • Providing mechanisms for
its task process communication
– CPU, memory, I/O, files • Providing mechanisms for
• Typically system has many processes deadlock handling
running concurrently
– Some of them may be OS processes
• Upon termination, resources are
released

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 Memory Management

• All data in memory before and after • Memory management activities

processing – Keeping track of which parts of
memory are currently being used
• All instructions in memory in order to and by whom
execute – Deciding which processes (or
parts of a process) and data to
• Memory management determines what move into and out of memory
is in memory, where and when – Allocating and deallocating
memory space as needed

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 Process Address Space

max

stack

a process Physical
(running Main Memory
application) data RAM
Mapping
(by OS)

a process has an
instructions
address space
(set of logical addresses
0
process is using)
address space
of the process

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 Storage Management

• OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage

– Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
• Various storage types varying in medium type, access speed,
capacity, data-transfer rate, access method

• File-System management
– Files usually organized into directories
– Access control on most systems to determine who can access what

• OS activities include
• Creating and deleting files and directories;
• Primitives to manipulate files/dirs;
• Mapping files onto secondary storage

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 Mass-Storage Management

• Mass Storage:
disk (secondary);
tapes,
CDs, etc. (tertiary)

• Proper management of mass storage devices is of central importance

– For improving performance of the computer system
– Since they are slow devices

• OS activities

– Free-space management; Storage allocation

– Disk scheduling

– Uniform naming ….

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 Performance of various levels of storage

• Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit.

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 Input/Output Subsystem

• One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from the

user
• I/O subsystem responsible for
– Buffering, caching,
– General device-driver interface
– Drivers for specific hardware devices
• Interacting with the device and doing I/O

Buffering
Caching….

uniform driver interface

I/Os sub-system of Kernel Device Derivers

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 I/O Structure

• Application programs do I/O via OS

– The request is done by calling a System Call

Application
(OS routine)

– System call routine in OS performs the I/O via System Call

the help of device driver routines in OS. Routines
Kernel
– After issuing a system call, an application may Device Driver
wait for the call to finish (blocking call) or may
continue to do something else (non-blocking call)
Device Controller

Device

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 Protection and Security

• Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to

resources defined by the OS
• Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
– Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft
of service
• Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do
what
– User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated
number, one per user
– User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine
access control

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Different Types of Computer Systems
and Applications

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 Distributing Computing and Systems

– Earlier systems executed tasks on a single system

– Now we have systems interconnected (networked)
together
• Enabling distributed computing, resource
sharing, etc.

• Operating systems have support now for networking

multiple systems, network
– enabling data communication
– enabling distributing file storage,
– enabling accessing remote resources, etc.

• Hence the computing environment is no longer a

single system.

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 Computing Environments

• Traditionally
mainframe computer

a single system with a user

dumb terminals

Computing and OS no computation here

in a single machine

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 Computing Environments

• Client-Server Computing
– Dumb terminals replaced by smart PCs
– Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by clients
• Compute-server provides an interface to client to request services
(i.e. database)
• File-server provides interface for clients to store and retrieve files

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 Peer-To-Peer Computing

• Another model of distributed system

• P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
– Instead all nodes are considered peers
– Each may act as a client, a server or both
– A node must join P2P network
• Registers its service with central lookup service on network, or
• Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for service via
resource discovery/lookup protocol
– Examples include Napster and Gnutella

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 Web Based Computing

• Web has become ubiquitous

• More devices becoming networked to allow web access
• OSs run web servers and web clients
• Web based applications can be developed to run over web servers and clients.
– Having a browser at the client is enough to run most of the applications
– No special client software required

applications

Web HTTP
User Web server
browser
pages

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 Open-Source Operating Systems

• Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than

just binary closed-source
• Counter to the copy protection movement
• Examples include
– GNU/Linux,
– BSD UNIX (FreeBSD, etc.)
– Sun Solaris

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 References

• Operating System Concepts, 7th and 8th editions, Silberschatz et al. Wiley.
• Modern Operating Systems, Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 3rd edition, 2009.
• These slides are adapted/modified from the textbook and its slides:
Operating System Concepts, Silberschatz et al., 7th and 8th editions, Wiley.

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Additional Study Material

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 Migration of Integer A from Disk to
Register
• Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value,
no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

• Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache
CPU CPU CPU
Cache Cache Cache

Main Memory

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