1Solar Irradiation
Solar irradiation is the total solar energy received per unit area over a given time period.
It is the time integral of solar irradiance.
𝐻 = ∫ 𝐺(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
Units:
kWh/m2 , M J/m2
Components
𝐻 = 𝐻𝑏 + 𝐻𝑑 + 𝐻𝑟
• 𝐻𝑏 : beam (direct) irradiation
• 𝐻𝑑 : diffuse irradiation
• 𝐻𝑟 : ground-reflected irradiation
Horizontal and inclined surfaces
• Global horizontal irradiation: 𝐻ℎ
• Beam horizontal: 𝐻𝑏ℎ = 𝐻ℎ − 𝐻𝑑ℎ
For a tilted surface (isotropic hypothesis):
cos 𝑖 1 + cos 𝛽 1 − cos 𝛽
𝐻𝑇 = 𝐻𝑏𝑛 + 𝐻𝑑ℎ + 𝜌𝑔 𝐻ℎ
cos 𝜃𝑧 2 2
Exam summary
Solar irradiation represents the available solar energy over time.
It is obtained by integrating irradiance and includes beam, diffuse, and reflected
components.
2. Solar Photovoltaic (Solar PV)
Solar PV converts solar radiation directly into electricity using photovoltaic cells.
• Based on the photoelectric effect in a semiconductor p–n junction.
• Output is DC electricity, converted to AC by an inverter.
Key relation
𝐸𝑒𝑙 = 𝐻𝑇 ⋅ 𝐴𝑃𝑉 ⋅ 𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑑 ⋅ 𝐵𝑂𝑆
Main use:
Electricity generation (grid-connected or stand-alone).
Key feature:
Direct energy conversion, no moving parts.
3. Solar Thermal
Solar thermal systems convert solar radiation into heat.
• Solar collectors heat a working fluid (water or glycol).
• Heat is used for:
o domestic hot water (DHW),
o space heating,
o industrial heat.
Key relation
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 )
Main components:
Collector, storage tank, heat exchanger.
Key feature:
High efficiency for low- and medium-temperature heat.
4. Solar Cooling
Solar cooling uses solar thermal energy to produce cooling instead of electricity.
• Based on thermally driven chillers, mainly:
o absorption chillers,
o adsorption chillers.
Principle:
Solar heat drives a refrigeration cycle, reducing electrical demand in summer.
Typical driving temperatures:
• 70–90 °C → absorption cooling (LiBr–H₂O)
• 90 °C → advanced systems
Key feature:
Solar availability matches cooling demand (summer).
5. True Solar Time and Solar Geometry
Main topics
• True Solar Time (TST)
• Legal (clock) time
• Longitude correction
• Equation of Time
• Hour angle
• Solar declination
• Solar height and azimuth
Key formulas
𝜆 − 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑇𝑆𝑇 = 𝑇𝐿 + + 𝐸𝑇 − Δ𝑇𝐷𝑆𝑇
15
𝜔 = 15∘ (𝑇𝑆𝑇 − 12)
360(𝑛 − 284)
𝛿 = 23.45∘ sin ( )
365
sin 𝐻𝑆 = sin 𝜑sin 𝛿 + cos 𝜑cos 𝛿cos 𝜔
Explanation (exam style)
True Solar Time is the time based on the real position of the Sun in the sky.
Solar noon corresponds to the instant when the Sun crosses the local meridian and
reaches its maximum height.
Legal time is defined by time zones and is the same for all locations within a zone, while
true solar time depends on longitude. For this reason, a longitude correction is
required.
The Equation of Time accounts for the non-uniform motion of the Earth due to its
elliptical orbit and axial tilt.
Once the true solar time is known, the hour angle can be calculated, which represents
the angular displacement of the Sun from solar noon.
Using latitude, declination, and hour angle, the solar height and azimuth are
determined. These angles are fundamental for radiation and shading calculations.
6. Sunrise, Sunset and Day Length
Key formulas
cos 𝜔𝑠 = −tan 𝜑tan 𝛿
2𝜔𝑠
𝑀=
15
Explanation
Sunrise and sunset occur when the solar height angle is zero, meaning the Sun lies on
the horizon.
The sunrise (and sunset) hour angle depends only on latitude and solar declination.
The day length is obtained from the angular distance between sunrise and sunset and
converted into hours.
This explains why day length varies during the year and with latitude.
7. Incidence Angle on Surfaces
Key formulas
Horizontal surface
cos 𝑖 = sin 𝜑sin 𝛿 + cos 𝜑cos 𝛿cos 𝜔
South-facing tilted surface
cos 𝑖 = sin 𝛿sin(𝜑 − 𝛽) + cos 𝛿cos(𝜑 − 𝛽)cos 𝜔
Vertical south-facing surface
cos 𝑖 = cos 𝛿cos 𝜑cos 𝜔 − sin 𝛿sin 𝜑
Explanation
The incidence angle is the angle between the solar beam and the normal to the
surface.
It determines the effective projection of direct radiation onto the surface.
For a horizontal surface, the incidence angle coincides with the zenith angle.
For tilted or vertical south-facing surfaces, the incidence angle depends on the surface
tilt and orientation and is optimized when the surface faces south.
This concept is essential because direct irradiance on a surface is proportional to cos 𝑖.
8. Irradiance on an Inclined Surface (Isotropic Hypothesis)
Key formulas
𝐺𝑏,𝑇 = 𝐺𝑏𝑛 cos 𝑖
1 + cos 𝛽
𝐺𝑑,𝑇 = 𝐺𝑑ℎ
2
1 − cos 𝛽
𝐺𝑟,𝑇 = 𝜌𝑔 𝐺ℎ
2
𝐺𝑇 = 𝐺𝑏,𝑇 + 𝐺𝑑,𝑇 + 𝐺𝑟,𝑇
Explanation
The global irradiance on a surface is composed of:
• beam radiation, coming directly from the Sun,
• diffuse radiation, scattered by the atmosphere,
• ground-reflected radiation.
Under the isotropic hypothesis, diffuse radiation is assumed to be uniformly
distributed over the sky dome.
Therefore, the diffuse contribution on a tilted surface depends only on the sky view
factor.
The ground-reflected component depends on the ground albedo and the ground view
factor.
By summing the three contributions, the global irradiance on an inclined surface is
obtained starting from horizontal data.
9. Shading and Overhang Design
Key relation
ℎ
tan 𝛼 =
𝐿
Explanation
Shading analysis uses solar geometry to prevent unwanted solar gains.
Overhangs are designed so that:
• in summer, the Sun is blocked to avoid overheating,
• in winter, solar radiation reaches the surface to provide passive gains.
The geometry of the overhang is directly linked to the solar height angle.
10. Photovoltaic Systems
Key formula
𝐸𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝐻𝑇 ⋅ 𝐴𝑃𝑉 ⋅ 𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑑 ⋅ 𝐵𝑂𝑆
Explanation
The annual electrical production of a PV system depends on:
• solar irradiation on the tilted plane,
• active module area,
• module efficiency,
• balance-of-system losses.
The BOS term accounts for inverter losses, wiring losses, mismatch, and availability.
11. Solar Thermal Systems (DHW)
Key formula
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇𝑢𝑠𝑒 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 )
Explanation
Solar thermal systems are sized by matching thermal demand with solar supply.
The daily hot water energy demand depends on the mass of water and the temperature
increase required.
Collectors and storage tanks are then sized to cover a target fraction of this demand.