Network Protocols and

Communications

Dr. Ghada Afify

Presentation_ID © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 1
The Rules

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The Rules
Communications Fundamentals

§ Networks can vary in size and complexity. It is not enough to

have a connection, devices must agree on “how” to
communicate.
§ There are three elements to any communication:
• There will be a source (sender).
• There will be a destination (receiver).
• There will be a channel (media) that provides for the path
of communications to occur.

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The Rules
What is Communication?

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The Rules
Communications Protocols
• All communications are governed by protocols.
• Protocols are the rules that communications will follow.
• These rules will vary depending on the protocol.

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The Rules
Rule Establishment

§ Protocols must account for the following requirements:

• An identified sender and receiver
• Common language and grammar
• Speed and timing of delivery
• Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements

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The Rules
Network Protocol Requirements

§ Common computer protocols must be in agreement and

include the following requirements:
• Message encoding
• Message formatting and encapsulation
• Message size
• Message timing
• Message delivery options

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The Rules
Message Encoding
• Encoding is the process of converting information into another acceptable
form for transmission.
• Decoding reverses this process to interpret the information.

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The Rules
Message Formatting and Encapsulation

Example: Personal letter contains the following elements:

§ An identifier of the recipient
§ A salutation or greeting
§ The message content
§ A closing phrase
§ An identifier of the sender

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The Rules
Message Formatting and Encapsulation
• When a message is sent, it must use a specific format or structure.
• Message formats depend on the type of message and the channel that is
used to deliver the message.

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The Rules
Message Size
§ Encoding between hosts must be in an appropriate format for the medium.
• Messages sent across the network are converted to bits
• The bits are encoded into a pattern of light, sound, or electrical impulses.
• The destination host must decode the signals to interpret the message.

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The Rules
Message Timing
§ Message timing includes the following:
• Flow Control – Manages the rate of data transmission and defines how much
information can be sent and the speed at which it can be delivered.

• Response Timeout – Manages how long a device waits when it does not hear a
reply from the destination.

• Access method - Determines when someone can send a message.

• There may be various rules governing issues like “collisions”. This is
when more than one device sends traffic at the same time and the
messages become corrupt.
• Some protocols are proactive and attempt to prevent collisions; other
protocols are reactive and establish a recovery method after the collision
occurs.

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 The Rules
Message Delivery Options
• A one-to-one delivery option is
referred to as a unicast, meaning
that there is only a single
destination for the message.

• When a host needs to send

messages using a one-to-many
delivery option, it is referred to as a
multicast. Multicasting is the
delivery of the same message to a
group of host destinations
simultaneously.

• If all hosts on the network need to

receive the message at the same
time, a broadcast is used.

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The Rules
Message Delivery Options
§ Message delivery may one of the
following methods:
• Unicast – one to one
communication
• Multicast – one to many, typically
not all
• Broadcast – one to all

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The Rules
A Note About the Node Icon
• Documents may use the node icon , typically a circle, to represent all devices.
• The figure illustrates the use of the node icon for delivery options.

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Protocols

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Protocols
Network Protocols
Network Protocols define a common set of rules:
§ How the message is formatted or structured
§ The process by which networking devices share information about
pathways with other networks
§ How and when error and system messages are passed between devices
§ The setup and termination of data transfer sessions

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Protocols
Network Protocol Overview
§ Protocols can be Protocol Type Description
implemented on devices
in:
Network enable two or more devices to
• Software Communications communicate over one or more networks
• Hardware
Network Security secure data to provide authentication,
• Both data integrity, and data encryption

Routing enable routers to exchange route

§ Protocols have their own: information, compare path information,
• Function and select best path
• Format Service used for the automatic detection of
Discovery devices or services
• Rules

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Protocols
Network Protocol
Functions
• Devices use agreed-upon
protocols to communicate.
• Protocols may have one or more
functions.

Function Description
Addressing Identifies sender and receiver
Reliability Provides guaranteed delivery
Flow Control Ensures data flows at an efficient rate
Sequencing Uniquely labels each transmitted segment of data
Error Detection Determines if data became corrupted during
transmission
Application Interface Process-to-process communications between network
applications

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Protocols
Protocol Interaction
• Networks require the use of several
protocols.
• Each protocol has its own function and
format.

Protocol Function
Hypertext § Governs the way a web server and a web client interact
Transfer Protocol § Defines content and format
(HTTP)
Transmission § Manages the individual conversations
Control Protocol § Provides guaranteed delivery
(TCP) § Manages flow control
Internet Protocol Delivers messages globally from the sender to the receiver
(IP)
Ethernet Delivers messages on the same Ethernet Local Area
Network (LAN)

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Protocol Suites

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Protocol Suites
Network Protocol Suites

§ Protocols must be able to work with

other protocols.
§ Protocol suite:
• A group of inter-related
protocols necessary to
perform a communication
function
• Sets of rules that work
together to help solve a
problem
§ The protocols are viewed in terms
of layers:
• Higher Layers
• Lower Layers- concerned with
moving data and provide
services to upper layers

Presentation_ID © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 22
Protocol Suites
TCP/IP Protocol Example

• TCP/IP protocols operate at

the application, transport,
and internet layers.

• The most common network

access layer LAN protocols
are Ethernet and WLAN
(wireless LAN).

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Protocol Suites
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• TCP/IP is the protocol suite
used by the internet and
includes many protocols.
• TCP/IP is:
• An open standard protocol
suite that is freely available
to the public and can be
used by any vendor
• A standards-based
protocol suite that is
endorsed by the
networking industry and
approved by a standards
organization to ensure
interoperability

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Reference Models

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Reference Models
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model
§ Complex concepts such as how
a network operates can be
difficult to explain and
understand. For this reason, a
layered model is used.

§ Two layered models describe

network operations:
• Open System
Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model
• TCP/IP Reference Model

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Reference Models
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model (Cont.)

These are the benefits of using a layered model:

• Assist in protocol design because protocols that operate at a specific layer
have defined information that they act upon and a defined interface to the
layers above and below

• Prevent technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other

layers above and below

• Provide a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities

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Reference Models
The OSI Reference Model

• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes

seven layers that computer systems use to communicate
over a network.

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Reference Models
The OSI Reference Model
OSI Model Layer Description
Contains protocols used for process-to-process
7 - Application
communications.
Provides for common representation of the data transferred
6 - Presentation
between application layer services.
Provides services to the presentation layer and to manage
5 - Session
data exchange.
Defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the
4 - Transport
data for individual communications.
Provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data
3 - Network
over the network.
Describes methods for exchanging data frames over a
2 - Data Link
common media.
Describes the means to activate, maintain, and de-activate
1 - Physical
physical connections.

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Reference Models
The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Model
Description
Layer
Represents data to the user, plus encoding and dialog
Application
control.
Supports communication between various devices
Transport
across diverse networks.
Internet Determines the best path through the network.
Controls the hardware devices and media that make up
Network Access
the network.

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Reference Models
OSI and TCP/IP Model Comparison

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Data Encapsulation

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Data Encapsulation
Segmenting Messages
§ Segmenting is the process of
breaking up messages into smaller
units.
§ Multiplexing is the processes of
taking multiple streams of segmented
data and interleaving them together.
§ Segmenting messages has two
primary benefits:
• Increases speed - Large amounts
of data can be sent over the
network without tying up a
communications link.
• Increases efficiency - Only
segments which fail to reach the
destination need to be
retransmitted, not the entire data
stream.

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Data Encapsulation
Sequencing

§ Sequencing messages is the

process of numbering the
segments so that the message
may be reassembled at the
destination.
§ TCP is responsible for sequencing
the individual segments.

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Data Encapsulation
Protocol Data Units
§ Encapsulation is the process where protocols add their information to the data.
§ At each stage of the process, a PDU has a different name to reflect its new
functions.
§ PDUs passing down the stack are as follows:
1. Data (Data Stream)
2. Segment
3. Packet
4. Frame
5. Bits (Bit Stream)

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Data Encapsulation
Protocol Data Units

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Data Encapsulation
Encapsulation Example

• Encapsulation is a top
down process.
• The level above does its
process and then passes
it down to the next level of
the model.
• This process is repeated
by each layer until it is
sent out as a bit stream.

A web server encapsulating and sending a web

page to a client

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Data Encapsulation
De-encapsulation Example
• Data is de-encapsulated as it
moves up the stack.
• When a layer completes its
process, that layer strips off its
header and passes it up to the next
level to be processed.
• This is repeated at each layer until
it is a data stream that the
application can process.
1. Received as Bits (Bit Stream)
2. Frame
3. Packet
4. Segment A client de-encapsulating the web page for the
5. Data (Data Stream) web browser

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Data Access

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Data Access
Addresses
• Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.

• ‘IP’ stands for ‘Internet Protocol’.

• IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as [Link])

which identifies a computer location.

• Common network protocols:

– IP version 4 (IPv4)
– IP version 6 (IPv6)

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Data Access
Addresses
§ Both the data link and network layers use addressing to deliver data from
source to destination.
• Network layer source and destination addresses
• Data link layer source and destination

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Data Access
Layer 3 Logical Address
§ The network layer, or Layer 3, logical address contains information required for delivering
the IP packet from original source to the final destination.
• The IP packet contains two IP addresses:
• Source IP address - The IP address of the sending device, original source of the
packet.

• Destination IP address - The IP address of the receiving device, final destination of

the packet.

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Data Access
Layer 3 Logical Address (Cont.)

An IP address contains two parts:

• Network portion (IPv4) or Prefix (IPv6)
• The left-most part of the address
indicates the network group which
the IP address is a member.
• Each LAN or WAN will have the
same network portion.
• Host portion (IPv4) or Interface ID
(IPv6)
• The remaining part of the address
identifies a specific device within the
group.
• This portion is unique for each device
on the network.

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Data Access
Devices on the Same Network

When devices are on the same

network the source and destination
will have the same number in
network portion of the address.

PC1 – [Link]
FTP Server – [Link]

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Data Access
Devices on a Remote Network
• What happens when the actual (ultimate) destination is not on the same LAN
and is remote?
• What happens when PC1 tries to reach the Web Server?
• Does this impact the network and data link layers?

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Data Access
Role of the Network Layer Addresses

When the source and destination

have a different network portion, this
means they are on different
networks.
PC1 – 192.168.1
Web Server – 172.16.1

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Connecting to the Network

• Routers are network connecting devices that determine the shortest

path for a packet to take to get to its destination. A router's primary
function is to connect multiple networks at once.

• Routers work on the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) architecture

at the network layer. They use the “logical address” of packets and
routing tables to determine the best path for data delivery.

• Routers efficiently route information between local area networks.

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Data Access
Data Link Address
§ The data link, or Layer 2, physical address – Responsible for delivering
the data link frame from one network interface card (NIC) to another NIC
on the same network.

§ MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique serial number for

your device's network adapter (NIC), which allows it to connect to a
network.

§ MAC addresses are physically permanently embedded into the Ethernet

NIC by the manufacturer and are local addressing.

§ It typically appears as a string of six groups of two hexadecimal digits,

separated by colons or dashes (e.g., 1A:2B:3C:4D:5E:6F).

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Data Access
Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses: Same IP Network
§ When devices are on the same Ethernet network the data link frame will use
the actual MAC address of the destination NIC.

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Data Access
Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses: Different IP Networks

§ When the final destination is remote, Layer 3 will provide Layer 2

with the local default gateway IP address, also known as the router
address.

§ The default gateway (DGW) is the router interface IP address that

is part of this LAN and will be the “door” or “gateway” to all other
remote locations.

§ All devices on the LAN must be told about this address or their traffic
will be confined to the LAN only.

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Data Access
Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses: Different IP Networks
• Once Layer 2 on PC1 forwards to the default gateway (Router), the router then
can start the routing process of getting the information to actual destination.

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Data Access
Data Link Addresses
• Since data link addressing is local addressing, it will have a source and
destination for each segment or hop of the journey to the destination.
• The MAC addressing for the first segment is:
• Source – (PC1 NIC) sends frame
• Destination – (First Router- DGW interface) receives frame

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Data Access
Data Link Addresses (Cont.)

The MAC addressing for the second hop is:

• Source – (First Router- exit interface) sends frame
• Destination – (Second Router) receives frame

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Data Access
Data Link Addresses (Cont.)
§ The MAC addressing for the last segment is:
• Source – (Second Router- exit interface) sends frame
• Destination – (Web Server NIC) receives frame

Presentation_ID © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 54
Data Access
Data Link Addresses (Cont.)
• Notice that the packet is not modified, but the frame is changed, therefore the
L3 IP addressing does not change from segment to segment like the L2 MAC
addressing.
• The L3 addressing remains the same since it is global.

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Connecting to the Network

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Connecting to the Network

• A repeater is implemented in
computer networks to expand the
coverage area of the network,
repropagate a weak or broken
signal.

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Connecting to the Network

A hub is physical layer networking device which is

used to connect multiple devices in a network. They
are generally used to connect computers in a LAN.

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Connecting to the Network
• A hub has many ports in it. A computer which intends to be connected
to the network is plugged in to one of these ports.

• When a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast to every other port,

without considering whether it is destined for a particular destination or
not.

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Connecting to the Network

• A switch is a data link layer networking device which

connects devices in a network and uses packet
switching to send and receive data over the network.

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Connecting to the Network
• A switch also has many ports, to which computers are plugged in.
However, when a data frame arrives at any port of a network switch,
it examines the destination address and sends the frame to the
corresponding device(s).

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Connecting to the Network

Hub Switch
They operate in the physical They operate in the data link
layer of the OSI model. layer of the OSI model.

It is a non-intelligent network It is an intelligent network device

device that sends message to all that sends message to selected
ports. destination ports.
It primarily broadcasts messages. It is supports unicast, multicast
and broadcast.

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Connecting to the Network

• The main objective of a Router is to connect multiple

networks.

• The main objective of a Hub and a Switch is to connect

several devices on the same network.

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Connecting to the Network

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