UNIT IV

FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT

4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 FINAL CONTROL OPERATION
4.3 CURRENT TO PRESSURE CONVERTER
4.4 PNEUMATIC ACTUATOR
4.5 ELECTRICAL ACTUATOR
4.6 VALVE POSITIONER
4.7 CONTROL VALVE PRINCIPLE
4.8 CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES
4.9 VALVE SIZING
4.10 CAVITATION AND FLASHING
4.11 SELECTION OF CONTROL VALVES
4.12 SUMMARY
4.13 QUESTIONNAIRE
4.1 INTRODUCTION

The function of final control element is to translate low energy

control signals into a level of action commensurate with the process
under control.

4.2 FINAL CONTROL OPERATION

Control Signal Actuator

signal conversions

Final
Control
element

Process

Fig 4.1 Elements of final control operation

 Final control operations involve the steps necessary to convert

the control signal (generated by a process controller) into
proportional action on the process itself.
 The input signals take many forms- an electric current, a digital
signal or pneumatic pressure.
 The devices that perform signal conversions are called
transducers because they convert control signals from one form
to another, such as current to pressure, current to voltage etc.
 The actuator is a translation of (converted) control signal into
action on the control element.
 Control element has direct influence on the process dynamic
variable and is designed a san integral part of the process. ie If
flow is to be controlled, then control element is a valve. If
temperature is to be controlled, then control element could be a
heater/cooler combination that is electrically actuated by relays
or a pneumatic valve to control influx of reactants.
4.3 CURRENT TO PRESSURE CONVERTER

 The current to pressure converter or I/P converter is an important

element in process control.
 When we want to use low level electric current signal to do work,
it is easier to let the work be done by a pneumatic signal.
 I/P converter gives a liner way of translating the 4 to 20 mA
current into a 3 to 15 psig signal.
 There are many designs for these converters, but the basic
principle involves the use of nozzle/flapper system.
 Fig 4.2 illustrates a simple way to construct such a converter.
 The current through the coil produces a force that will tend to
pull the flapper down and close off the gap.
 A high current produces a high pressure so that the device is
direct acting.
 Adjustments of the springs and perhaps the position relative to
the pivot to which they are attached allow the unit to be
calibrated so that 4mA corresponds to 3 psig and 20 mA
corresponds to 15 psig.

Fig 4.2 Using a flapper nozzle for a current to pressure converter

 4.4 PNEUMATIC ACTUATOR

 The actuator often translates a control signal into a large

force or torque as required to manipulate some control
element.
 The pneumatic actuator is most useful for such translation.
 The principle is based on the concept of pressure as force per
unit area.
 If a net pressure difference is applied across a diaphragm of
surface area A, then a net force acts on the diaphragm given
by
F=A(p1-p2)
Where p1-p2 = pressure difference(Pa)
A= diaphragm area(m2)
F= force(N)
If we need to double the available force for a given pressure, it is
necessary to double the diaphragm area.
 Though many types of pneumatic actuators are available,
the most common are associated with control valves.
 The action of a pneumatic actuator is shown in fig 4.3. Fig
4.3a shows the condition in the low signal pressure state, where
spring S maintains the diaphragm and the connected control
shaft in a position as shown. The pressure on the opposite side of
the diaphragm is maintained at atmospheric pressure by the
open hole H. Increasing the control pressure applies a force on
the diaphragm, forcing the diaphragm and connected shaft down
against the spring force.
 Fig 4.3b shows the case of maximum control pressure and
maximum travel of the shaft. The pressure and force are linearly
related and the compression of spring is linearly related to
forces.

Pressure input

diaphragm

Hole
H

Spring
S

Fig 4.3 a A direct pneumatic actuator for converting pressure signals into
mechanical shaft motion
 Pressure input

diaphragm

Hole
H

Spring
S

Fig 4.3b

 The shaft position is linearly related to the applied control

pressure

where = shaft travel(m)

=
applied
gauge
pressure
(Pa)

A=diaph
ragm
area(m2)

K=sprin
g
constant
(N/m).
 Types of pneumatic actuators
 Spring actuator
 Spring actuator with positioner
 Springless actuator
 Piston actuator
 Motor Actuator

4.5 ELECTRICAL ACTUATOR

The common electrical actuators are solenoids, digital stepping

motors and ac and dc motors.

Solenoid

A solenoid is an elementary device that converts an electrical

signal into mechanical motion. As shown in fig 4.4 The solenoid
consists of a coil and plunger. The plunger may be freestanding or
spring [Link] coil will have some voltage or current ratingand
may be ac or dc. Solenoid specifications include the electrical rating
and plunger pull or push force when excited by specified
[Link] solenoids are rated only for intermittent duty because
of thermal constraints.
 Fig 4.4 A solenoid converts an electric signal to a physical displacement

Solenoids are used when a large, sudden force must be appled

to perform some job. A solenoid is used to change the gears of a
two position transmission. A SCR is used to activate the solenoid
coil.

Electrical motor

Electrical motors are devices that accept electrical input and

produce continuous rotation as a result. Motor styles and sizes vary
as demands for rotational speed, starting torque, rotational torque
and other specifications vary. The common varieties are - ac motor,
dc motor and stepping motor.

4.6 VALVE POSITIONER

 The friction in the packing and guiding surface of a control valve

causes a control valve to exhibit hysteresis as shown in the
figure 4.5, in which the stem position is plotted against valve-top
pressure.

Stem
D C
Position,
A B
H

Signal to valve

Fig 4.5 Control Valve Hysteresis

 When the pressure increases, the stem position increases along

the lower curve. When the pressure decreases, the stem position
decreases along the upper curve. At the moment the air pressure
 signal reverses, the stem position stays in the last position until
the dead band “H” is exceeded, after which the pressure begins
to decrease or increase along the paths shown by the arrows.
 If the valve is subjected to a slow periodic variation in pressure, a
typical path taken by the stem position is shown by the closed
curve “ABCDA” in the above figure 4.5.
 The Hysteresis is caused by the friction between the stem and
the packing, and it is a nonlinear phenomenon and cannot be
expressed by a transfer function. A valve can exhibit both
hysteresis and dynamic lag. A dynamic lag is caused by the
volume of space above the valve diaphragm, the resistance to
flow of air to the valve top, and the inertia of the valve stem and
plug. This lag can be expressed by a first order or second order
transfer function.
 The presence of hysteresis in the valve can cause the controlled
signal to exhibit an oscillation or ripple called a limit cycles. Since
this limit cycle is usually considered objectionable and
contributes to wear of the valve, a method is needed to eliminate
it. Since the limit cycle is a nonlinear phenomenon related to the
hysteresis, controller tuning is not a solution to the problem.
 To reduce the deleterious effect of hysteresis and to also speed
up the response of the valve, one can attach to the control valve
a positioner which acts as a high gain proportional controller that
receives a set-point signal from the primary controller and a
measurement from the valve stem position. In this sense, the
addition of a valve positioner introduces a form of cascade
control. A sketch of control valve with positioner attached is
shown in the figure 4.6a.
 Fig 4.6 a Pressure to close valve with single seating

 A valve positioner, bolted to the valve actuator, has an arm that

is clamped to the valve stem to detect the stem position.
 The valve positioner has the usual connections for a controller: a
set-point that calls for a desired stem position in the form of a
signal from the primary controller , a measurement in the form
of stem position , and a pneumatic output in the form of a
pressure to the valve top .
 A valve positioner, bolted to the valve actuator, has an arm that
is clamped to the valve stem to detect the stem position.
 The valve positioner has the usual connections for a controller: a
set-point that calls for a desired stem position in the form of a
signal from the primary controller , a measurement in the form
of stem position , and a pneumatic output in the form of a
pressure to the valve top .
 Figure4.6 b Control Valve with Positioner

 A valve positioner, bolted to the valve actuator, has an arm that

is clamped to the valve stem to detect the stem position.
 The valve positioner has the usual connections for a controller: a
set-point that calls for a desired stem position in the form of a
signal from the primary controller , a measurement in the form
of stem position , and a pneumatic output in the form of a
pressure to the valve top .
 The mechanical details of an actual valve positioner involve a
pneumatic mechanism functioning as a high gain proportional
controller. The gain is built into the design of the positioner and
cannot be adjusted. The valve positioner is especially important
for speeding up the valve motion, eliminating hysteresis and
valve stem friction.

4.7 CONTROL VALVE PRINCIPLE

Flow rate in process control is expressed as volume per unit time. If

a mass flow rate is desired, it can be calculated from the particular
fluid density. If a given fluid is delivered through a pipe, then the
volume flow rate is
Q=Av
Where Q = flow rate(m3/s)
A= pipe area (m2)
V= flow velocity (m/s)

The purpose of control valve is to regulate the flow rate of fluids

through pipes in the system. This is accomplished by placing a
variable size restriction in the flow path as shown in fig 4.7

As the stem and plug move up and down, the size of the
opening between plug and the seat changes, thus changing the
flow rate. Note the direction of flow with respect to the seat and
plug. If the flow were reversed, force from the flow would tend to
close the valve further at small openings.

There will be a pressure drop across such a restriction and flow

rate varies with square root of this pressure drop with an
appropriate constant of proportionality

where K=proportionality constant(m3/s/Pa1/2)

= p2-p1 = pressure difference (Pa)

stem
plug

Flow Flow
in out

seat
Valve body

Fig 4.7 A basic control valve section

4.8 CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES

The different types of control valves are classified by a relationship

between the valve stem position and the flow rate through the
valve.. This control valve characteristic is assigned with the
assumptions that the stem position indicates the extent of the valve
opening and that the pressure difference is determined by the valve
alone.

There are three basic types of control valves whose

relationship between stem position (as a percentage of full range)
and flow rate (as a percentage of maximum) is shown in fig 4.8

The types are determined by the shape of the plug and seat.
As stem and plug move with respect to the seat, the shape of the
plug determines the amount of actual opening of the valve.
 Quick opening
 Linear
 Equal percentage
Flow rate through valven as Q/Qmax

1
Quick opening
0.8

0.6
linear

0.4

Equal
0.2 percentage

0
1. Quick opening R=30
This type
0 of valve
0.2 is 0.4
used predominantly
0.6 0.8 for full
1 ON/ fullOFF
control applications. Stem
The position
valve characteristic
as S/Smax of above fig 4.8 shows
that a relatively small motion of the valve stem results in maximum

Fig 4.8Three types of control valves open differently as a function of valve stem position
possible flow rate through the valve. Such a valve for example may
allow 90% of maximum flow rate with only 30% travel of the stem.

2. Linear
This type of valve as shown in fig 4.8 has a flow rate that
varies linearly with the stem position. It represents the ideal
situation where the valve alone determines the pressure drop. The
relationship is expressed as

Where Q =flow rate(m3/s)

Qmax =maximum flow rate(m3/s)
S =Stem position(m)
Smax = maximum Stem position(m)

3. Equal percentage
A very important type of valve employed in flow control has
a characteristic such that a given percentage change in stem
position produces an equivalent change inflow- ie an equal
percentage. Generally this type of valve does not shut off the flow
completely in its limit of stem travel. Thus Q min represents the
minimum flow when the stem is at one limit of its travel. At the
other extreme, the valve allows a flow Q max as its maximum, open
valve flow rate. For this type, rangeability R is defined as the ratio

The curve in fig 4.8 shows a typical equal percentage curve that
depends on the rangeability. The curve shows that increase in flow
rate for a given change in valve opening depends on the extent to
which the valve is already open. The curve is typically exponential
in form and is represented by

4.8.1Control valve Characteristics

The relationship between control valve capacity and valve stem

travel is known as flow characteristic of the control valve.

Inherent control valve flow characteristics

The most common characteristics is shown in fig 4.8. The percent of
flow through the valve is plotted against valve stem position. The
curves are based on constant pressure drop across the valve and
are called inherent flow characteristics.
Installed control valve flow characteristics
When valves are installed with pumps, piping and fittings and other
process equipment, the pressure drop across the valve will vary as
the plug moves through its travel.
When the actual flow in a system is plotted against valve opening ,
the curve is called installed flow characteristics.

In most applications, when the valve opens and the resistance due
to fluid flow decreases the pressure drop across the valve. This
moves the inherent characteristics:
 A linear inherent curve will resemble a quick opening
characteristic.
 An equal percentage curve will resemble a linear curve.

Inherent

Inherent
Flow
Flow

Installed Installed

Lift
Lift

4.8.2 Control Valve types

Commercial valves are named according to the type of body

construction
Two methods of providing variable orifice are
 By placing a stopper obstruction
 Obdurating
 Sliding
 rotating
 By squeezing the pipe.
 Principle of controlling flow Valve using the
principle

 Obdurating –stopper is movedby direct Globe valve

thrust on to the orifice seating
 Rotating – Stopper is rotated Butterfly valve
 Sliding – Stopper is slided across the Gate valve
Face of orifice seating
 Squeezing Diaphragm valve

Gate Valves
Best Suited Control: Quick Opening

Recommended Uses:
1. Fully open/closed, non-throttling
2. Infrequent operation
3. Minimal fluid trapping in line

Applications: Oil, gas, air, slurries, heavy liquids, steam,

noncondensing gases, and corrosive liquids

Advantages:
1. High capacity [Link] shutoff
3. Low cost 4. Little resistance to flow

Disadvantages:
 1. Poor control
2. Cavitate at low pressure drops

3. Cannot be used for throttling

Globe Valves
Best Suited Control: Linear and Equal percentage

Recommended Uses:
1. Throttling service/flow regulation
2. Frequent operation

Applications: Liquids, vapors, gases, corrosive substances, slurries

Advantages:

[Link] throttling
2. Accurate flow control
3. Available in multiple ports

Disadvantages:
[Link] pressure drop 2. More expensive than other valves
Ball Valves
Best Suited Control: Quick opening, linear

Recommended Uses:
1. Fully open/closed, limited-throttling
2. Higher temperature fluids

Applications: Most liquids, high temperatures, slurries

Advantages:

1. Low cost 2. High capacity

3. Low leakage and maint. 4. Tight sealing with low torque

Disadvantages:

1. Poor throttling characteristics

2. Poor throttling characteristics

Butterfly Valves
Best Suited Control: Linear, Equal percentage

Recommended Uses:
1. Fully open/closed or throttling services
2. Frequent operation
3. Minimal fluid trapping in line
Applications: Liquids, gases, slurries, liquids with suspended solids

Advantages:

1. Low cost and maintenance

2. High capacity

3. Good flow control

4. Low pressure drop

Disadvantages:

1. High torque required for control

2. Prone to cavitation at lower flows

Diaphragm valves

 Tight shut off possible

 Used for control of slurries, fluids with suspends and solids,
corrosive fluids
 Designed primarily for on/off services.

4.9 VALVE SIZING

In order to specify the size of a valve in terms of its capacity to provide

flow when fully open, the following equation is used:
 (4.9.1)
Where flow rate, gpm
Pressure drop across the wide-open valve, psi
Specific gravity of fluid at stream temperature relative to
water; for water
G=1
Factor associated with capacity of valve
 The above equation (4.9.1) applies to the flow of an
incompressible fluid through a fully open valve. Manufacturers
rate the size of a valve in terms of the factor Sometimes the
is defined as the floe (gpm) of a fluid of unit specific gravity
through a fully open valve, across the pressure drop of 1.0 lb/in 2
exists.
 This verbal definition of course obtained directly from equation
(4.9.1) by letting .
 The above equation is based on the well-known Bernoulli
equation for determining the pressure drop across valves and
resistances. It is important to emphasis that must be
determined from equation (4.9.1) using the units listed.
 Since so many valves in use are rated in terms of , equation
(1) is of practical importance, however, some industries now are
defining a valve coefficient , that is defined by the equation,

(2)
Where flow rate, m3/hr
Pressure drop across valve, Kgf/cm2
Specific gravity relative to water

The relation between is given by

 For gases and steam, modified version of equation (4.9.1) are

used in which is still used as a factor. Manufacturers of
valves provide brochures, nomographs, and special slide rules
for sizing valves for use with gases and steam.
 In general, as the physical size of a valve body (i.e. size of
pipe connectors) increases, the value of is roughly equal to
the square of the pipe size multiplied by ten. Using this rule, a
three-inch control valve should have a of about 90, with
units corresponding to those of equation (4.9.1).
 Importance of valve sizing
The proper size of the control valve is important because of
the effect on the operation of the automatic controllers. If the
 control valve is oversized, for eg the valve must operate at low
lift and the minimum controllable flow is too large. On the other
hand if the control valve is undersized, the maximum flow
desired for operation of a process may not be provided. Also the
flow rate could be controlled by the method of valve sizing.

Example problem

1. A valve with a rating of 4.0 is used to throttle the flow of

glycerin for which Determine the maximum flow through
the valve for a pressure drop of 100 psi.

Solution:

The coefficient varies with design of the valve (shape, size,

roughness) and the Reynolds number for the flow through the
valve. This relationship is analogous to the relationship between
friction factor and roughness and Reynolds number for flow
through a pipe.
 For relatively nonviscous fluids, in the above equation
(1) can be taken as a constant for a valve of given size and
type. The reason for this is that at high Reynolds numbers,
the friction factor changes very little with flow rate.
 Except for very viscous fluids, the flow through a valve,
which involves sudden contraction and expansion, is in the
turbulent regime of fluid flow; turbulence in the valve
exists even if the flow in the supply pipe is near the critical
Reynolds number of 2100.

4.10 CAVITATION AND FLASHING

Cavitation

 Cavitation in a valve body can occur when the pressure of the

flowing liquid drops below the fluid vapor pressure and then the
pressure is recovered above the vapor pressure.
 Cavitation affects valve sizing and can damage valve parts and
downstream piping, depending on valve trim design, pressure
drop, flow rate, temperature, and fluid. Care should be exercised
to ensure that the sizing methods are applicable to the valve
being evaluated.
  The small holes used in cavitation trim for the valve are
susceptible to plugging during operation, which should be
considered in the selection of valves and trim.

If cavitation is predicted, the following actions may be

considered:
1. Verify that the upstream pressure is required. (For
example, does the pump need to produce the pressure?)
2. Relocate the valve to a higher outlet pressure (e.g., grade
versus top of column).
3. Relocate the valve to a lower temperature.
4. Install a restriction orifice directly downstream of the valve
if flow rate variations are small.
5. Install additional valves.
6. Install a spare valve in parallel, or replace valve from
available stock.

Best method for eliminating cavitation is to find a successfully

functioning valve in a similar application and use that design.

1. For severe cavitation in water service (greater than 350 psi

drop), an anticavitation trim is recommended. Anticavitation trim
valves are extremely effective in demanding applications and
can significantly reduce the capacity of the valve. The
anticavitation trim is designed to do the following:
 Break the flow into many small streams
 Reduce the pressure in multiple stages.
 Force the flow through multiple turns or tortuous
paths.
 Direct the jets into the center of the cage to cancel
the energy force.

2. For moderate cavitation of water (less than 350 psi) and for most
hydrocarbon-cavitation services, an angle valve with hardened
venture is recommended. A sharp-edged seat port orifice to keep
the discharge away from the body wall should be selected.
3. For minor cavitation applications such as hydrocarbons with less
than 500 psig drop, a flow-to-open standard globe valve with
hardened trim is recommended.
4. In cavitation and erosive services where tight shutoff is required,
a separate ball valve should be considered.

Flashing

 If the pressure of a liquid at its flowing temperature is reduced

below its vapor pressure, vapor in the form of bubbles evolves
 from the liquid. If the downstream pressure in the valve does not
recover, but remains below the liquid vapor pressure, a mixture
of liquid and vapor will exit the valve. This is called flashing.
 When vapor continues to evolve to the point that flow becomes
restricted or choked, further reduction in downstream pressure
serves only to cause more vapor to evolve.
 Increased differential pressure caused by the lower downstream
pressure has no effect in accelerating flow through the valve
after the effective, or allowable, differential pressure is reached.
 To determine the capacity of the valve under these choked
conditions, the allowable, not the actual, differential pressure
should be used in the sizing formula.

Erosion is caused by high-velocity flow, particles, and corrosion.

Because high-velocity flow is associated with flashing, flashing
frequently causes erosion. Flashing tends to smoothly wear away
the plug and seat materials, causing leaky valves and changed flow
characteristics. To prevent erosion, hardened trim should be
selected, and a design with streamline flow, which prevents direct
impingement upon the trim, body, or pipe, should be used. A
recommended solution is an angle valve with a venture liner.

4.11 SELECTION OF CONTROL VALVES

The procedure for selection of control valve sizing is as follows

1. For a particular process under control, determine

a. The maximum value of flow rate required to sustain the
controlled variable under any condition of process operation.
This is the normal maximum flow rate.
b. The value of flow rate that will be required most of the time.
This is the normal flow rate.
c. The minimum value of flow rate required to sustain the
controlled variable under any conditions of process operation.
This is the minimum flow rate.

2. Select the maximum flow rate which the control valve is to

provide. This is generally based on the normal maximum flow
rate of about 70% of maximum flow rate. The additional flow is a
factor of safety which allows for low estimation of pressure losses
and high estimation of valve flow rate. The maximum flow rate
usually selected is about 1.4 times the normal maximum flow.

3. Select the style and type of control valve to provide best

operation for the fluid to be handled. Check the rangeability to
 insure that the minimum controllable flow is generously smaller
than the normal minimum flow rate desired.

4. Calculate the pressure differential at the control valve at the

maximum flow. This requires calculating line pressure losses,
flow equipment pressure losses, and determining upstream head
from pump or fan characteristic curves.

5. Determine the control valve size from manufacturers. If the fluid

viscosity is high or line viscosities are exceptionally low, the size
coefficient Cv will bw low and the manufacturer should be asked
to determine the valve size.

6. Calculate the characteristic coefficient:

If the number is relatively small(<0.1) or if

where M= minimum flow rate

Mmin= normal minimumflow rate.

then the control valve will at times , be required at less than 2% of

total lift. If this occurs, the control valve would require accurate
positioning by a powerful actuator, and the valve ports and plug
must be precisely manufactured. Otherwise it is best to inspect the
control valve installation to determine whether the differential head
can be increased by selecting larger pumps, larger line sizes or
minimizing losses in series flow equipment.

4.12 SUMMARY

 The function of final control element is to translate low energy

control signals into a level of action commensurate with the
process under control.
 Current to pressure converter gives a liner way of translating the
4 to 20 mA current into a 3 to 15 psig signal.
 The actuator often translates a control signal into a large force or
torque as required to manipulate some control element.
 The purpose of control valve is to regulate the flow rate of fluids
through pipes in the system
 The relationship between control valve capacity and valve stem
travel is known as flow characteristic of the control valve.
  There are three basic types of control valves – Quick opening,
equal percentage, linear.
 Cavitation in a valve body can occur when the pressure of the
flowing liquid drops below the fluid vapor pressure and then the
pressure is recovered above the vapor pressure.
 If the pressure of a liquid at its flowing temperature is reduced
below its vapor pressure, vapor in the form of bubbles evolves
from the liquid. If the downstream pressure in the valve does not
recover, but remains below the liquid vapor pressure, a mixture
of liquid and vapor will exit the valve. This is called flashing.

4.13 QUESTIONAIRE

1. What is the function of control valve in a flow control system?

2. What is the need for I/P converter in a control system?
3. Explain the function of pneumatic transmission lines.
4. Give two examples for electric actuators.
5. Name one application of electrical actuators.
6. What is the purpose of final control element?
7. Name any one final control element.
8. Define Rangeability.
9. Define Control Valve sizing.
10. What are the characteristics of control valve?
11. Why installed characteristics of a control valve are different from
inherent characteristics?
12. Differentiate inherent characteristics and installed
characteristics.
13. What is “quick opening” control valve?
14. What is “Linear” control valve?
15. What is “equal percentage” in the equal percentage valve?
16. When do you use a valve positioner?
17. What is flashing in control valve?
18. What is meant by cavitations in control valve?