Physical
Quantities
To do an experiment we need:
Measurements: Graphs:
Measuring Areas Tools: Steps: Results: Anomalous
result *
Square = side x side Graphs
rectangle = length x width Precautions: Directly y axis
triangle = ½ base x height 1. Zero error proportional:
N.B. (Restart (increase speed and
Trapezium = (b1+b2/2) x h stopwatch, distance). It should
two parallel bases. measure from 0 in start from the zero
ruler)
Displacement method y axis point. x axis
2. Parallax error Indirectly
For (look parallel ) proportional:
irregular They increase by the
shapes 3. Be sure that the same rate.
ruler is close and
parallel to the
Directly
object proportional
Using ruler For
Cube= s x s x s regular Indirectly
Cuboid = Lx Wx H shapes proportional
Cylinder= 22/7 r2x h
Volume
I
Liquid Solid
Measuring cylinder
Precautions:
• Look perpendicular to avoid parallax error
• Make sure there’s no bubbles
I Irregular Regular
1. Fill a measuring cylinder with water and note the initial
volume. • Take dimensions
Floating: • Use ruler
2. Gently place the irregular solid into the water. • Apply the rule (formula)
1. Fill a measuring cylinder
with water, write volume.
3. Write the new volume.
Precautions:
2. Tie the floating solid to a
4. Subtract initial (R2) from final volume (R1) → gives sinker (heavier object) 1. Ensure both sinker + solid
volume of solid. with thread. are fully submerged.
Precautions:
3. Put both into water, write 2. Read volume at lower
1. Put solid slowly to avoid splashing. new volume. meniscus.
2. Ensure solid is fully submerged. 4. Subtract sinker’s volume 3. Repeat at least 3 times
(measured separately) to after ignoring anomaly
3. Read volume at lower meniscus. get solid’s volume. result.
4. Repeat at least 3 times after ignoring anomaly
result
Cylinder (pencil): Precautions:
• Wrap string tightly and straight (no slant).
1. Wrap a inelastic string multiple times around the
pencil at its middle, perpendicular to its length; • Avoid gaps or overlaps.
mark the overlap.
• Wrap it multiple times, then divide by number of
2. Straighten and lay next to a ruler, take reading. wraps for accuracy.
• Repeat at least 3 times after ignoring anomaly
3. That measurement is the circumference. result.
Cylinder: • Place sticks firmly and exactly tangent to the
1. Place the cylinder on a flat surface. cylinder.
• Ensure cylinder is on a flat surface.
2. Put two straight sticks/tips tangent on opposite sides of the
cylinder. • Measure distance carefully at eye level.
3. Measure the distance between the sticks using a ruler → • Repeat at least 3 times after ignoring anomaly
that’s the diameter.
result.
Thickness of paper: • Align sheets perfectly, no gaps or bends.
1. Stack 100–500 sheets neatly.
• Remove any cover or wrapper from the sheets to avoid
extra thickness.
2. Measure total thickness with a micrometer or ruler .
• Read perpendicular to avoid parallax error.
3. Divide total thickness by number of sheets → thickness of
one sheet.
• Repeat at least 3 times (from different sides) after
ignoring anomaly result.
Pendulum
Precautions
1. Make a clear mark at the pendulum’s central position.
• Make a clear mark at central position for
accurate timing.
2. Set pendulum swinging with small amplitude.
• Restart stopwatch to avoid zero error.
3. Start stopwatch as bob passes the mark.
• Start/stop stopwatch exactly as bob crosses
4. Count 20 (or more) oscillations. the mark.
5. Stop stopwatch when pendulum passes the mark on the last • Avoid parallax error when viewing mark and
oscillation. pendulum.
6. Divide total time by number of oscillations → time for one • Repeat at least 3 times after ignoring
period. anomaly result.
How to measure the circumference of the cup or
cylinder? (4 m)
Use inelastic string around the cylinder and then
measure over the ruler. 10 turns and take average.
Close turns for accurate results.
·
Displacement can be shorter than direction but never better.
Calculating displacement: subtracting the Kms 5-7= -2 Km
due west from starting point.
Distance refers to the length of the entire path that the object
travelled.
Calculating distance: adding the Kms 5+7=12 Km
due east of starting point.
The symbol (s)
means
DISPLACEMENT
Velocity Formula
Speed Formula
↑
T
Questions
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(Mark Scheme )
Parallax error
Level the eye with the bottom of the meniscus
The mirror reduces parallax error by ensuring the
needle is read directly above when it aligns with its
reflection.
Forces and
Motion
Scaler Vector Instantaneous Speed: Speed of an object at
particular moment.
- Change
>
Final - Initial
Acceleration=
Time
Speed Velocity
The steeper the line, the faster the acceleration.
Uniform = constant = steady
Falling
Free fall With air resistance
• No air resistance
• Constant acceleration • Weight is bigger than air resistance,
• g= 10 N/ kg object is in constant acceleration
•
When weight is = to air resistance,
• The acceleration of free-falling object moves at constant speed
objects does not depend on their (terminal velocity)
mass or size.
Higher air resistance = lower speed
Air resistance increase = speed decrease
1. Only weight force, accelerate.
Bigger surface area 2. Air resistance less than weight, acceleration decreases.
Bigger the air resistance 3. Air resistance equal to weight, terminal velocity.
4. Open parachute.
5. Air resistance is bigger than weight, decelerate.
6. Air resistance equal to weight, terminal velocity.
Distance travelled Area under the graph
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Questions
&
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Question 1
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