REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Table of Contents
PART A: FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. Uterus — Definition, Structure, Layers, Functions
2. Ovaries — Definition, Structure, Follicles, Functions
3. Uterine Tubes (Fallopian Tubes) — Structure, Functions
4. Vagina — Structure, Functions, Normal Flora
PART B: OVARIAN CYCLE, OVULATION & FERTILIZATION
5. Ovarian Cycle — Phases, Hormones, Timeline
6. Ovulation — Mechanism, LH Surge
7. Fertilization — Process, Steps, Implantation
PART C: MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
8. Testes — Structure, Cells, Functions
9. Spermatic Cord — Contents, Functions
10. Epididymis — Structure, Role in Sperm Maturation
11. Vas Deferens (Ductus Deferens) — Structure, Functions
12. Seminal Vesicles — Structure, Secretions
13. Ejaculatory Ducts — Structure, Functions
14. Prostate Gland — Structure, Secretions, Clinical Notes
PART D: SPERMATOGENESIS
15. Spermatogenesis — Definition, Stages, Cell Types
16. Spermiogenesis — Transformation into Spermatozoa
17. Structure of a Spermatozoon
18. Hormonal Regulation of Spermatogenesis
 PART A: FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Overview of the Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system produces eggs (oocytes), secretes sex hormones (estrogen
and progesterone), and provides the environment for fertilization and development of a
baby.

Fig. 1: Overview of the Female Reproductive System showing major organs

1. UTERUS (The Womb)
1.1 Definition
The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped, highly muscular organ located in the pelvis of a female. It is also
called the WOMB. It is the place where a fertilized egg implants and grows into a baby during
pregnancy.

Simple Memory Tip: Think of the uterus as a "baby house" — it holds and nourishes the
growing baby for about 40 weeks (10 months).

1.2 Location & Size

•​ Located in the pelvic cavity, between the urinary bladder (front) and the rectum (back)
•​ In non-pregnant women: approximately 7.5 cm long x 5 cm wide x 2.5 cm thick
•​ Weighs about 60–80 grams (non-pregnant)
•​ During pregnancy, it can expand enormously to accommodate the growing baby

1.3 Parts / Structure of the Uterus

The uterus is divided into three main parts:
Fundus: The dome-shaped TOP part of the uterus, above where the fallopian tubes enter. It is the
widest, thickest part.
Body (Corpus): The MIDDLE, main portion of the uterus. This is the largest part where the embryo
implants.
Cervix: The LOWER, narrow neck-like portion. It connects the uterus to the vagina. Contains the
cervical canal (very narrow). Produces mucus to control sperm entry.
1.4 Three Layers of the Uterine Wall
The wall of the uterus has three distinct layers (from outside to inside):​
Layer 1: Perimetrium (Outer Layer)
•​ This is the outermost layer
•​ It is a thin, slippery SEROUS MEMBRANE (like a plastic wrap around the uterus)
•​ Function: Protects the uterus and reduces friction between it and surrounding organs

Layer 2: Myometrium (Middle Layer)

•​ This is the THICKEST layer — makes up about 90% of the uterine wall
•​ Made of SMOOTH MUSCLE fibers running in multiple directions (horizontal, vertical, diagonal)
•​ Function: Produces powerful contractions during childbirth (labor)
•​ Also contracts mildly during menstruation (causes cramps)
•​ Helps move sperm toward the uterine tubes during ovulation

Layer 3: Endometrium (Inner Layer — Most Important!)

•​ This is the INNERMOST lining of the uterus
•​ Has two sub-layers:
○​ Stratum Functionalis (Functional Layer): The UPPER layer — grows and sheds every month
during menstruation. This is where the fertilized egg implants.
○​ Stratum Basalis (Basal Layer): The LOWER layer — does NOT shed. It rebuilds the
functional layer each month.
The functional layer is rich in blood vessels (spiral arteries) and glands. During pregnancy, it nourishes
the embryo.

1.5 Ligaments Supporting the Uterus

•​ Broad ligament — drapes over the uterus like a tent
•​ Round ligament — keeps the uterus in a forward position
•​ Uterosacral ligament — connects the uterus to the sacrum (backbone)
•​ Cardinal ligament — main support, prevents downward prolapse

1.6 Functions of the Uterus

1.​ Implantation: Receives and provides a site for the fertilized egg (zygote) to implant
2.​ Nourishment: The endometrium nourishes the developing embryo before the placenta forms
3.​ Protection: Provides a protected environment for fetal development
4.​ Parturition: Myometrium contracts powerfully to push the baby out during birth
5.​ Menstruation: Sheds its lining monthly when pregnancy does not occur
6.​ Hormone Response: Responds to estrogen and progesterone to prepare for pregnancy
2. OVARIES
2.1 Definition
The ovaries are the PRIMARY female reproductive organs (gonads). A woman has TWO ovaries, one
on each side of the uterus. They perform two main jobs: (1) produce eggs (oocytes), and (2) produce
female sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone).

Think of the ovary as a clock — it runs on a precise 28-day cycle, producing eggs and
hormones in a perfectly timed sequence.

2.2 Location & Size

•​ Located on each side of the uterus within the pelvic cavity
•​ Average size: 3.5 cm x 2 cm x 1 cm — about the size and shape of a LARGE ALMOND
•​ Held in place by multiple ligaments: ovarian ligament, suspensory ligament, and broad ligament​

2.3 Structure of the Ovary

External Covering
•​ Germinal Epithelium: Outermost, smooth layer of cuboidal cells covering the ovary
•​ Tunica Albuginea: Dense fibrous capsule just beneath the epithelium — protects the ovary

Ovarian Cortex (Outer Region)

•​ This is where ALL the action happens!
•​ Contains the OVARIAN FOLLICLES at various stages of development
•​ Each follicle is like a "nest" containing a developing egg cell (oocyte)

Ovarian Medulla (Inner Region)

•​ Central region with no follicles
•​ Contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves that supply the ovary

2.4 Ovarian Follicles — Stages of Development

An ovarian follicle is a tiny structure in the ovary that contains and nourishes a developing egg cell. As
the egg matures, the follicle goes through several stages:

Fig. 4: Stages of ovarian follicle development from primordial to mature Graafian follicle
Stage 1 — Primordial Follicle: The smallest, earliest stage. Just an oocyte surrounded by a SINGLE
layer of flat cells. Present from birth! A baby girl is born with 1-2 MILLION of these.
Stage 2 — Primary Follicle: Primordial follicle becomes active. Now surrounded by TWO or more
layers of granulosa cells (round cells).
Stage 3 — Secondary Follicle: More granulosa cells develop. Theca cells (outer layer) appear. A fluid
space called the ANTRUM begins to form. Secretes ESTROGEN.
Stage 4 — Mature (Graafian) Follicle: The LARGEST follicle — visible to the naked eye. Antrum is
fully formed. Has the zona pellucida (clear coat around egg), corona radiata (crown of cells), and
cumulus oophorus (cloud of support cells). Ready for OVULATION.
Stage 5 — Corpus Luteum (Yellow Body): After ovulation, the empty follicle transforms into this
yellow gland. Secretes PROGESTERONE. Prepares uterus for pregnancy.
Stage 6 — Corpus Albicans (White Body): If no pregnancy, corpus luteum degenerates into scar
tissue. The cycle then repeats.

2.5 Functions of the Ovaries

7.​ Oogenesis: Produces mature egg cells (oocytes/ova)
8.​ Estrogen Secretion: Develops female characteristics, controls uterine lining growth
9.​ Progesterone Secretion: Maintains pregnancy, controls the luteal phase
10.​Inhibin Secretion: Regulates FSH release from the pituitary gland

3. UTERINE TUBES (Fallopian Tubes / Oviducts)

3.1 Definition
The uterine tubes (also called Fallopian tubes or oviducts) are two hollow tubes that carry the egg from
the ovary to the uterus. They are also the site where fertilization normally occurs.

Key Fact: The uterine tubes are NOT directly attached to the ovaries! The egg is released
into the abdominal cavity and then swept into the tube by the finger-like fimbriae.
3.2 Structure (Parts of the Uterine Tube)
Each tube is about 10–12 cm long and has four regions:
Infundibulum: The funnel-shaped OUTER END, closest to the ovary. Has finger-like projections called
FIMBRIAE that sweep the egg into the tube at ovulation.
Ampulla: The WIDEST, longest part of the tube. This is where FERTILIZATION normally occurs!
Sperm meets egg here.
Isthmus: The NARROW portion connecting the ampulla to the uterus
Intramural (Interstitial) Part: The INNERMOST part embedded in the wall of the uterus, opening into
the uterine cavity

3.3 Wall Layers of the Uterine Tube

•​ Outer serosa — protective covering
•​ Middle muscularis — smooth muscle that contracts to move egg
•​ Inner mucosa — has CILIATED cells (hair-like) that beat rhythmically to move egg toward uterus

3.4 Functions of the Uterine Tubes

11.​Transport: Carries the egg from ovary toward the uterus
12.​Fertilization Site: The AMPULLA is where sperm meets egg (fertilization)
13.​Sperm Capacitation: The tube environment helps make sperm capable of fertilizing an egg
14.​Early Development: Early cell division of the zygote (fertilized egg) occurs here
3.5 How the Egg Travels

•​ At ovulation, the egg is released into the pelvic cavity

•​ Estrogen causes smooth muscle in tube wall to contract — helps move the egg
•​ Fimbriae sweep the egg into the infundibulum
•​ Ciliated cells beat in wave-like motion toward uterus
•​ Journey from ovary to uterus takes about 3 days
•​ Fertilization must happen within 24 hours of ovulation

3.6 Clinical Note — Ectopic Pregnancy

ECTOPIC PREGNANCY: When a fertilized egg implants OUTSIDE the uterus (usually in the
fallopian tube = "tubal pregnancy"). This is dangerous and non-viable. Over 90% of ectopic
pregnancies occur in the fallopian tube.
4. VAGINA
4.1 Definition
The vagina is a muscular, elastic canal that connects the cervix of the uterus to the outside of the body.
It is about 8–10 cm long (3–4 inches) in an adult female.

4.2 Location & Structure

•​ Located between the urinary bladder/urethra (front) and the rectum (back)
•​ Runs at an angle upward and backward from the external opening to the cervix
•​ At the top, the vagina surrounds the cervix to form shallow recesses called FORNICES
(singular: fornix)

Wall Layers
•​ Outer adventitia (fibrous connective tissue)
•​ Middle muscularis (smooth muscle — allows stretching during childbirth)
•​ Inner mucosa — has transverse folds called RUGAE that allow the vagina to expand

4.3 Functions of the Vagina

15.​Receives the penis during sexual intercourse and receives semen
 16.​Birth canal: Provides the passageway for the baby during delivery
17.​Menstrual outlet: Allows menstrual blood and uterine debris to exit the body
18.​Self-cleaning organ: Maintains an acidic environment through beneficial bacteria

4.4 Normal Flora & pH

The vagina maintains a healthy internal environment:
•​ The dominant bacteria is Lactobacillus, a beneficial bacterium
•​ Lactobacillus secretes LACTIC ACID, maintaining an acidic pH below 4.5
•​ This acidic environment kills most harmful bacteria and prevents infections
•​ Douching (washing inside vagina) DISRUPTS this healthy balance — NOT recommended

Key Point: The vagina is a self-cleaning organ. The American College of Obstetricians and
Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends women should NOT douche as it disrupts the natural
protective flora.

4.5 The Hymen

•​ A thin, perforated membrane that partially covers the vaginal opening
•​ Even at birth, it is only a PARTIAL membrane — menstrual fluid must be able to exit
•​ An intact hymen CANNOT be used as an indicator of "virginity"
 PART B: OVARIAN CYCLE, OVULATION &
FERTILIZATION

5. THE OVARIAN CYCLE

5.1 What is the Ovarian Cycle?
The ovarian cycle is the monthly series of events in the ovary that leads to the release of one mature
egg. Hormones from the hypothalamus and pituitary gland drive it. In healthy women, it repeats every
28 days (like the moon cycle).
The ovarian cycle has THREE phases:
•​ Phase 1: FOLLICULAR PHASE (Days 1–13)
•​ Phase 2: OVULATION (Day 14)
•​ Phase 3: LUTEAL PHASE (Days 15–28)

Fig. 6: The Ovarian Cycle — hormone levels (LH, FSH, Estrogen, Progesterone) and follicular development across 28 days

5.2 Hormones Involved

The ovarian cycle is controlled by a hormonal chain:
GnRH (Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone): Released by the HYPOTHALAMUS → tells the pituitary
to release FSH and LH
FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone): Released by ANTERIOR PITUITARY → stimulates growth and
development of ovarian follicles
LH (Luteinizing Hormone): Released by ANTERIOR PITUITARY → surges at midcycle to trigger
OVULATION; also causes corpus luteum to form
Estrogen: Released by growing FOLLICLES → builds up uterine lining; at very high levels, triggers LH
surge
Progesterone: Released by the corpus luteum → maintains the uterine lining for potential pregnancy
Inhibin: Released by granulosa cells → inhibits FSH release (negative feedback)

5.3 Phase 1: Follicular Phase (Days 1–13)

This phase: Follicles develop, one becomes dominant, and estrogen rises.
•​ GnRH from hypothalamus stimulates pituitary to release FSH and LH
•​ FSH stimulates several primordial follicles to start growing
•​ Follicles develop through: primordial → primary → secondary → tertiary (antral) stage
•​ Growing follicles produce more and more ESTROGEN
•​ Rising estrogen causes NEGATIVE FEEDBACK on hypothalamus/pituitary → FSH decreases
•​ This decrease in FSH causes most follicles to undergo ATRESIA (die off)
•​ Only ONE dominant follicle survives — it continues growing
•​ About 99% of all follicles undergo atresia throughout a woman's life
•​ Duration: approximately 14 days (this phase is VARIABLE in length)

5.4 Phase 2: Ovulation (Day ~14)

As the dominant follicle becomes very large, estrogen levels surge dramatically. This causes:
19.​A massive surge of LH from the anterior pituitary (the "LH surge")
20.​LH triggers the primary oocyte inside the follicle to resume meiosis (it was paused!)
21.​The oocyte completes Meiosis I → becomes a SECONDARY OOCYTE
22.​LH triggers enzymes that digest the ovary wall at the surface of the follicle
23.​The follicle bursts — releasing the secondary oocyte into the pelvic cavity
24.​Fimbriae of the fallopian tube sweep the oocyte into the uterine tube
 KEY FACT: At ovulation, the oocyte released is actually a SECONDARY OOCYTE (not a
fully mature egg). It only completes meiosis II if fertilized by a sperm cell.

5.5 Phase 3: Luteal Phase (Days 15–28)

This phase: The follicle becomes the corpus luteum, progesterone dominates.
•​ After ovulation, the empty follicle transforms into the CORPUS LUTEUM ("yellow body")
•​ Corpus luteum acts as a temporary endocrine gland
•​ It secretes large amounts of PROGESTERONE (and some estrogen)
•​ Progesterone prepares the uterine lining for potential implantation
•​ High progesterone causes NEGATIVE FEEDBACK → suppresses GnRH, FSH, LH
•​ This prevents other follicles from developing during this phase
•​ Duration: approximately 14 days (this phase is CONSTANT in length)
IF NO PREGNANCY occurs:
•​ After 10-12 days, corpus luteum degenerates into CORPUS ALBICANS (white scar)
•​ Progesterone and estrogen levels DROP
•​ FSH and LH levels rise again → new cycle begins
IF PREGNANCY occurs:
•​ Embryo produces hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)
•​ hCG tells corpus luteum to KEEP producing progesterone
•​ Uterine lining is maintained — no menstruation
•​ This is what pregnancy tests detect!
6. THE UTERINE (MENSTRUAL) CYCLE
The uterine cycle is the monthly cycle of changes in the ENDOMETRIUM (inner lining of the uterus)
that is controlled by the hormones of the ovarian cycle. It is also called the menstrual cycle.

Fig. 7: The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle showing endometrial thickness changes through menses, proliferative, and secretory
phases

Phase 1: Menses / Menstruation (Days 1–5)

•​ Also called "period" or "menstrual flow"
•​ Progesterone and estrogen levels are LOW
•​ Spiral arteries in endometrium constrict → tissue gets no blood → DIES
•​ Functional layer of endometrium sheds
•​ Contains blood, tissue debris, and white blood cells
•​ First menstrual period in life is called MENARCHE

Phase 2: Proliferative Phase (Days 6–14)

•​ Rising ESTROGEN from growing follicles stimulates endometrium to REGROW
•​ Endometrial lining thickens and rebuilds
•​ Ends with ovulation on Day 14

Phase 3: Secretory Phase (Days 15–28)

•​ PROGESTERONE from corpus luteum dominates this phase
•​ Endometrial glands become coiled and secrete glycogen-rich fluid
•​ Spiral arteries develop to supply blood to the thick endometrium
•​ Endometrium at maximum thickness — perfect for embryo implantation
•​ If no implantation → progesterone drops → menses begins again
7. OVULATION AND FERTILIZATION

7.1 Oogenesis — Formation of the Egg

Oogenesis is the process of egg cell development. Unlike spermatogenesis (which begins at puberty),
oogenesis begins during FETAL LIFE.
•​ Fetal ovary has OOGONIA (stem cells) that divide by mitosis
•​ Oogonia become PRIMARY OOCYTES (diploid, 46 chromosomes)
•​ PRIMARY OOCYTES start Meiosis I but STOP at Prophase I
•​ They remain paused from fetal life until puberty or menopause!
•​ At BIRTH: 1-2 million primary oocytes
•​ At PUBERTY: only ~400,000 remain
•​ Each month, FSH stimulates a few to resume development
•​ LH surge just before ovulation triggers resumption of Meiosis I
•​ PRIMARY OOCYTE → (Meiosis I) → SECONDARY OOCYTE + 1st polar body
•​ Secondary oocyte pauses again at Metaphase II
•​ Only if fertilized by sperm does Meiosis II complete → OVUM + 2nd polar body

7.2 The Process of Fertilization

Fertilization is the union of the sperm cell and the egg cell to form a ZYGOTE (the first cell of a new
human being). This normally occurs in the AMPULLA of the uterine tube.

Steps of Fertilization:
25.​PHASE 1 — Sperm Penetrates Corona Radiata: Sperm cells reach the egg cell. Sperm uses
enzymes (hyaluronidase) to penetrate through the corona radiata (outer ring of cells).
 26.​PHASE 2 — Sperm Penetrates Zona Pellucida: Sperm head reaches the zona pellucida (clear
coat around egg). Acrosomal enzymes dissolve through this layer. ONLY ONE SPERM
penetrates. The zona pellucida immediately HARDENS (zona reaction) → blocks all other
sperm. This prevents POLYSPERMY (fertilization by >1 sperm).
27.​PHASE 3 — Fusion of Sperm and Egg Membranes: The sperm head fuses with the egg's
plasma membrane. The sperm nucleus enters the oocyte.
28.​Meiosis II Completes: Contact with sperm triggers the secondary oocyte to complete Meiosis II
→ becomes a true OVUM.
29.​Pronuclei Formation: Sperm nucleus and egg nucleus each form PRONUCLEI containing
haploid (23) chromosomes.
30.​Fusion of DNA: Both pronuclei fuse → creates ZYGOTE with 46 chromosomes (diploid). This is
the first cell of the new individual!

7.3 After Fertilization — Journey to Implantation

•​ DAY 0: Fertilization in the ampulla
•​ Days 1–3: Zygote divides as it travels through the uterine tube
•​ → 2 cells → 4 cells → 8 cells → MORULA (solid ball of 16 cells)
•​ Days 3–5: Morula enters the uterus → becomes a BLASTOCYST (hollow ball)
•​ Days 6–10: Blastocyst HATCHES from zona pellucida
•​ Days 8–9: IMPLANTATION — blastocyst burrows into the endometrium
•​ Once implanted → embryo starts producing hCG → pregnancy is established!

Important: Pregnancy tests detect hCG in urine. hCG levels rise about 10-12 days after
conception and can be detected before a missed period.
 PART C: MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Overview of the Male Reproductive System

Fig. 8: Overview of the Male Reproductive System — lateral view showing all major organs

The male reproductive system produces sperm cells and the hormone testosterone, and delivers sperm
into the female reproductive tract. Key structures include the testes, a duct system (epididymis, vas
deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra), accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral
glands), and the penis.
8. TESTES (Male Gonads)
8.1 Definition
The testes (singular: testis) are the PRIMARY male reproductive organs. There are TWO testes,
housed outside the body cavity in a pouch called the SCROTUM. They perform two main functions: (1)
produce sperm cells, and (2) produce the male sex hormone testosterone.

Why are testes outside the body? Sperm production requires a temperature 4–7°F COOLER
than core body temperature (37°C). The scrotum keeps testes at about 35°C — perfect for
sperm production!

8.2 Size & Location

•​ Each testis is oval, approximately 4 cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter
•​ Weight: about 10–15 grams each
•​ Housed in the scrotum — a pouch of skin hanging below the penis
•​ The left testis usually hangs slightly lower than the right

8.3 External Covering of the Testis

Tunica Vaginalis: An outer sac-like layer of peritoneum that descended with the testis. Allows free
movement.
Tunica Albuginea: A tough, white fibrous capsule that covers each testis. Divides testis into lobules via
SEPTA (partitions).
Fig. 9: Diagram of Testis and Associated Structures showing spermatic cord, epididymis, seminiferous tubules, and rete testis

8.4 Internal Structure of the Testis

Each testis contains approximately 250–300 LOBULES. Each lobule contains:
•​ 1–4 tightly coiled SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES where sperm are produced
•​ INTERSTITIAL (LEYDIG) CELLS between the tubules that produce testosterone
•​ SUSTENTACULAR (SERTOLI) CELLS lining the seminiferous tubules that nourish and support
developing sperm

8.5 Key Cell Types in the Testis

1. Sertoli Cells (Sustentacular Cells)
Named after Enrico Sertoli, who described them in 1865. Found lining the seminiferous tubules.
•​ Extend from the basement membrane to the lumen of the tubule
•​ Surround and nurture developing sperm cells
•​ From the BLOOD-TESTIS BARRIER via tight junctions
•​ Respond to FSH to stimulate spermatogenesis
Functions of Sertoli Cells:
○​ Support sperm production (provide nutrients)
○​ Produce Androgen-Binding Protein (ABP) — keeps testosterone levels high inside testis
○​ From the blood-testis barrier — protects sperm from immune attack
○​ Produce INHIBIN — gives negative feedback to the pituitary to reduce FSH
 ○​ Produce tubular fluid that helps transport sperm

2. Leydig Cells (Interstitial Cells)

•​ Located BETWEEN the seminiferous tubules
•​ Stimulated by LH from the pituitary
•​ Produce TESTOSTERONE (the primary male sex hormone)
•​ Produce ~6–7 mg of testosterone per day

3. Blood-Testis Barrier

Blood-Testis Barrier (BTB): Formed by tight junctions between Sertoli cells. Divides the
seminiferous tubule into two compartments: (1) the BASAL compartment (spermatogonia
and early spermatocytes), and (2) the ADLUMINAL compartment (later stage cells). The
BTB prevents sperm antigens from reaching the immune system — otherwise the body
would attack its own sperm!

8.6 Thermoregulation of the Testes

Three mechanisms keep the testes cool:
Cremaster Muscle: Extension of the internal oblique abdominal muscle. Contracts in cold → raises
testes closer to body. Relaxes in heat → lowers testes away from body.
Dartos Muscle: Smooth muscle in scrotal skin. Contracts → wrinkles skin → reduces surface area →
raises testes. Relaxes → smoothens out.
Pampiniform Plexus: A network of veins around the testicular artery. Acts as a countercurrent heat
exchanger. Venous blood (cool, going up) cools down the arterial blood (warm, going down) before it
reaches the testis. This brings the testicular temperature from 37°C down to 35°C.

Pampiniform Plexus as a Countercurrent Heat Exchanger — arterial blood cools from 37°C to 35°C before reaching the testis
8.7 Functions of the Testes
31.​Spermatogenesis: Produces millions of sperm cells daily (100–300 million per day)
32.​Testosterone Production: Drives male sexual development and characteristics
33.​Inhibin Production: Regulates FSH levels through negative feedback

9. SPERMATIC CORD
9.1 Definition
The spermatic cord is a cordlike bundle of structures that passes from each testis upward through the
INGUINAL CANAL into the abdominal cavity. It suspends each testis in the scrotum and provides its
blood supply, nerve supply, and drainage.

9.2 Contents of the Spermatic Cord

The spermatic cord contains:
•​ DUCTUS DEFERENS (vas deferens) — the sperm-carrying tube
•​ TESTICULAR ARTERY — brings oxygenated blood to the testis
•​ PAMPINIFORM PLEXUS OF VEINS — venous drainage from testis (heat exchanger)
•​ CREMASTER MUSCLE — for thermoregulation
•​ LYMPHATIC VESSELS — lymph drainage from testis
•​ NERVES — autonomic (testicular nerve)
•​ All enclosed in a connective tissue sheath
9.3 Functions of the Spermatic Cord
34.​Suspends and supports the testes in the scrotum
35.​Provides a pathway for the ductus deferens to carry sperm out of the scrotum
36.​Blood supply and drainage to/from the testis
37.​Thermoregulation via pampiniform plexus
38.​Nerve supply for sensation and reflex functions

9.4 Clinical Importance

VARICOCELE: An abnormal enlargement of the pampiniform plexus veins (like varicose

veins in the scrotum). This impairs heat exchange and raises testicular temperature → can
cause MALE INFERTILITY. Varicocele is found in about 40% of infertile men.
10. EPIDIDYMIS
10.1 Definition
The epididymis is a long, tightly coiled tube attached to the back (posterior surface) of each testis. It is
the site where sperm MATURE and are STORED until ejaculation.

Although only about 4 cm long when seen externally, if the epididymis were uncoiled, it
would be about 6 meters (20 feet) long! Sperm take about 2 weeks to pass through it.

Fig. 11: Male Duct System showing pathway of sperm from epididymis through vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra

10.2 Parts of the Epididymis

Head (Caput): Upper part — receives sperm from the RETE TESTIS via 12 small efferent ductules
Body (Corpus): Middle part — where sperm mature and gain motility
Tail (Cauda): Lower part — main storage site for MATURE sperm. Connects to the vas deferens.

10.3 Functions of the Epididymis

39.​MATURATION: Sperm released from the testes are IMMATURE (non-motile). As they travel
through the epididymis (over ~2 weeks), they mature and gain the ability to swim.
40.​STORAGE: Mature sperm are stored in the tail of the epididymis for up to 40–60 days.
41.​QUALITY CONTROL: Malformed or defective sperm are identified and REABSORBED here.
42.​TRANSPORT: At ejaculation, smooth muscle in the epididymis wall contracts → pushes sperm
into the vas deferens.
10.4 What Happens to Unused Sperm?
•​ If sperm are not ejaculated, they are eventually broken down and reabsorbed by the body
•​ The body continuously recycles unused sperm — this is completely normal

11. VAS DEFERENS (Ductus Deferens)

11.1 Definition
The vas deferens (also called ductus deferens) is a thick-walled, muscular tube about 45 cm long that
carries sperm from the tail of the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct. It travels through the spermatic
cord and inguinal canal back into the pelvic cavity.

11.2 Path of the Vas Deferens

•​ Starts at the tail of the EPIDIDYMIS in the scrotum
•​ Travels upward in the SPERMATIC CORD
•​ Passes through the INGUINAL CANAL back into the pelvis
•​ Curves around the posterior surface of the URINARY BLADDER
•​ Widens at its end into the AMPULLA (terminal dilated portion)
•​ Joins the duct of the SEMINAL VESICLE to form the EJACULATORY DUCT

11.3 Wall Structure

•​ Thick muscular wall (smooth muscle)
•​ Three muscle layers allow powerful PERISTALTIC contractions during ejaculation
•​ Inner mucosal lining with pseudostratified columnar epithelium
11.4 Functions of the Vas Deferens
43.​TRANSPORT: Rapidly transports sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct during
ejaculation
44.​PROPULSION: Powerful smooth muscle contractions propel sperm forward
45.​TEMPORARY STORAGE: Some sperm can be stored in the ampulla

11.5 Clinical Note — Vasectomy

VASECTOMY: A surgical sterilization procedure in males. A small section of the vas

deferens is cut or tied on each side. Sperm can no longer travel out of the testes →
permanent contraception. It does NOT affect testosterone production or sexual function.

12. SEMINAL VESICLES

12.1 Definition
The seminal vesicles are a pair of glandular sacs located POSTERIOR to the urinary bladder and
anterior to the rectum. Each vesicle has a duct that joins the ampulla of the vas deferens to form the
ejaculatory duct. They are the LARGEST accessory glands of the male reproductive system.

Fig. 12: Accessory Glands — Seminal Vesicles, Prostate Gland, and Bulbourethral Glands

12.2 Secretion Contribution

The seminal vesicles produce about 60% of the total semen volume — the LARGEST
contribution of any gland!

12.3 Composition of Seminal Vesicle Fluid

Fructose (Sugar): The MAIN energy source for sperm. Sperm mitochondria use fructose to produce
ATP for swimming.
Prostaglandins: Stimulate contractions in the female reproductive tract, helping move sperm toward
the egg. Also soften cervical mucus.
Fibrinogen: A protein that causes semen to CLOT (coagulate) after ejaculation. This helps retain
sperm in the vagina.
Citric Acid, Proteins, Mucus: Provide a nutritive and protective medium for sperm.
Prostaglandins: Stimulate uterine contractions to help move sperm upward.

12.4 Functions of the Seminal Vesicles

46.​Provide FRUCTOSE as fuel for sperm motility
47.​Provide fibrinogen for initial semen clotting
48.​Prostaglandins aid sperm transport in female tract
49.​Nourish and protect sperm outside the body

13. EJACULATORY DUCTS

13.1 Definition
The ejaculatory ducts are two short tubes (about 2 cm long) formed by the union of the AMPULLA of
the vas deferens with the duct of the SEMINAL VESICLE on each side. There are TWO ejaculatory
ducts (one from each side).

13.2 Path
•​ Begin where the ampulla of the vas deferens meets the seminal vesicle duct
•​ Pass through the PROSTATE GLAND
•​ Open into the PROSTATIC URETHRA
•​ Total length: approximately 2 cm
13.3 Functions of the Ejaculatory Ducts
50.​Final passage for both SPERM and SEMINAL VESICLE SECRETIONS
51.​Mix sperm with seminal vesicle fluid
52.​Propel the mixture into the prostatic urethra during ejaculation

Memory Tip: Think of the ejaculatory duct as the "merging lane" on a highway — sperm from
the vas deferens and fluid from the seminal vesicles merge here and proceed together into
the urethra.

14. PROSTATE GLAND

14.1 Definition
The prostate is a SINGLE, chestnut-sized gland (about the size of a WALNUT — approximately 3 cm x
4 cm) located just below the urinary bladder. It surrounds the PROSTATIC URETHRA (first part of the
urethra) and the ejaculatory ducts.

Memory Aid: The prostate gland SURROUNDS the urethra like a donut. If the prostate
enlarges (BPH), it squeezes the urethra and causes difficulty urinating — a very common
problem in older men.

14.2 Location
•​ Inferior (below) to the urinary bladder
•​ Anterior (front) to the rectum
•​ Surrounds the URETHRA and EJACULATORY DUCTS
•​ Adjacent to the rectum — can be felt during a digital rectal exam (DRE)

14.3 Secretion Contribution

 The prostate contributes about 30% of total semen volume.

14.4 Composition of Prostatic Fluid

Citric Acid: Serves as an energy substrate for sperm
Acid Phosphatase: An enzyme — elevated in prostate cancer (PSA test)
PSA (Prostate Specific Antigen): A protein produced by the prostate. Blood PSA levels are used to
screen for prostate cancer.
Zinc: Important for sperm function
Fibrinolysin (Fibrolysin): An enzyme that LIQUEFIES the semen clot within 20–30 minutes after
ejaculation — allowing sperm to swim freely
Alkaline Fluid (Basic pH): NEUTRALIZES the acidity of the vaginal environment. This is critical —
vaginal pH is 3.5–4.5 (acidic), which kills sperm. Prostatic fluid raises pH to ~7.2, protecting sperm.

14.5 Functions of the Prostate Gland

53.​Produces prostatic fluid (~30% of semen)
54.​Fibrinolysin liquefies semen clot → allows sperm to swim
55.​Alkaline secretion neutralizes vaginal acidity → protects sperm
56.​Citric acid and zinc support sperm metabolism

14.6 Clinical Importance of the Prostate

BPH (Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia): Non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate in older men.
Compresses the urethra → difficulty urinating, weak stream, frequent urination.
Prostate Cancer: The most common cancer in men. Detected by PSA blood test and digital rectal
exam. Highly treatable when caught early.
Prostatitis: Inflammation of the prostate — can cause pain and urinary problems.
 PART D: SPERMATOGENESIS

15. SPERMATOGENESIS

15.1 Definition
Spermatogenesis is the process of forming and developing mature sperm cells (spermatozoa) from
primitive germ cells called spermatogonia. It takes place in the SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES of the
testes.
•​ Begins at PUBERTY (not during fetal life, unlike oogenesis!)
•​ Continues THROUGHOUT A MAN'S LIFE
•​ Produces ~100–300 MILLION sperm per day
•​ Complete cycle takes approximately 64–74 DAYS

15.2 Location of Spermatogenesis

•​ Occurs inside the SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES of the testes
•​ Requires temperature ~4–7°F LOWER than body temperature (about 35°C)
•​ Sertoli cells surround and support the developing germ cells at every stage
Fig. 13: Spermatogenesis — showing Type A and Type B spermatogonia, primary spermatocytes, and spermatids developing
through meiosis

Fig. 14: Spermatogenesis and Sustentacular (Sertoli) Cells — detailed view showing cell positions from the basement
membrane to the lumen
15.3 Stages of Spermatogenesis
PHASE 1: Spermatogonia (Stem Cells) — Mitosis
•​ Spermatogonia are the STEM CELLS of the testes
•​ Located at the PERIPHERY (outer edge) of the seminiferous tubules, on the basement
membrane
•​ They are DIPLOID (2n) — have 46 chromosomes
•​ TWO types of spermatogonia:
○​ TYPE A spermatogonia: Divide by MITOSIS to make more stem cells (self-renewal). Stay
outside the blood-testis barrier. Ensure continuous sperm production for life.
○​ TYPE B spermatogonia: Differentiate into PRIMARY SPERMATOCYTES. These pass
THROUGH the blood-testis barrier into the adluminal compartment.

PHASE 2: Primary Spermatocyte — Meiosis I

•​ PRIMARY SPERMATOCYTES are still DIPLOID (2n = 46 chromosomes)
•​ They undergo MEIOSIS I (reduction division)
•​ Each primary spermatocyte → 2 SECONDARY SPERMATOCYTES
•​ Each secondary spermatocyte is now HAPLOID (n = 23 chromosomes)
•​ Meiosis I is the LONGEST stage — takes about 22 days

PHASE 3: Secondary Spermatocyte — Meiosis II

•​ SECONDARY SPERMATOCYTES undergo MEIOSIS II (equational division)
•​ Each secondary spermatocyte → 2 SPERMATIDS
•​ From 1 primary spermatocyte → TOTAL of 4 SPERMATIDS are produced
•​ Each spermatid is HAPLOID (n = 23 chromosomes)
•​ But spermatids are NOT yet functional sperm — they need to transform!

PHASE 4: Spermatid → Spermiogenesis → Spermatozoon

Spermiogenesis is the transformation of spermatids into mature spermatozoa. It involves major
structural changes — NOT another cell division.

15.4 Summary Table: Stages of Spermatogenesis

Cell Type Ploidy Division Result

Spermatogonium Diploid (2n=46) Mitosis Type A or Type B

Primary Spermatocyte Diploid (2n=46) Meiosis I 2 Secondary

Spermatocytes

Secondary Spermatocyte Haploid (n=23) Meiosis II 4 Spermatids

Spermatid Haploid (n=23) Spermiogenesis Spermatozoon

Spermatozoon Haploid (n=23) (Mature sperm) Ready for fertilization

16. SPERMIOGENESIS
16.1 Definition
Spermiogenesis is the final stage of spermatogenesis in which a ROUND, UNDIFFERENTIATED
SPERMATID is transformed into an elongated, motile SPERMATOZOON (sperm cell). No cell division
occurs — only structural remodeling.

Fig. 15: Spermiogenesis — Six stages showing the transformation of a spermatid into a spermatozoon with the development
of the acrosome, flagellum, and loss of cytoplasm

16.2 Changes During Spermiogenesis

Six key changes occur as the spermatid becomes a spermatozoon:
57.​ACROSOME FORMATION: The Golgi apparatus produces vesicles that fuse into the
ACROSOME CAP covering the nucleus. The acrosome contains digestive enzymes
(hyaluronidase, acrosin) needed to penetrate the egg.
58.​NUCLEAR CONDENSATION: The nucleus elongates and becomes highly compacted with
DNA. This makes the sperm head very small and streamlined.
59.​FLAGELLUM FORMATION: One of the centrioles forms the AXONEME (9+2 microtubule
arrangement), which becomes the FLAGELLUM (tail). This provides motility.
60.​MITOCHONDRIAL ARRANGEMENT: Mitochondria align in a SPIRAL around the midpiece to
supply ATP for tail movement.
61.​CYTOPLASM SHEDDING: The excess cytoplasm is discarded as a RESIDUAL BODY — this
makes the sperm cell very small and lightweight.
62.​RELEASE (SPERMIATION): Mature spermatozoa are released into the lumen of the
seminiferous tubule → transported to the epididymis.
17. STRUCTURE OF A SPERMATOZOON (Sperm Cell)
A mature human sperm cell is the SMALLEST cell in the body (about 60 micrometers long). It has a
very distinctive shape optimized for reaching and fertilizing the egg.

Structure of a Spermatozoon — showing Head, Midpiece, Principal piece, and Endpiece with labeled organelles

17.1 Three Main Regions of the Sperm Cell

Region 1: HEAD
•​ Contains the NUCLEUS with highly condensed, haploid DNA (23 chromosomes)
•​ Head size: approximately 5 micrometers long, 3 micrometers wide
•​ Covered by the ACROSOME (helmet-like cap over front 2/3 of nucleus)
•​ Acrosome contains HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES:
○​ Hyaluronidase — dissolves hyaluronic acid holding corona radiata cells together
○​ Acrosin (protease) — digests zona pellucida to allow sperm penetration
○​ These enzymes are released during the ACROSOME REACTION

Region 2: MIDPIECE (Body)

•​ Contains tightly packed MITOCHONDRIA arranged in a SPIRAL HELIX
•​ Mitochondria produce ATP (energy) via aerobic respiration
•​ ATP powers the FLAGELLUM (tail) for swimming
•​ Also contains the BASAL BODY (base of flagellum)
•​ The axoneme (9+2 microtubule core) begins here
Region 3: TAIL (Flagellum)
•​ Consists of three parts: Principal piece, Annulus, and End piece
•​ Core structure: AXONEME — 9 pairs of microtubules surrounding 2 central microtubules ("9+2
arrangement")
•​ Tail propels sperm by WHIP-LIKE LASHING MOVEMENTS
•​ Allows sperm to swim at about 1–3 mm per minute
•​ Sperm can survive in the female reproductive tract for 3–5 days

17.2 Key Properties of Spermatozoa

Motility: Sperm can swim independently using their flagellum. Acquired during passage through the
epididymis.
Capacitation: A biochemical process that occurs after sperm enter the female reproductive tract.
Makes sperm capable of fertilizing an egg. Takes about 7 hours.
Normal Count: 50–120 million sperm per mL of semen. Below 25 million/mL = associated with
infertility.
Morphology: Normal sperm have the classic head-midpiece-tail structure. Abnormal morphology
(>15% abnormal = oligozoospermia) reduces fertility.
18. HORMONAL REGULATION OF SPERMATOGENESIS
Spermatogenesis is controlled by a precise hormonal chain involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland,
and testes — called the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Testicular Axis (HPT Axis).

Regulation of Spermatogenesis showing the HPT Axis — GnRH, FSH, LH, testosterone, inhibin, and negative feedback loops

18.1 The Hormonal Cascade

Step 1: Hypothalamus
•​ Releases GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE (GnRH) in pulses
•​ GnRH travels via the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary

Step 2: Anterior Pituitary

GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to release TWO hormones:
FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone): Acts on SERTOLI CELLS in seminiferous tubules → promotes
spermatogenesis → also stimulates production of Androgen-Binding Protein (ABP) by Sertoli cells →
ABP binds testosterone → keeps testosterone levels HIGH inside the testis
LH (Luteinizing Hormone): Acts on LEYDIG (INTERSTITIAL) CELLS between seminiferous tubules
→ stimulates production of TESTOSTERONE

Step 3: Testes Response

•​ TESTOSTERONE, produced by Leydig cells, has local effects in the testis:
○​ Binds to ABP → maintains high local testosterone concentration
○​ Essential for the initiation and MAINTENANCE of spermatogenesis
○​ Also enters the bloodstream for systemic effects
•​ SERTOLI CELLS respond to FSH and local testosterone to nurture sperm development

18.2 Negative Feedback Control

Two feedback loops prevent overproduction:
Testosterone Feedback: When blood testosterone levels rise, testosterone acts on BOTH the
hypothalamus (reduces GnRH) and the anterior pituitary (reduces LH release). This brings testosterone
back to normal levels.
Inhibin Feedback: When spermatogenesis is active, Sertoli cells produce INHIBIN. Inhibin acts on the
anterior pituitary → inhibits FSH release. This regulates the rate of sperm production.

18.3 Actions of Testosterone

A. Actions Within the Testis (Local/Paracrine)

•​ Essential for spermatogenesis — cannot occur without adequate testosterone
•​ Promotes Wolffian duct development → becomes epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles
•​ Converted to DHT (dihydrotestosterone) in some target cells

B. Actions Outside the Testis (Systemic)

•​ Development of male primary sex characteristics (penis, scrotum, prostate)
•​ Development of secondary sex characteristics at puberty:
○​ Deepening of voice (larynx enlargement)
○​ Facial, axillary, and pubic hair growth
○​ Increased muscle mass and strength
○​ Bone growth and increased density
○​ Skin thickening
○​ Libido (sex drive) in both males AND females
•​ Anabolic effects: promotes protein synthesis and muscle building
•​ Stimulates production of red blood cells (erythropoiesis)

18.4 Effects of Testosterone Deficiency

•​ Reduced spermatogenesis → infertility
•​ Loss of libido
•​ Reduced muscle mass
•​ Osteoporosis (bone loss)
•​ Atrophy of accessory glands (prostate, seminal vesicles)
•​ Fatigue and mood changes
QUICK REVIEW SUMMARY TABLES
Table 1: Female Reproductive Organs at a Glance
Organ Structure Main Function

Uterus Fundus, body, cervix; 3 wall layers Implantation site; baby house; contracts
(perimetrium, myometrium, during birth
endometrium)

Ovary Cortex with follicles; medulla with Produce eggs; secrete estrogen and
vessels; covered by germinal epithelium progesterone

Uterine Tube Infundibulum (fimbriae), ampulla, Transport egg; site of fertilization

isthmus, intramural part

Vagina Muscular canal; rugae; acidic pH; Receives sperm; birth canal; menstrual
Lactobacillus flora outlet

Table 2: Male Accessory Glands — Semen Contribution

Gland % of Semen Key Contents Key Function

Seminal Vesicles ~60% Fructose, prostaglandins, Energy for sperm; semen

fibrinogen clotting

Prostate Gland ~30% Citric acid, PSA, fibrinolysin, Liquefies semen; neutralizes
alkaline fluid vaginal acidity

Bulbourethral Glands ~5% Alkaline mucus Lubricates urethra;

pre-ejaculate; neutralizes
residual urine

Sperm (Testes) ~5% Haploid cells, DNA Fertilize the egg

Table 3: Spermatogenesis — Cell Stages at a Glance

Cell Ploidy (n) Chromosomes Process Product

Spermatogonium (A) Diploid (2n) 46 Mitosis Spermatogonium B

Primary Diploid (2n) 46 Meiosis I 2 Secondary

Spermatocyte Spermatocytes

Secondary Haploid (n) 23 Meiosis II 4 Spermatids total

Spermatocyte

Spermatid Haploid (n) 23 Spermiogenesis Spermatozoon

Spermatozoon Haploid (n) 23 Mature sperm Fertilizes egg

IMPORTANT KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER
Female Reproductive System
•​ The UTERUS has three layers: Perimetrium (outside), Myometrium (muscle/middle),
Endometrium (inside)
•​ The ENDOMETRIUM has two layers: the functional layer (sheds in menstruation) and the basal
layer (stays, rebuilds)
•​ OVARIES produce EGGS and HORMONES (estrogen and progesterone)
•​ FERTILIZATION occurs in the AMPULLA of the uterine tube — not the uterus!
•​ IMPLANTATION occurs in the ENDOMETRIUM of the uterus — about 8–9 days after
fertilization
•​ The ovarian cycle has THREE phases: Follicular → Ovulation → Luteal
•​ LH SURGE triggers OVULATION on approximately Day 14
•​ The corpus luteum produces PROGESTERONE to prepare the uterus for pregnancy
•​ HCG from the embryo maintains the corpus luteum in early pregnancy, detected by pregnancy
tests

Male Reproductive System

•​ TESTES are kept in the SCROTUM to maintain a temperature 4–7°F cooler than body
temperature
•​ SERTOLI CELLS (in seminiferous tubules) = SUPPORT CELLS for sperm development
•​ LEYDIG CELLS (between tubules) = produce TESTOSTERONE, stimulated by LH
•​ Sperm MATURE in the EPIDIDYMIS (takes 2 weeks to travel through)
•​ SEMINAL VESICLES produce 60% of semen volume (fructose is the main component)
•​ The prostate produces 30% of semen volume (fibrinolysin liquefies semen; alkaline pH protects
sperm)
•​ The vas deferens is cut in VASECTOMY (male sterilization)

Spermatogenesis
•​ Spermatogenesis begins at PUBERTY and continues THROUGHOUT LIFE
•​ Takes approximately 64–74 days to complete
•​ Sequence: Spermatogonium → Primary Spermatocyte → Secondary Spermatocyte →
Spermatid → Spermatozoon
•​ MEIOSIS reduces chromosome number from 46 (diploid) to 23 (haploid)
•​ SPERMIOGENESIS = transformation of spermatid into spermatozoon (no division, just
remodeling)
•​ Sperm head contains NUCLEUS (DNA) + ACROSOME (digestive enzymes)
•​ The sperm midpiece contains MITOCHONDRIA for ATP production
•​ The sperm tail contains a flagellum for swimming
•​ FSH acts on SERTOLI CELLS; LH acts on LEYDIG CELLS
•​ INHIBIN (from Sertoli cells) inhibits FSH — negative feedback
•​ TESTOSTERONE inhibits GnRH and LH — negative feedback
END OF STUDY NOTES