Applied Mathematics
By Pulin Chandra Medhi
Introduction Sets
What is a Set?
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects.
Note:
The objects that belongs to a particular collection or set are also
known as its members or elements.
Sets are usually denoted by capital letters, say, A, B, C, X, Y etc.
Symbolisation Sets
If 'a' is an element of a set A, we say that - “a belongs to A"’ and the
Greek symbol ‘∊' (epsilon) is used to denote the phrase 'belongs to'.
Thus, mathematically, we may write the above statement as: a∊A
Also, if 'b' is not an element of set A, we write, b ∉ A and is read as
'b does not belong to A'.
Introduction Sets
What is a Set?
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects.
The word 'well-defined' refers to a specific property or some definite
rule on the basis of which it is easy to identify and decide whether the
given object belongs to the set or not. The word ‘distinct’ implies that
the objects of the set must be all different.
Introduction Sets
Illustration 1: Which of the following collections is not a set? Give
reason for your answers.
i. The collection of all boys of your class.
ii. The collection of all monuments in Delhi made by Mughal
emperor Akbar.
i. The collection of all the rivers in Delhi and Uttar Pradesh.
ii. The collection of most talented singers of India.
iii. The collection of measures of central tendency of a given data.
iv. The solution of the equation x2 – 6x + 8 = 0
Representation of Sets Sets
There are two methods of representing a set:
•Roster form or Tabular form
•Set builder form
Representation of Sets Sets
There are two methods of representing a set:
•Roster form or Tabular form
In Roster form, all the elements of a set are listed, separated by
commas and enclosed within curly braces { }.
For example, the set of vowels of English Alphabet may be described
in roster form as: V = {a, e, i, o, u}
•Set builder form
Representation of Sets Sets
There are two methods of representing a set:
•Roster form or Tabular form
In Roster form, all the elements of a set are listed, separated by
commas and enclosed within curly braces { }.
For example, the set of vowels of English Alphabet may be described
in roster form as: V = {a, e, i, o, u}
•Set builder form
In this form, a set is described by a characterising property of its
elements.
For example, in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, all the elements possess a
common property, that is, each of them is a natural number less than
6. So, this set can be written as:
A = {x : x is a natural number and x < 6} and is read as "the set of all
'x' such that x is a natural number and x is less than 6."
Representation of Sets Sets
Examples:
Example Roster Form Set builder form
A = the set of letters of the A = {F, O, L, W} A = {x : x is a letter in the
word 'FOLLOW' word 'FOLLOW'}
B =The set of letters B = {N, U, M, B, E, R, S} B = {x : x is a letter in the
forming the word word 'NUMBERS'}
'NUMBERS'
C = The set of all even C = {2, 4, 6, 8} C = {x : x is a positive even
natural numbers less than number and x < 10}
10
Representation of Sets Sets
Check your progress
Q.1 Which of the following are sets?
Question Answer
(i) The collection of most talented authors of India.
(ii) The collection of all months of a year beginning
with letter M.
(iii) The collection of all integers from –2 to 20.
(iv) The collection of all even natural numbers.
(v) The collection of best tennis players of the world.
Representation of Sets Sets
Check your progress
Q.2 Write the following in set-builder form:
Question Answer
(i) A = {4, 8, 12, 16, 20}
(ii) B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, .....}
(iii) C = {b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q,
r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z}
(iv) D = {–1, 1}
(v) E = {41, 43, 47}.
Representation of Sets Sets
Check your progress
Q.2 Write the following in set-builder form:
Question Answer
(vi) F =
(vii) G =
Representation of Sets Sets
Check your progress
Q.3 Write the following in roster form:
Question Answer
(i) A = {x : x is a whole number less than 5}
(ii) B = {x : x is an integer and –4 < x 6}
(iii) C = The set of all letters of the word
FOLLOW.
(iv) D = {x : x is a two-digit number such that
the sum of its digits is 6}
(v) E = the set of all letters of the word
'ARITHMETIC'
Representation of Sets Sets
Check your progress
Q.4 Match each of the sets on the left expressed in roster form with
the same set described in the set builder form on the right:
Representation of Sets Sets
Check your progress
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {x : x is a factor of 4}, C = {1, 4, 9}. Insert the
correct symbol '' or '' in each of the following to make the
statement true
Types of Sets Sets
Singleton Set
A set consisting of a single element is called a singleton set.
Examples:
Let X = {x : 1 < x < 3 and x is a natural number}. This is a singleton set
as the only element of set B is '2'.
Let Q = {x : x is the day of the week starting with alphabet 'M'}. This
is also a singleton set as the only day of the week starting with
alphabet 'M' is Monday.
Types of Sets Sets
Empty Set
A set which does not contain any element is called the empty set or
null set or the void set and is denoted by the symbol ø or { }.
Examples:
(a) Let A = {x : x is a month of the year starting with alphabet B}.
This is an empty set as no month of the year in English calendar
starts with alphabet 'B'.
(b) Let A = {x : x is a real solution of the equation x2 + 2 = 0}. This set
is an empty set as there is no real solution of the quadratic
equation x2 + 2 = 0.
Types of Sets Sets
Infinite Set
A set which contains unlimited number of elements is called an
infinite set.
Cardinality of infinite set is not defined.
Subsets Sets
Let A and B be two sets. If every element of set A is an element of set
B also, then A is called a subset of B and is written as A B.
In other words, A B, if whenever a ∊ A, then a ∊ B. Using the symbol
'' which means 'implies', we can write the definition of subset as:
A B if a ∊ A a ∊ B If A is not a subset of B, we write A ⊈ B.
Subsets Sets
Note:
1. The empty set is a subset of every set.
2. Every set is a subset of itself.
3. The symbol ' ' suggests that either A B or A = B. A B implies
that A is a proper subset of B, that is, A has lesser number of
elements than B.
A = B implies that A and B are equal sets, that is, they have exactly
the same elements.
In other words, two sets are said to be equal if every element of A
is a member of B and every element of B is an element of A. That
is, to say, A = B A B and B A.
Subsets Sets
Consider the sets
Ø; A = {1, 2, 3}; B = {1, 4, 5}; C = {1, 2, 3, 4 5}; D = {x : x ∊ N and x < 4}.
Insert the symbol ' ', ‘ ⊈ ' or '=' between the following pair of sets:
(i) ø __ B
(ii) A ______ B
(iii) B ______ C
(iv) A ______ D
Subsets Sets
Let A {1, 2, 3, {4}, 5}. Which of the following are incorrect? Give
reasons.
(i) 1∊A
(ii) {1, 2} A
(iii) {1, 2, 4} A
(iv) {4} ∊ A
(v) Ø A
(vi) {4} A
Power Set Sets
Let A be set. Then, the set of all the subsets of A is called the power
set of A and is denoted by P(A).
Power Set Sets
n(P(A)) = 2n, where 'n' is the number of elements in A.
In other words, the number of subsets of any set A are given by 2n,
where, 'n' is the number of elements in A.
Also, the number of proper subsets of A having 'n' elements is given
by 2n–1, which excludes the set itself.
Universal Set Sets
A set that contains all the objects or elements in a given context is
called the universal set and is denoted by U.
Note: 1. 2. Universal set is the superset of all the sets under
consideration. N Z Q R. This relation explains that every natural
number is an integer, every integer can be put is the form of p/q,
where q ≠ 0, hence every integer is a rational number and all rational
numbers are real numbers.
Intervals as Subset of the set of Real Numbers R Sets
An interval is a set of real numbers between a given pair of real
numbers, excluding or including one or both these real numbers.
It can be considered as a segment of the real number line, where in,
the end points of the interval mark the end points of that segment.
Let us now understand different types of intervals.
Types of Intervals Sets
Closed Interval
Let a, b ∊ R and a < b. Then the set of all real numbers from a to b, in
the set builder form is written as A = {x : x ∊ R, a ≤ x ≤ b}.
Types of Intervals Sets
Closed Interval
Let a, b ∊ R and a < b. Then the set of all real numbers from a to b, in
the set builder form is written as A = {x : x ∊ R, a ≤ x ≤ b}.
In interval form, this set is represented as [a, b]
a b
Types of Intervals Sets
Open Interval
Let a, b ∊ R and a < b. Then the set of all real numbers from a to b, in
the set builder form is written as A = {x : x ∊ R, a < x < b}.
In interval form, this set is represented as (a, b) or a, b
a b
Types of Intervals Sets
Semi-Open/Closed Interval
This set consists of all real numbers between 'a' and 'b' but 'b' is
included in the set and 'a' is excluded from it. So, in interval notation,
it is expressed as: (a, b] = {x : x ∊ R, a < x ≤ b}.
a b
Types of Intervals Sets
Semi-Open/Closed Interval
This set consists of all real numbers between 'a' and 'b' but 'b' is
included in the set and 'a' is excluded from it. So, in interval notation,
it is expressed as: [a, b) = {x : x ∊ R, a ≤ x < b}.
a b
Types of Intervals Sets
Note: The number (b – a) is called the length of the interval (a, b), (a,
b], [a, b) or [a, b].
Check your progress Sets
Which of the following sets are finite and which are infinite? In case
of finite sets, write its cardinality.
(i) {x : x is a natural number less than 100}.
(ii) The set of all prime numbers.
(iii) The set of the days of the week.
(iv) {x : x = n2, where n is a natural number}.
(v) The set of all lines in a plane parallel to the line 2y = 3x + 7.
(vi) {x : x is a real number and 0 < x < 1}.
Check your progress Sets
Which of the following sets are empty and which are singleton sets?
(i) {x : x is an even prime number}.
(ii) {x : x is a natural number and –1 < x < 1}.
(iii) {x : x is an integer and –1 < x < 1}.
(iv) {x : x is a vowel in the word 'EYE'}.
(v) {x : x + 10 = 0; x ∊ N}
Check your progress Sets
Which of the following pairs of sets are equal? Give reasons.
(i) A = {–2, 3}, B = {x is a solution, of x2 – x – 6 = 0}
(ii) A = {x : x is a letter of the word 'FOLLOW'}
B = {y : y is a letter of the word 'WOLF'}
(iii) A = {x : x is a letter of the word 'ASSET'}
B = {y : y is a letter of the word 'EAST'}
Check your progress Sets
Which of the following pairs of sets are equal? Give reasons.
(iv) A = {–1, 1};
B = {x : x is a real number satisfying the equation x2 + 1 = 0}
(v) A = {1, 4, 9};
B = {x : x = n2 where 'n' is a natural number less than 5}
Check your progress Sets
Let A = Ø. Find P (P(A))
Check your progress Sets
Find the number of subsets of the set B = {a,b,c,d}.
Venn Diagrams Sets
Venn diagrams are the pictorial representation of the relationships
between sets. They are named after the English logician John Venn.
In Venn diagrams, the universal set is usually denoted by a rectangle
and its subsets by circles or ellipses. It is denoted by U.
Operations on Sets Sets
Union of Sets
Operations on Sets Sets
Intersection of Sets
Operations on Sets Sets
Difference of Sets
Operations on Sets Sets
Complements of Sets
Check your progress Sets
For the following sets, find their union and intersection.
(i) A = {x : x is the letter of the word 'MATHEMATICS'}.
B = {x : x is the letter of the word 'TRIGONOMETRY'}.
Check your progress Sets
For the following sets, find their union and intersection.
(ii) A = {x : x = 2n - 1, n∊N} and B = {x : x = 2n, n∊N}
Check your progress Sets
For the following sets, find their union and intersection.
(iii) A = {x : x = sin where 0 ≤ ≤ /2}
B = {x : x = cos where 0 ≤ ≤ /2}
Check your progress Sets
Draw suitable Venn diagrams for each of the following.
(i) (A U B)' (A ⋂ B)' A' ⋂ B' (iv) A'U B'
Check your progress Sets
Two finite sets have 'm' and 'n' elements. The total number of subsets
of the first set is 56 more than the total number of subsets of the
second set. Find the values of 'm' and 'n'.
Practical Problems on Operations on Sets Sets
Let A, and B be finite sets.
(i) n (A U B) = n (A) + n (B); if A ⋂ B = Ø i.e. A and B are disjoint.
(ii) n (A U B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A ⋂ B) in general
Practical Problems on Operations on Sets Sets
If A, B and C are finite sets, then,
n (A U B U C) = n (A) + n (B) + n (C) – n (A ⋂ B) – n (A ⋂ C) – n (B ⋂ C) + n (A ⋂ B ⋂ C)
Check your progress Sets
Out of 20 members in a family, 12 like tea and 15 like coffee. Assume
that each one likes at least one of the two drinks, how many like.
(i) Both coffee and tea.
(ii) Only tea and not coffee
(iii) Only coffee and not tea