Repair, and Rehabilitation of structures 1

Module-II Investigating Existing Conditions

2.1 Why Investigate?

An investigation of existing conditions is intended to determine the state of the building’s

health, to establish a diagnosis, and to arrive at a prediction. An investigation usually includes a visual
check-up, a few tests, and an examination of the previous strengthening history. (However, unlike
people, buildings cannot tell what ails them, and it is the task of the engineer to piece together the
answer from a variety of scattered symptoms.)
The most fundamental question the investigation is intended to answer is whether the
structure can safely support the intended loading. Even if the original design loads are adequate for
the proposed use, they probably contain no allowances for such factors as accidental overload,
member deterioration, and improper alterations—and all of these can occur during the life span of
the structure or Building may not have been constructed as its designers intended.
In general, a quick walk-through by a structural engineer inside a building will be made to
check the health of the building. However, it may not be sufficient to determine the whole building’s
condition. Practically it involves a lot of time and effort. Therefore, in this chapter, needs and types of
assessment, detailed investigation procedure and distress identification methods will be discussed.

2.2 Assessing Building Condition

Assessing the damage of any building depends on the field conditions, user habits,
maintenance, and have a direct relation with the pattern of distress (localised or spread over). The
investigation of a building/structure is generally undertaken in four diffe rent stages to identify the
actual problem so as to ensure that an effective outcome is achieved with minimum efforts & at the
least cost.
a) Preliminary Inspection,

b) Planning,

c) Visual Inspection, and

d) Field and Laboratory testing

a) Preliminary Investigation:
In the beginning of a detailed investigation, background research about the distressed
condition of building shall be made. This enables to plan and execute the condition survey of the
distressed building. Preliminary Inspection and collection of data would be helpful in planning the
Condition Survey for field investigations.

Step 1: A research to understand the condition of distressed buildings

A background history of the distressed structure such as, information about the damage, and
records of earlier repairs if any, shall be researched. Before undertaking an inspection of a
building/structure following essential information is required and be obtained from the
clients/owners:

I. Period of construction;
II. Construction details including architectural, structural and as built drawings;
III. Exposure conditions of the structure;

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IV. Designed use and present use of the structure;

V. Previous changes done to buildings, if any;
VI. Record of structural changes made, if any;
VII. Record of first occurrence of deterioration, if any;
VIII. Details of repairs, if carried out in the past;
IX. Reports of previous investigations/condition surveys, if any;
X. Apparent cause of distress, as could be ascertained from the owner/client;
XI. Photographs of distressed portions of structure.
Once the relevant data and information about the distressed building is obtained, scope of field
investigation shall be finalised with client/owner.
Step 2: Basic Information gathering and preliminary site visit
The information required from the owner/client has to be listed out and obtained during the
preliminary site visit. Even though many construction details and other related information may not
be available with the owners/clients, yet as much as information and details needs to be gathered
during the preliminary site visit. The study of such details and documents shall be done combined with
the preliminary visit report.
A preliminary site visit is necessary to identify the practical restrictions in conducting the
inspection and necessary methods to overcome the same may be planned. The safety requirements
for inspection team such as scaffolds, working platforms is important to be recognized before the
inspection. The extent and quantum of survey work that needs to be carried out during the
investigation stage shall be identified to plan the approximate time required for the inspection. The
requirement of field testing equipment, tool for sampling needs shall be identified at this stage. Also,
necessary advice shall be given to the building owner to take -up an immediate safety measures so
that any mishap endangering the life & structure may be avoided.
It is always necessary to carry a camera with flash during such ‘Preliminary inspection’ and
take necessary photographs of the distressed structure and its members. This helps to relate the
symptoms of distress with the age of structure and provides reasonably sufficient understanding of
the causes of distress for an experienced Rehabilitation Engineer.

b) Planning Stage:
Planning stage involves preparation of field documents for site investigation and it begins with
stating clear objectives and scope of work for the site investigation. By utilising the preliminary site
inspection report and collected information of distressed building

i. A list of tasks and their sequence for site investigation along with a work schedule may be
prepared.
ii. The field and laboratory testing requirements, field equipment’s & tools required for the same
shall be defined;
iii. Required number of photo copy of available drawings required for the site investigation shall be
prepared;
Work sheets and tables for recording all information, test results including field data gathered
in a logical manner needs to be prepared. These worksheets have to be tailor-made for structural
elements (slabs, beams and columns) of the project under investigation. Work Sheets helps to study

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the damage pattern and its extent as well as to work out Bill of Quantities of various repair items based
on visual inspection and a work sheets should contain:

i. Plan of building at each floor with suitable grid pattern evolved to identify structural member in an
RCC framed structure with each structural element drawn to a convenient scale so as to record the
visual observations on the floor plan itself using suitable notation.

ii. The typical notations and their details used for recording field observations on each such plan. Any
of the symptoms that cannot be reflected with notations could also be recorded in the form of a note.

c) Visual Inspection:

The most effective qualitative method of evaluation of structural soundness is visual

examination. At this stage typical distress symptoms together with the associated problems may be
identified. This provides valuable information to an experienced engineer with regard to its
workmanship, structural serviceability and material deterioration mechanism. It is meant to give a
quick scan of the structure to assess its state of general health. A record of visual inspection is an
essential requirement for preparation of realistic bill of quantities of various repair items.
An experienced team of engineers should carry out this work, since this forms the basis for
detailing the plan of actions, diagnosis of problems and to quantify the extent of distress. A work
sheets or documents containing floor plans, charts and statistical formats to record relevant data,
observations, locations, quality, type and extent of damage shall be carried.
Simple tools and Instruments like camera with flash, magnifying glass, binoculars, gauge for
crack width measurement, chisel and hammer are usually needed. Occasionally, a light
platform/scaffold tower can be used for ease of access.

d) Field/Laboratory Testing stage:

In a distressed building, it may neither be possible nor is the practice to conduct
field/laboratory testing on every structural member. The field/laboratory testing of structural
concrete and reinforcement is to be undertaken, for validating the findings of visual inspection. These
may be undertaken on selective basis on representative structural members from each of the various
groups. The programme of such testing has to be chalked out based on the record of visual inspection.
The list of test methods that could be deployed for field/Laboratory testing during the course of
investigations are given in the Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Concrete and Steel quality tests.

Property under
Test Equipment type
investigation
Ultrasonic Testing Electrical
Radiography Radiation
Magnetic particle Magnetic
Structural steel quality
Liquid penetrant Electro-chemical
Eddy current Electrical
Hardness Hydraulic

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Property under
Test Equipment type
investigation
Half Cell potential Electrochemical
Resistivity Electrical
Corrosion of embedded
Cover depth Electromagnetic
steel
Carbonation depth Chemical/ microscopic
Chloride concentration Chemical/ Electrical
Surface hardness Mechanical
Ultrasonic pulse velocity Electrochemical
Radiography Radioactive
Radiometry Radioactive
Concrete quality, Neutron absorption Radioactive
durability and Relative humidity Chemical/Electronic
deterioration Permeability Hydraulic
Sulphate content Chemical
Expansion Mechanical
Cement type and content Chemical/ Microscopic
Abrasion resistance Mechanical
Concrete cores Mechanical
Pull-out Mechanical
Pull-off Mechanical
Concrete strength
Break-off Mechanical
Internal fracture Mechanical
Penetration resistance Mechanical
Pulse-echo Mechanical / Electronic
Dynamic response Mechanical / Electronic
Acoustic emission Electronic
Thermoluminescence Chemical
Integrity and Performance
Thermography Infra-red
Radar Electromagnetic
Reinforcement location Electromagnetic
Load test Mechanical / Electronic

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2.3 Structural Tests on concrete elements:

The weak zones identified in a structure needs to be assessed by adopting suitable in-situ or
laboratory testing methods. A number of tests have been developed and standardized for
different properties of concrete. Based on the material quality under investigation, method of
testing and their level of damage created on the structural elements, test methods are
categorised into,
 Non-Destructive test
 Semi-destructive test, and
 Destructive test.
2.3.1 Non-destructive tests:
The term ‘non-destructive’ is used to indicate that it does not impair/alter the intended
performance of the structural member being tested/investigated. Generally, in-situ non-
destructive evaluation of concrete is done to know an overall idea of the quality of concrete. The
accuracy of these tests are not very high as most of the non-destructive methods of evaluation
of concrete strength are based on indirect measurement of concrete strength.
a. Rebound hammer test]:
The rebound hammer test is conducted to assess the relative strength of concrete based on the
hardness at or near its exposed surface. This survey is to be carried out on each identified member
in a systematic way by dividing the member into well-defined grid points. The grid matrix should
have a spacing of approximately 300mmx 300mm.
Objective:
The rebound hammer method could be used for assessing
 The likely compressive strength of concrete with the help of suitable correlations between
rebound index and compressive strength.
 The uniformity of concrete.
 The quality of the concrete in relation to standard requirements, and
 The quality of one element of concrete in relation to another.
Apparatus:
The main components include the outer body, the plunger, the hammer mass, and the main
spring. Other features include a latching mechanism that locks the hammer mass to the plunger
rod and a sliding rider to measure the rebound of the hammer mass. The rebound distance is
measured on an arbitrary scale marked from 10 to 100. The rebound distance is recorded as a
“rebound number or rebound index” corresponding to the position of the rider on the scale.

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Figure 2.5 Schematic cross-sectional view of the rebound hammer [5]

Principle:
 A spring controlled mass with a constant energy is made to hit concrete surface to rebound
back.
 The extent of rebound, which is a measure of surface hardness, is measured on a graduated
scale. This measured value is designated as Rebound Number (a rebound index).
 A concrete with low strength and low stiffness will absorb more energy to yield in a lower
rebound value, further interpretation between rebound number and concrete quality is
shown in table 2.4. The locations possessing very low rebound numbers will be identified as
weak surface concrete and such locations will be further investigated.
Table 2.4: Interpretation between rebound number and quality of concrete
Average rebound number Quality of concrete
>40 Very good or Hard Layer
30 – 40 Good layer
20 – 30 Fair
<20 Poor concrete
0 Delaminated

Procedure:
 To prepare the instrument for a test, release the plunger from its locked position by pushing
the plunger against the concrete and slowly moving the body away from the concrete. This
causes the plunger to extend from the body and the latch engages the hammer mass to the
plunger rod (Fig 2.5 A).

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 Hold the plunger perpendicular to the concrete surface and slowly push the body towards the
test object. As the body is pushed, the main spring connecting the hammer mass to the body
is stretched (Fig 2.5 B).
 When the body is pushed to the limit, the latch is automatically released, and the energy
stored in the spring propels the hammer mass toward the plunger tip ( Fig 2.5 C).
 The mass impacts the shoulder of the plunger rod and rebounds. During rebound, the slide
indicator travels with the hammer mass and records the rebound distance (Fig 2.5 D).
 A button on the side of the body is pushed to lock the plunger in the retracted position, and
the rebound number is read from the scale.
 Six readings of rebound number is taken at each point of testing and an average of value of
the readings is taken as rebound index for the corresponding point of observation on concrete
surface. Interpretation of the rebound number can be done as shown in the table below.
 The test can be conducted horizontally, vertically upward or downward, or at any
intermediate angle. Due to different effects of gravity on the rebound as the test angle is
changed, the rebound number will be different for the same concrete and will require
separate calibration or correction charts.
b. Windsor probe penetration test:
The device was meant to estimate the quality and compressive strength of in situ concrete by
measuring the depth of penetration of probes driven into the concrete by means of a powder-
actuated driver.

Figure 2.6: A view of the Windsor probe equipment. (A) Driver unit. (B) Probe for normal -weight
concrete (C) Single probe template. (D) Calibrated depth gauge.
Apparatus:
The Windsor probe consists of a powder-actuated gun or driver (Figure 2.6), hardened alloy-steel
probes, loaded cartridges, a depth gauge for measuring the penetration of probes, and other
related equipment. The probes have a tip diameter of 6.3 mm, a length of 79.5 mm, and a conical

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point. The rear of the probe is threaded and screws into a probe -driving head, which is 12.7 mm
in diameter and fits snugly into the bore of the driver unit.
Principle:
The Windsor probe, is a hardness tester, like the rebound hammer, which can be used both for
testing in-situ as well as in laboratory. However, the probe penetration relates to some property
of the concrete below the surface, and, within limits, it has been possible to develop empirical
correlations between strength properties and the penetration of the probe.
Procedure:
 In this test a gunpowder-actuated driver is used to fire a hardened alloy probe into the
concrete. During testing, it is the exposed length of probe, which is measured by a calibration
depth gauge.
 The test results are usually not affected by local surface conditions, such as texture and
moisture content. However, damage in the form of cracking may be caused to slender
members.
 A minimum edge distance and member thickness of 150 mm is required. It is important to
leave 50mm distance from the reinforcements present in the member since the presence of
the reinforcing bars within the zone of influence of the penetrating probe affects the
penetration depth.
c. Pulse-echo method:
The echo methods (impact-echo and pulse-echo) are used for thickness measurements, flaw
detection, and integrity testing of piles.
Application:
• Determination of concrete thickness, flaw in concrete.
• To determine the thickness of pavements and elastic moduli of layered pavements
• To determine the pile depth and other similar elements.
Apparatus:
The key components of a pulse-echo or pitch–catch test system are the transmitting and
receiving transducer(s) and the system that is used to record and display waveforms. The
majority of modern transducers use piezoelectric materials to generate and receive stress
waves. However, a single transducer can be used for both generation and reception of stress
waves. A fluid coupling agent, such as oil, grease, or other viscous fluid, is needed between
the transducer and the test object to transmit and receive the low-amplitude stress waves
used in pulse-echo testing.
Procedure:

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In the traditional pulse-echo method, a transmitter introduces a stress pulse into an object at
an accessible surface. The pulse propagates into the test object and is reflected by flaws or
interfaces. The surface response caused by the arrival of reflected waves, or echoes, is
monitored by either the transmitter acting as a receiver (true pulse-echo) or by a second
transducer located near the pulse source (pitch–catch). Figure 2.7 illustrates the principle of
these echo methods.

Figure 2.7: Schematic of pulse-echo and pitch–catch techniques.

The receiver output is displayed on a display device, and the display is called a time-domain
waveform. By using the time base of the display, the round-trip travel time of the pulse is
determined. If the wave speed in the material is known, this travel time can be used to
determine the depth of the reflecting interface.
d. IMPULSE RESPONSE TEST (IMPACT ECHO TEST)
The impulse response test system is a rapid, easy to use method for screening of the integrity
of the structures. The idea is to quickly screen the structure for flaws and identify suspect
areas for subsequent detailed analysis.
Principle:
A pulse generated by impact is composed of low-frequency waves that have the ability to
penetrate concrete. For a point source, however, the pulse propagates in all directions rather
than as a focused beam such as in ultrasonic pulse-echo systems. If a ray strikes a favourably
oriented reflector within a test object, the stress pulse generated by the impact propagates
back and forth between the flaw and the top surface of the plate. Each time the pulse arrives
at the top surface it produces a characteristic downward displacement.

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Figure 2.8: Impact echo representative photo Figure 2.9: Impact echo mechanism
Procedure:
 The Impulse-response system uses a low strain impact, produced by an instrumental rubber
tipped hammer, to send stress waves through the tested element.
 The impact causes the element to vibrate in a bending mode and a velocity transducer, placed
adjacent to the impact point, measures the amplitude of the response.
 The hammer load cell and the velocity transducer are linked to a portable field computer with
software for data acquisition, signal processing and storage.
e. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity test:
Ultrasonic scanning is a non-destructive test to qualitatively assess the homogeneity and
integrity of concrete. A qualitative assessment of concrete strength and its gradation in
different locations of structural members can be plotted. Any discontinuity in cross section
like cracks, cover concrete delamination, and depth of surface cracks can be estimated.

Figure 2.11: UPV transmitting and receiving

device

Figure 2.10: Principle of measuring

homogeneity
Apparatus:

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The instrument comes with a set of two transducers, one each for transmitting and receiving
the ultrasonic pulse. These transducers primarily generate compressional waves at
predominantly one frequency, with most of the wave energy directed along the axis normal
to the transducer face.
The equipment is portable, simple to operate, and may include a rechargeable battery and
charging unit. In general, the test instrument consists of a means of producing and introducing
a wave pulse into the concrete (pulse generator and transmitter) and a means of sensing the
arrival of the pulse (receiver) and accurately measuring the time taken by the pulse to travel
through the concrete.
Table 2.5: Interpretation between UPV and quality of concrete
Average rebound Quality of concrete
number
>4.5 Excellent
3.5 – 4.5 Good
3.0 – 3.5 Medium
<3.0 Doubtful
Principle:
This test essentially consists of measuring travel time, ‘T’ of ultrasonic pulse of 50-54 kHz,
produced by an electro-acoustical transducer, held in contact with one surface of the concrete
member under test and receiving the same by a similar transducer in contact with the surface
at the other end. With the path length, ‘L’ (i.e. the distance between the two probes) and time
of travel, T the pulse velocity (V = L/T) is calculated. Higher the elastic modulus, density and
integrity of the concrete, higher is the pulse velocity. The ultrasonic pulse velocity depends on
the density and elastic properties of the material being tested, a standard interpretation scale
between UPV and quality of concrete is shown in table 2.5.
Test procedure:
The concrete surface must be ground down or filled with quick setting cement before keeping
a pair of piezo-electric transducers. To achieve good acoustic coupling grease or petroleum
gel may be applied on the concrete surface. After keeping the transducer and providing the
respective distance(d) between the transducer, a repetitive echo-pulses were generated and
transmitted into mechanical wave energy. The converted echo-pulses will be received by a
transducer coupled at a known distance (d). The mechanical pulses received will be
reconverted to electric pulses and electrical timing device measures the excitation and
reception time before providing the signal transmission time (t) and velocity (v).

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f. Ground penetrating radar

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is an electromagnetic investigation method. It is also known
as surface penetrating radar, electromagnetic reflection method and radar have wide range
of application.

Figure 2.12: GPR Principle

Figure 2.13: The mobile GPR system

The application of GPR method:

 Location and mapping of layer thicknesses, including concrete cover of rebar, asphalt
pavement, concrete tunnel walls, and sub-base and geological layers;
 Location of structures such as tendons or tendon ducts, anchors, dowels, and cavities;
 Determination of material properties, including humidity, chloride content, voids, and air
content.
Apparatus:
A typical radar system for concrete evaluation generally consists of a control unit (computer),
pulse generator, transmitting and receiving antennae and video monitor.
Principle:
The basic principle of GPR in reflection mode is presented in Figure 2.12, where an
electromagnetic pulse is emitted via a transmitter antenna, reflected at the surface and interior

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layer boundaries of an object and recorded via the receiver antenna. The propagation of
electromagnetic energy is described by Maxwell’s equation. The result of a single GPR
measurement is a time series containing, amplitude and two-way-travel time (the time required
to propagate to a reflector and back) of the reflected energy.
Procedure:
The instrument containing electromagnetic transmitter antenna is used to produce
electromagnetic energy on a testing (Concrete) surface and these waves reflects back to the
receiver. The received wave signal contains data about the reflected wave and this can be
presented in different modes.

Figure 2.14: A GPR measurement in a single position results in a single time series.

Figure 2.15: (a) Acquisition of a radar-gram, and (b) example of a radar-gram.

Figure 2.16: (a) Acquisition of a data cube and (b) display of a time slice.

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A measurement in a single position will produce a time series that can be presented as a curve
or colour coded (Figure 2.14). The vertical axis is a time axis and it is usually pointing downwards
because larger times correspond to larger depths. If the antenna is moved along a horizontal
line, GPR measurements can be recorded at close intervals (Figure 2.15). The recorded time
series can be plotted side by side with the time axis pointing downwards. The horizontal axis is
then corresponding to the line along which the antenna was moved. This display format is called
a “Radar-gram”. If data acquisition is carried out over an area, for example by measuring along
many parallel lines, a data cube can be built and then slices corresponding to a certain Time
(Twt) can be cut out and displayed (Figure 2.16). This display format is called a time-slice. The
two axes of the time slice are corresponding to the two horizontal axes of the acquisition area.

g. Infrared Thermography
In order to measure a temperature of concrete at a point, sensitive contact thermometer is
required. However, to inspect temperature of larger area, more such sensors are required to
make and interpret readings. However, this can be overcome by infrared thermographic
cameras to inspect large area of concrete efficiently and quickly. This technique produces high
resolution images of differing temperatures designated by either black and white or grey shades
or various colours.
Principle:
Based on fundamental law of Planck, all objects emit infrared radiation, this radiation only
becomes visible to the human eye when the temperature is above 500oC. However, Infrared
monitoring equipment can detect infrared emission and visualize it as a visible image. The
sensitive range of the detector lies between 2 and 14 microns. The 2 to 5.6-micron range is
generally used to visualize temperature between 40oC and 2000oC and the 8-14-micron range
is used for temperature between -20oC and ambient temperatures.
The image taken with an infrared camera is termed as thermos-grams and measure the
temperature distribution at the surface of the object at the time of the test. It is important to
take into consideration that this temperature distribution is the result of a dynamic process
(Fire accident or Fire test on an element or Temperature distribution on a surface due to some
process).
Equipment:
A complete infrared camera and analysis system can be divided into four main subsystems.
The first is the infrared camera, second component is a real time microprocessor coupled to a

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display monitor, third is data acquisition and analysis equipment, and image recording and
retrieving devices. All of these above equipment may be carried into the field or parts of it may
be left in the laboratory for additional use.
h. Maturity method:
A technique for estimating the strength gain of concrete based on the measured temperature
history during curing is called maturity method. The combined effects of time and temperature
on strength gain are quantified by means of a maturity function. Maturity functions are used to
convert the actual temperature history of the concrete to a factor that is indicative measure of
strength gain.

The term maturity was for the first time linked to the product of time and temperature and
maturity should be calculated with respect to a “datum temperature,” which is the lowest
temperature at which strength gain is observed.
M =∑ (T − To)∆t

Where,
M = maturity* at age t
T = average temperature of the concrete during time interval Δt
T0 = datum temperature

Figure 2.17: Temperature history in a concrete member at a particular point

In using Equation 1, only time intervals in which the concrete temperature is greater than T 0 are
considered as contributing to strength gain. If the concrete temperature is plotted vs. age,
Equation 5.1 is simply equal to the area between the datum temperature and the temperature
curve. This concept is demonstrated in Figure 2.17, which shows the temperature history at a
particular point in a concrete member; the shaded area represents the maturity
(temperature−time factor) at age t*.
Application:

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It may be used to estimate in-place strength to assure that critical construction operations,
such as form removal or application of post-tensioning, can be performed safely. It may be used
to decide when sufficient curing has occurred and the concrete can be exposed to ambient
conditions without endangering its long-term performance. In addition, it may serve as a tool
in planning construction activities.
Basic Principle
Proper curing procedures must be used to apply the maturity method for estimating strength
development. It is essential that there is an adequate supply of moisture for hydration. If
concrete dries out, strength gain ceases but the computed maturity index continues to increase
with time. In such a case, strength estimates based on the maturity method are meaningless.

Figure 2.18: Schematic of procedures for using maturity method involving laboratory testing and
field measurements.
Procedure:
The basic principle in applying the maturity method is illustrated in Figure 2.18 Two phases are
involved:
1. Laboratory testing
2. Field measurement of the in-place temperature history
The laboratory testing must be performed before attempting to estimate in-place strength.
Two types of laboratory tests may be required. One is used to establish the temperature
sensitivity of the rate constant for the particular materials in the concrete. This inf ormation,
which can be obtained from mortar tests, is needed to develop the correct maturity function
for the concrete. The second type of testing establishes the strength–maturity relationship for

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the concrete. The latter type of testing is always needed, whereas the need for the first type
depends on the desired accuracy of the estimated strength.
In the field, the temperature history of the structure must be monitored to evaluate the in-
place maturity. The in-place maturity is used with the strength–maturity relationship obtained
from laboratory testing to estimate the in-place strength. A device is needed to record
temperature as a function of time. Analog strip chart recorders or digital data loggers connected
to thermocouples embedded in the concrete have been used in the past. The measured thermal
history was converted to a maturity index using maturity functions such as Equation 1.

i. Re-bar locator with bar size and Cover meter

Principle:
The reinforcement bar is detected by magnetising it and inducing a circulating “Eddy current”
in it. After the end of the pulse, the eddy current dies away, creating a weaker magnetic field as
an echo of the initial pulse. The strength of the induced field is measured by a search head as it
dies away and this signal is processed to give the depth measurement. The eddy current echo
is determined by the depth of the bar, the size of bar and the orientation of the bar. This
detection of location of reinforcement is required as a pre -process for core cutting.
Apparatus:
They comprise a search head, meter and interconnecting cable. The concrete surface is
scanned, with the search head kept in contact with it while the meter indicates, by analogue or
digital means, the proximity of reinforcement.

Figure 2.19: Rebar locator and cover meter test procedure

Procedure:

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 The concrete surface needs to be marked before starting the test, and the search head is
placed on one of the point of the concrete surface.
 The placed search head is moved from left-right until the rebar is identified and then the
search head is moved bottom-top, to locate the length of the re-bar as shown in figure 2.19.
 Hence, obtained concrete cover and reinforcement cover is marked on the surface.
 The determined concrete cover may be validated by taking drills at the located points.
 The drilled points are measured and co-related with that of the cover meter results to
determine the accuracy of the results.
j. Half-cell electrical potential method
Principle:

The method of half-cell potential measurements involves, measuring the potential of an

embedded reinforcing bar relative to a reference half-cell placed on the concrete surface. The
electrical activity of the steel reinforcement and the concrete leads them to be considered as
one half of weak battery cell with the steel acting as one electrode and the concrete as the
electrolyte. Here, the half-cell is usually a copper/copper sulphate or silver/silver chloride cell
but other combinations may be used. The concrete functions as an electrolyte and the risk of
corrosion of the reinforcement in the immediate region of the test location may be related
empirically to the measured potential difference.

Figure 2.20 A schematic representation of a half-cell electrical potential apparatus

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 Repair, and Rehabilitation of structures 19

Apparatus:
The half-cell potential apparatus includes a half-cell, electric junction device, electrical contact
solution, voltmeter, and electrical lead wires. A half-cell consists of non-conducting hollow
plastic tube inserted with copper or silver rod immersed in copper sulphate or silver chloride
solution. This half-cell is in-turn connected to an electric junction device made of sponge to
create a contact between the concrete surface. The other end of the half -cell is connected to
the voltmeter through an electrical lead wire and the positive end of the voltmeter is clipped to
the rebar embedded in one of the corner of testing concrete element. The complete circuit
diagram of the half-cell is shown in figure 2.20.

Procedure:
 The electrical potential may be measured either as a grid or as a random pattern.
 A direct electrical connection is made to the reinforcing steel with a compression clamp or
by brazing or welding a protruding rod. To get a low electrical resistance connection, the rod
should be scraped or brushed before connecting it to the reinforcing bar. It may be necessary
to drill into the concrete to expose a reinforcing bar. The bar is connected to the positive
terminal of the voltmeter.
 One end of the lead wire is connected to the half-cell and the other end to the negative
terminal of the voltmeter.
 At some circumstances the concrete surface has to be pre-wetted with a wetting agent. This
is necessary if the half-cell reading fluctuates with time when it is placed in contact with the
concrete.
 If fluctuation occurs either the whole concrete surface is made wet with the wetting agent
or only the spots where the half-cell is to be placed.
 Measurements can be presented either as equipotential contour map which provides a
graphical outlining of areas on the member where corrosion activity may be occurring or
with a cumulative frequency diagram which provides an indication of the magnitude of
affected area of the concrete member.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING NIE, MYSURU SACHIN VIJAYAKUMAR

 Repair, and Rehabilitation of structures 20

Table 2.6: Risk of corrosion against the

potential difference readings
Potential
Chance of re-bar
difference levels
being corroded
(mv)
Visible evidence
less than –500
of corrosion

-350 to -500 95%

-200 to -350 50%

More than -200 5%

k. Carbonation depth measurement

Principle:
Carbonation of concrete occurs when the carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere in the presence of
moisture, reacts with hydrated cement minerals to produce carbonates, e.g. calcium carbonate.
The carbonation process is also called de-passivation. Carbonation penetrates below the
exposed surface of concrete extremely slowly. The significance of carbonation is that the usual
protection of the reinforcing steel generally present in concrete due to the alkaline conditions
caused by hydrated cement paste is neutralized by carbonation. Thus, if the entire concrete
cover over the reinforcing steel is carbonated, corrosion of the steel would occur if moisture
and oxygen could reach the steel. Hence, the depth of carbonation from the concrete surface
needs to be determined to analyse the neutralized depth of the concrete member.
Apparatus:
If there is a need to physically measure the extent of carbonation it can be determined easily
by spraying a freshly exposed surface of the concrete with a 1% phenolphthalein solution. The
calcium hydroxide is coloured pink while the carbonated portion is un-coloured.
Procedure:
 The 1% phenolphthalein solution is made by dissolving 1gm of phenolphthalein in 90 cc of
ethanol. The solution is then made up to 100 cc by adding distilled water.

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 Repair, and Rehabilitation of structures 21

 On freshly extracted cores the core is sprayed with phenolphthalein solution, the depth of
the un-coloured layer (the carbonated layer) from the external surface is measured to the
nearest mm at 4 or 8 positions, and the average taken.
 If the test is to be done in a drilled hole, the dust is first removed from the hole using an air
brush and again the depth of the un-coloured layer measured at 4 or 8 positions and the
average taken.
 If the concrete still retains its alkaline characteristic the colour of the concrete will change
to purple.
 If carbonation has taken place the pH will have changed to 7 (i.e. neutral condition) and there
will be no colour change.
l. Resistivity measurement
Principles:
The half-cell potential measurement determines the risk of corrosion activity, whilst the half-
cell potential measurement is effective in locating regions of corrosion activity, it provides no
indication of the rate of corrosion. However, a low resistance path between anodic and
cathodic sites would normally be associated with a high rate of corrosion than a high
resistance path. Such resistivity measurements determine the current levels flowing between
anodic and cathodic portions, or the concrete conductivity over the test area, and are usually
used in conjunction with the half-cell potential technique. This is an electrolytic process as a
consequence of ionic movement in the aqueous pore solution of the concrete matrix.
Apparatus:
The equipment consists of four electrodes (two outer current probes and two inner voltage
probes) which are placed in a straight line on or just below the concrete surface at equal
spacing’s. The schematic representation of the resistivity meter is shown in figure 2.21.

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 Repair, and Rehabilitation of structures 22

Figure 2.21: A schematic representation of the half-cell potential measurement apparatus

Procedure:
 The resistivity measurement is a fast, simple and economical in situ non-destructive method
to obtain information related to the corrosion hazard of embedded reinforcement.
 The Wenner four probe technique is generally adopted for resistivity measurement of in situ
concrete. The technique can be used to determine resistivity’s quickly and with little or no
damage to the concrete structures under study. The spacing of the four probes determines
the regions of concrete being measured.
 A spacing of 50 mm is commonly adopted and it gives a very small degree of scatter and
allows concrete sections in excess of 200 mm thick to be measured with acceptable accuracy.
 Once the spacing is adjusted, a low frequency alternating electrical current is passed
between the two outer electrodes whilst the voltage drop between the inner electrodes is
measured. The apparent resistivity (ρ) in “ohm-cm” may be expressed as:
ρ = 2𝜋𝑎𝑉/𝐼
Where,
V - Voltage drop,
I - Applied current,
a - Electrode spacing.
The calculation assumes the concrete to be homogeneous and the inhomogeneity
caused by the reinforcement network must be allowed for by properly placing the probes to
minimize its effect.

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 Repair, and Rehabilitation of structures 23

 The efficiency of surface coupling is also important. In some commercial devices, wetting or
conductive gel is applied when the probes are pushed against the concrete surface to get
better contact.
 Pre wetting of the surface before measurement is also advised. Small shallow holes may also
be drilled into the concrete which are filled with a conductive gel. The probes are then
dipped into each hole. However, this procedure is not practical for site use.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING NIE, MYSURU SACHIN VIJAYAKUMAR